Origin
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) originated in the late 1960s when British linguists
moved away from Situational Language Teaching, which focused on practising structures in
specific contexts. Influenced by Noam Chomsky’s critique of structural linguistics and the
growing recognition of language as a tool for communication, scholars like Christopher Candlin
and Henry Widdowson emphasized the need for a focus on communicative proficiency. Their
work drew on functional linguistics, sociolinguistics, and the philosophy of language.
Additionally, the Council of Europe's efforts to improve language education across member
countries led to the development of communicative syllabi based on D.A. Wilkins’s functional
and notional language model. These combined academic and practical developments laid the
foundation for the emergence of CLT.
Methodological Background of CLT
Understanding methodologies in Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) provides a
foundation for the emergence of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). Traditional
approaches, such as the Grammar-Translation Method, which focused heavily on memorizing
vocabulary and translating texts, dominated early foreign language teaching. The Direct
Method marked a shift by immersing learners in the target language, avoiding translation, and
emphasizing speaking and listening. The Audio-Lingual Method introduced pattern drills and
repetition based on behaviourist principles, aiming to form accurate language habits through
structured practice. While effective in specific contexts, these methods often lacked emphasis
on meaningful communication, prompting the need for more dynamic approaches.
This need led to the development of learner-centered methods that laid the groundwork for
CLT. Approaches like the Natural Approach emphasized exposure to comprehensible input.
They reduced learner anxiety to foster communication, while Task-Based Language Learning
(TBL) encouraged real-life language use through collaborative tasks. Each of these approaches
contributed key pedagogical shifts, such as the prioritization of fluency over accuracy, real-
world relevance, and student autonomy, that underpin CLT. Thus, CLT emerged as a synthesis
of earlier methods, integrating their strengths while focusing on communicative competence as
the ultimate goal of language instruction.
Principles of CLT
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is built on methodological principles that emphasize
practical language use and meaningful communication. At its core, CLT focuses on meaning,
encouraging learners to understand and express ideas in real-world contexts rather than merely
memorizing grammatical rules. It prioritizes communicative competence over isolated
language accuracy, equipping learners to navigate diverse social and situational interactions
effectively. Language learning is contextualized through authentic materials and activities that
reflect everyday communication and cultural relevance, helping learners grasp not only how
language is used but also why it is used in specific ways. The approach is learner-centred,
promoting autonomy and active participation through interaction, collaboration, and peer
learning. CLT also incorporates task-based learning, where students engage in purposeful tasks
that require meaningful use of the language. While fluency is emphasized to encourage
spontaneous and natural expression, accuracy and error correction remain important,
especially in the early stages. Additionally, CLT integrates cultural knowledge, recognizing that
understanding the cultural context is essential for effective and appropriate language use.
Influential Theories and Contributors of CLT
A range of influential theories and contributors from linguistics, sociolinguistics, and education
shape Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). Dell Hymes introduced the concept of
communicative competence, emphasizing the social use of language, while Noam Chomsky’s
critique of structuralism highlighted the need for more creative, meaningful approaches to
language. Michael Halliday’s functional view of language and D.A. Wilkins’s notional-functional
syllabus laid the theoretical groundwork for CLT. Other influential figures like Henry
Widdowson, Christopher Candlin, and Keith Johnson further developed CLT by focusing on
learner needs, interaction, and real-life communication, helping to shift language teaching from
rigid structures to practical language use.
The theoretical foundations of CLT
1. Theory of language
Assumptions in CLT are that language is social behaviour, which concerns the conveyance of
meaning, i.e. the grammar of a Language is a means of organizing meaning; language is about
making texts, connected discourse (not sentences in Isolation); knowing a language means
knowing the grammatical rules and knowing the rules and conventions of the Speech
community; language is not seen as comprised of four skills
(reading/writing/speaking/listening) but of various Abilities. At the level of language theory,
Communicative Language Teaching has a rich, if somewhat eclectic, theoretical base:
Language is a system for the expression of meaning.
The primary function of language is for interaction and communication.
The structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses.
The primary unit of language is not merely its grammatical and structural features
but categories of functional and Communicative meaning as exemplified in
discourse. ( Richards, J.C. and Rodgers, T.S., 1986)
Language proficiency is a multifaceted modality consisting of various levels of abilities in
domains. H.H.Stern(1983) has listed four aspects of language proficiency:
1) The intuitive mastery of the forms of language.
2) The intuitive mastery of the linguistic, cognitive, affective, and sociocultural meanings
expressed by the language forms.
3) The capacity to use the language with maximum attention to communication and
minimum attention to form.
4) The creativity of language use.
This approach's foundation lies in communicative competence, a concept introduced by Hymes
(1972) as a response to Chomsky’s narrower focus on linguistic competence.
1.1. Hymes’s Theory of Communicative Competence
Communicative competence is the core of the Communicative Approach. Taken very broadly,
communicative competence is the ability to interact well with others, or it is "the ability to
communicate in a personally effective and socially Appropriate manner" (Trenholm and Jensen,
1988). The Communicative Approach in language teaching starts from a theory of language as
communication. The goal of Language teaching is to develop what Hymes referred to as
“communicative competence”. Hymes coined this term to contrast a communicative view of
language with Chomsky's theory of competence.
