Mexico transitioned from a one-party authoritarian regime to a more democratic
system in the 1980s and 1990s, marked by pivotal changes that reshaped its political
and economic landscapes. This shift involved the weakening of the Institutional
Revolutionary Party (PRI), which had maintained control for seven decades, and the
emergence of opposition parties, improving electoral integrity. This transformation
showcases Mexico as a contemporary example of democratic transition,
characterized by increasing civic engagement and participation in the political
process.
Geographic Influences
Mexico's geography includes an array of diverse climates, from arid deserts to
tropical rainforests, alongside major mountain ranges such as the Sierra Madre.
These physical features significantly influence the political landscape, often dictating
settlement patterns and economic activities. The limited arable farmland has
consistently restricted developmental potential since independence. However, recent
discoveries of natural resources, particularly oil and mineral wealth, have spurred
economic shifts, leading to dependency on resource extraction—often benefiting a
small elite disproportionately rather than the general populace.
Cultural Components
1. Populism and Revolution
Mexican culture has a profound reverence for populism and revolutionary figures,
exemplified by leaders like Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata, who advocated for the
rights of ordinary people against elitism. The legacy of these figures has instilled a
cultural belief in the necessity of fighting for social justice, deeply influencing
movements for reform.
2. Authoritarianism
A long-standing tradition of authoritarian rule has permeated Mexico's history.
Governance has often been dominated by military leaders and the PRI,
characterized by unchecked political power and suppression of dissent. Historical
events, including the 1968 Tlatelolco massacre, serve as stark reminders of this
authoritarian legacy, showcasing the struggle for political freedoms.
3. Catholicism
The Catholic Church has played a pivotal role throughout Mexican history, shaping
political and social life since Spanish colonization. Its influence is evident in both
cultural values and the legal framework governing moral and ethical issues, as well
as in its support for social movements advocating for the poor and marginalized.
4. Patron-Clientism
This political system, characterized by intricate relationships between elites and
constituents, integrates regional divisions while fostering networks that perpetuate
corruption and authoritarian rule. The PRI’s extensive patron-client networks helped
maintain its control, ultimately hindering efforts for widespread reform and social
justice by prioritizing elite interests over broad social needs.
5. Language
Spanish serves as a unifying force in Mexico, with over 99% of the population being
Spanish speakers. This linguistic cohesion fosters a sense of shared national
identity, critical for social organization and political mobilization, amidst the country's
rich tapestry of indigenous languages and cultures.
Political and Economic Changes
Colonial Rule (1519-1821)
Hernan Cortés’ conquest of the Aztec Empire ushered in a long period of Spanish
colonial rule, which imposed a rigid social structure based on race. The crafting of a
mestizo identity, resulting from intermarriages between Spanish colonizers and
indigenous peoples, remains significant to this day, with mestizos representing over
60% of Mexico's population. This identity has shaped social dynamics and political
loyalties across the country.
Independence (1810-1911)
● Father Miguel Hidalgo initiated the independence movement in 1810, though
his efforts initially fell short, leading to a protracted struggle for sovereignty.
● The early years of independence were marked by a series of civil wars
shaped largely by the ideological contest between Conservatives and
Liberals. This power struggle paved the way for continued instability,
complicating efforts to establish a unified national governance.
Porfirio Diaz Era (1876-1911)
● Porfirio Diaz ascended to power with promises of modernization; however, he
ruled dictatorial-like for over thirty years, implementing policies that favored
elites and foreign investments over the poor.
● His regime's economic growth was starkly uneven, primarily benefiting
colonial interests and affluent landowners, leading to widespread land
dispossession, mass poverty, and an eventual revolution by 1910.
The Revolution and Establishment of PRI (1910-1934)
Following Diaz’s resignation under revolutionary pressure, Mexico spiraled into
political turmoil, culminating in the drafting of the 1917 Constitution, a
forward-looking document that provided a framework for contemporary governance,
emphasizing social rights and land reform.
Cárdenas Reforms (1934-1940)
Lands & Labor: President Lázaro Cárdenas embarked on comprehensive land
reforms, redistributing vast estates into ejidos—communal farms promoting rural
workforce organization and labor rights through influential unions. His policies
included the nationalization of key industries, notably oil, increasing state control and
responsiveness to public demands, while preserving power through a corporatist
approach.
Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI): In response to the vulnerabilities
exposed by foreign investment fluctuations, Cárdenas advocated for strategies
promoting domestic production, imposing tariffs and supporting local businesses to
build self-sufficiency.
The Pendulum Theory
This theory describes Mexico's economic policy oscillation between left-wing and
right-wing ideologies through the late 20th century, embodying conflicts within
governance from Cárdenas's leftist policies to the subsequent neoliberal focus of
later administrations that prioritized market liberalization.
The 1982 Economic Crisis
The economic collapse in 1982, triggered by steep declines in oil prices,
necessitated Mexico's engagement with the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The
imposed austerity measures included privatization strategies aimed at state-owned
enterprises, reshaping Mexico's economic framework while introducing greater
vulnerabilities amid increased foreign investment dependence.
Political Corruption and Electoral Systems
Throughout challenging economic landscapes, the PRI maintained a stronghold on
political power via electoral manipulation and clientelistic practices. The 1988
elections were noted for alleged rigging—a symptom of systemic issues that
undermined democratic movements and bred public distrust in governance.
→ “he PRI maintained its hold on power during all of this economic difficulty
thanks to its corporatist hold on power networks across the country, but
also through vote rigging.
→ “results of the 1988 election were being counted, the government said
the computers had crashed, characterizing it as a “breakdown of the
system.”
→ Before the “breakdown,” early results indicated that the leftist
opposition was winning, but once the computers were up and running
again, Carlos Salinas de Gortari was announced as the winner. Former
→ President Miguel de la Madrid has since even admitted to what was
once a long-held open secret, namely, that the PRI had rigged the 1988
election and burned all the ballots in 1991 to hide the evidence.”
→ “Salinas’s administration lacked legitimacy from the beginning, thanks to
the stolen election.
→ Despite domestic perceptions that his administration was one of the most
corrupt in Mexico’s history, Salinas did manage some major reforms,
including signing the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)—a
free-trade agreement with the United States and Canada—and
privatizating major state-owned banking and telephone companies.
→ The privatization of Telmex is often cited as an example of corruption in
Salinas’s administration. Carlos Slim Helu, a close friend of Salinas, was able
to acquire a large number of Telmex shares without paying for them up
front, but rather by paying installments every year on the revenue of the
phone company.
→ By 1990, pressures from angry Mexican citizens and international
stakeholders like the United States pushed the government to create a truly
independent election regulating body; the Federal Election Institute
(IFE), which is today known as the National Electoral Institute (INE), was
meant to ensure that the 1994 election would not carry the stigma of 1988.
Mexico also allowed international observers to monitor the 1994 elections for
the first time.
→ PRI candidate, Ernesto Zedillo, still won, likely because voters simply
chose stability over the fear of what might happen if Mexico were governed by
a party other than the PRI amidst all the turmoil.”
Democratization and 2000 Presidential Election
The political landscape underwent a crucial transformation in the year 2000 when the
PRI was defeated in presidential elections by Vicente Fox from the National Action
Party (PAN). This event symbolized a historic milestone in Mexico's democratization,
fostering optimism for a more pluralistic political environment.
Social Cleavages
1. Urban vs. Rural: Urban voters typically lean towards opposition parties, while
rural citizens often align with the PRI. This voting divergence underscores
differing interests that stem from socio-economic contexts.
2. Social Class: Mexico exhibits significant income inequality, as reflected in the
Gini coefficient, indicating wealth concentration among a small elite, leading to
social unrest and demands for equity.
3. Ethnicity: The interplay of mestizos and indigenous groups raises political
tensions, characterized by socioeconomic disparities that often marginalize
indigenous populations and perpetuate inequalities within political
representation and resource allocation.
Political Participation
The transition from state corporatism to pluralism has fostered a more vibrant civil
society, encouraging protests against the PRI's long-standing dominance. Events like
the Tlatelolco massacre during the 1968 Olympics highlights the ongoing struggle for
political freedoms, driving collective national consciousness towards democratic
ideals and reforms.
Political Institutions
1. Three-Party System: Mexico's evolving political landscape is characterized
by a three-party system, featuring the PAN on the right, PRI at the center, and
PRD on the left, each representing distinct ideological perspectives
increasingly contested in elections.