For Chomsky, Linguistic competence means "knowledge of the Language system," grammatical
knowledge, in other words. However, in Hymes' words, "rules of use without which the rules of
grammar would be useless." Indeed, if a speaker were to produce grammatical sentences
without regard to the situations in which they were being used, he would undoubtedly be
regarded as deranged. He identified four dimensions of communicative competence: whether
something is formally possible (i.e., grammatically correct), whether it is feasible (i.e., practical
within given constraints), whether it is appropriate (i.e., contextually suitable), and whether it
is performed (i.e., used effectively in real situations). This framework highlights the importance
of cultural and social contexts in language use, offering a more dynamic understanding than
Chomsky’s focus on abstract grammatical rules.
1.2. Halliday’s Functional Account of Language Use
Another linguistic theory of communication favoured in CLT is Halliday's functional account of
language use. "Linguistics … is concerned… with the description of speech acts or texts, since
only through the study of language in Use are all the functions of language, and therefore all
components of meaning, brought into focus" (Halliday, 1973). In Several influential books and
papers, Halliday has elaborated a powerful theory of the functions of language, which
complements Hymes’ view of communicative competence. He described (1964) seven basic
functions that language performs for children learning their first language:
1) The instrumental function: using language to get things done;
2) The regulatory function: using language to control the behaviour of others;
3) The interactional function: using language to create interaction with others;
4) The personal function: using language to express personal feelings and meanings;
5) The heuristic function: using language to learn and to discover
6) The imaginative function: using language to create a world of imagination;
7) The representation function: using language to communicate information.
1.3. Contribution of Widdowson, Canale, and Swain
Another theorist frequently cited for his views on the communicative Nature of language is
Henry Widdowson. In his book Teaching Language as Communication (1978), Widdowson
presented a view of the relationship between linguistic systems and their communicative values
in text and discourse. He focused on the communicative acts underlying the ability to use
language for different purposes. A more recent analysis of communicative competence is found
in Canale and Swain (1980), that communicative competence is made up of four major strands:
“grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence, and strategic
competence” (Canale and Swain, 1980). Grammatical competence is the correct use of
language rules; sociolinguistic competence is using language appropriately in social contexts;
discourse competence is organizing speech or text coherently; and strategic competence is
handling communication breakdowns and maintaining conversation flow.
2. Theory of Learning
Although CLT literature emphasizes communicative elements of language teaching, it often
overlooks its foundational learning theory. Nonetheless, we can identify several implicit
learning principles in CLT practices. The first key element is the Communication Principle,
which asserts that engaging learners in genuine communicative activities enhances language
acquisition. Rather than relying on mechanical drills, these activities engage learners by making
language use purposeful and interactive, thereby creating conditions conducive to second
language acquisition (Johnson, 1982).
The second key element is the Task Principle, which involves Activities in which language is
used to carry out meaningful tasks, enhancing learning. By focusing on real-world objectives—
such as giving directions, planning events, or solving problems—learners practice the language
in context and develop practical communicative skills (Johnson, 1982).
The third key element is the Meaningfulness Principle, which asserts that the language that is
meaningful to the learner supports the acquisition process. Learning activities are selected
based on how authentically they reflect learners’ interests and real-life needs, ensuring that
input and practice are both engaging and relevant (Littlewood, 1981).
Over time, theorists have sought to ground these principles in broader accounts of language-
learning processes compatible with CLT. Savignon (1983) surveys second-language acquisition
research, considering linguistic, social, cognitive, and individual variables in language
development.
Skill-Learning Model of Language Acquisition
Johnson (1984) and Littlewood (1984) propose an alternative view: communicative competence
develops like any other skill, combining cognitive understanding with behavioural practice. This
model emphasizes the role of repeated, purposeful practice in internalizing communicative
routines and strategies, aligning naturally with CLT's focus on learner activity and interaction.
Initially, learners acquire declarative knowledge about language (rules, forms, strategies), but
this knowledge must be transformed into procedural skills through repeated, meaningful
practice. In practical terms, learners begin by noticing and consciously applying new language
patterns or strategies during communicative tasks; over time, and with ample, focused
rehearsal, these skills become more automatic and fluent, freeing up cognitive resources for
higher-level planning, creativity, and adaptation in real conversations. Key features of this
model include:
Cognitive Stage: Learners consciously understand the “what” and “why” of a language
form or strategy.
Associative Stage: Through guided practice (e.g., role-plays, drills embedded in tasks),
learners link form to function and begin to self-monitor.
Autonomous Stage: With extensive, varied practice, performance becomes smooth and
largely unconscious, allowing learners to focus on meaning and interaction rather than
on form.
By framing language acquisition as skill development, this model underscores the importance of
designing CLT activities that not only expose learners to authentic communication but also
provide structured, purposeful practice opportunities that gradually build automaticity and
confidence.
Krashen’s Monitor Model
Stephen Krashen distinguishes between acquisition, the unconscious internalization of language
through meaningful communication, and learning, the conscious study of grammatical rules.
According to Krashen, only the acquired system drives spontaneous language use; the learned
system serves merely as a monitor to edit output.