2. Election Systems: Reforms in electoral laws have shifted the principle of
non-reelection, allowing limited re-election for congressional members to
foster accountability and reduce corruption.
3. Legislative Framework: The legislature comprises a Chamber of Deputies
and a Senate, which hold significant electoral powers. However, ongoing
partisan behaviors and historical legacies continue to compel electoral
dynamics.
Chamber of Deputies (Cámara de Diputados)
● Total Members: 500
○ 300 Deputies are elected through a first-past-the-post system in
single-member districts.
○ 200 Deputies are elected through proportional representation from
party lists in five multi-state constituencies.
● Term Length: 3 years
● Term Limits: Deputies can seek re-election once (maximum of 6 years
total).
Senate (Senado de la República)
● Total Members: 128
○ 96 Senators are elected via a mixed system:
■ Each of the 32 states elects 3 Senators:
■ 2 from the party with the most votes.
■ 1 from the party with the second-highest votes.
○ 32 Senators are elected via proportional representation from a
nationwide party list.
● Term Length: 6 years
● Term Limits: Senators can seek re-election once (maximum of 12 years
total).
Key Points on Re-election
● Re-election was banned until 2014, when constitutional reforms allowed:
○ Deputies to serve two consecutive terms.
○ Senators to serve two consecutive terms.
● They must be nominated by the same party (unless they switched to an
independent).
Chamber of Deputies (Cámara de Diputados)
Main Role: Represents the people and oversees government spending.
Key Responsibilities:
1. Budget & Taxes – Approves the federal budget and determines taxes.
2. Oversight & Accountability – Reviews government spending and can
impeach public officials.
3. Legislation – Proposes, discusses, and approves laws (but the Senate must
also approve in most cases).
4. Public Debt – Approves government loans and public debt limits.
5. State Oversight – If a state government collapses, the Chamber can
intervene.
Senate (Senado de la República)
Main Role: Represents states and handles international affairs.
Key Responsibilities:
1. Foreign Policy & Treaties – Approves international treaties and foreign
policy decisions.
2. Supreme Court Appointments – Approves presidential nominations for
Supreme Court justices.
3. Federal Government Oversight – Can remove high-ranking officials (like the
President or Attorney General).
4. Military Authorization – Approves the use of Mexican armed forces abroad.
5. State & National Security – Resolves political conflicts between states or
between states and the federal government.
Bureaucracy and Governance
The bureaucratic structure remains complexly entangled in corruption,
overshadowing efforts toward professionalization aimed at enhancing governmental
accountability and efficiency. Despite initiatives to restructure and modernize the
bureaucratic framework, deeply rooted inefficiencies and corrupt practices sustain
challenges from the PRI’s era.
Issues in Governance
1. Drug Violence: Prolonged conflicts driven by competing drug cartels persist,
severely affecting political stability and social harmony in various regions.
2. Corruption: High-profile instances of corruption challenges public trust,
inciting widespread calls for political reform across all levels of governance.
3. Foreign Policy: The bilateral relationship with the U.S. remains a prominent
aspect of Mexican foreign policy, characterized by trade agreements like
NAFTA, which significantly shapes economic interactions—often
compounding controversial immigration issues.
TLATELCOCO PLAZA:
→ “Just before Mexico’s hosting of the 1968 Summer Olympics, farmers
and workers unions frustrated with the government’s lack of
attention to their plight organized a number of highly visible rallies.
→ Mexico’s government had spent $150 million (the equivalent of
$7.5 billion today) on preparations for the games, and the farmers
and workers believed their needs were simultaneously being
ignored.
→ The government was determined to carry out the games without
incident to present itself to the rest of the world, and the
government arrested many of the leaders of the independent
unions.
→ Students at major universities began to join in the cause of the
farmers and unions, and the government responded by raiding
schools and arresting student leaders in the name of stopping
“gang activity.”
→ As these events unfolded, more and more student groups
around the country joined to take action against the PRI’s
repression, and the opposition was increasingly taking the shape
of a social movement that could destabilize the PRI’s hold on
power.
→ On October 2, 1968, over 10,000 students gathered in Tlateloco
Plaza to listen to speeches in a peaceful protest. The Mexican
government sent 5,000 troops to surround the gathering and
monitor it. What transpired next[…]”
“Mexican state media reported that armed provocateurs started a
firefight with the government’s forces, who fired back in self-defense, but
reports and records released in 2001 prove that the provocateurs were
members of the Presidential Guard, instructed by their officers to fire at
the military and provoke the massacre.”
2006 ELECTION:
→ Closest Election
→ “Obrador ( PRD ) accused the PAN of rigging the vote, and demanded
a hand recount after delivering 900 pages of supposed evidence of
irregularities in the election results to the Federal Election Tribunal.
→ Obrador staged rallies in Mexico City to protest the results, with the
crowds estimated between 500,000 and 3,000,000 over the course of
forty-seven days occupying the center of the city.
→ In the end, the Tribunal ordered a partial recount that mostly confirmed
the initial count, and international election observers affirmed the general
fairness and accuracy of the election result.”
YO SOY #132
→ “Many Mexicans believed Televisa, the largest media company in Mexico,
heavily biased its coverage in favor of PRI candidate Enrique Peña Nieto in
the 2012 election. ”
→ “ A group of students came to a Peña Nieto presidential campaign rally at
their university to protest and draw attention to his responsibility for the
incident, but Televisa and Peña Nieto characterized the disruption by the
students as the work of professional radical activists, and not as ordinary
students. ”
→, 131 students who attended the event posted a video on the Internet
holding up their student IDs. The video went viral, and millions of
Mexicans joined in street protests against Peña Nieto and perceived
media bias for the PRI, declaring”
“All of these can be somewhat characterized as coinciding cleavages, since
the Mestizos live primarily in more prosperous cities in the north, while
Amerindians live in poorer rural communities in the south.
The coinciding nature of the cleavages make political conflict more likely
between the groups, and leaves the minority group (the indigenous
Amerindians of the south) more disaffected and susceptible to separatist
impulses.”
POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS:
“Mexico’s election system and political culture have developed
what is essentially a three-party-system, with the PAN on the
right, the PRI in the relative center, and the PRD on the left
of the ideological spectrum.”
LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS:
POLTICAL PARTIES:
INSTIUTIONAL REVOLUTIONARY PARTY ( PRI )
→ “The PRI was created in the aftermath of the Mexican Revolution by
competing caudillos who sought to unite their rule and share power
rather than continue with the instability and bloodshed that had
characterized politics in the early twentieth century. It ruled Mexico from 1929
until 2000, the longest continual rule for any political party in the world
so far.”
→ “favorable media relationships, a corporatist patron-client network
that did favors for local constituents, and, in some elections, outright
fraud.
→ The PRI was infamous around the world for its election-day events, in
which it would provide free entertainment and food to people in
exchange for a vote for the PRI.”
→ MAINTAINS STRONG PATRON-CLIENT NETWORK
“The pendulum of the PRI’s mid-twentieth-century presidents vacillating
between state-driven and market-driven economic policy is evidence of the
PRI’s ideological flexibility.”
THE NATIONAL ACTION PARTY ( PAN )
→ Formed by Business Leaders frustrated by PRI repression and corporatism
→ “right-leaning ideology in its economic policy, including free enterprise,
privatization of national industries, trade liberalization, and small government.
→ Fox won presidency in 2000
→ difficulty in implementing agenda due to gridlock in legislature.
→ “socially conservative party in today’s Mexico, usually enjoying support
from Catholic Church leaders because of the party’s stances against abortion
and same-sex marriage. ”
→ Supporters are northerners who practice Catholicism ( who work in private
sector )
THE DEMOCRATIC REVOLUTIONARY PARTY ( PRD )
→ Human rights and social justice for disadvantaged groups in Mexico
→ Support in Southern REgion
→ Strength dwindled as Mexico’s labor unions are declining in power because
of globalization and free trade. ”
“The National Regeneration Movement (MORENA)”
Obrador previously in PRD
→ Coalition of leftists and evangelical right of Mexico
→ Most seats in Senate and Chamber of Deputies.
Conclusion
A comprehensive examination of Mexico's political history and institutions, alongside
critical issues such as social cleavages, governance challenges, and foreign policy
dynamics, underscores the intricate evolution from an authoritarian state to a vibrant
democracy grappling with ongoing socioeconomic disparities and demands for
improvement.
