EFFECTS OF ALCOHOLS

by

K.Krishna Prasath
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Table of Contents

Chapter 1 — History

Chapter 2 — Types of Alcoholic Beverage

Chapter 3— Effects of alcohol and Addiction

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[Chapter 1] — HISTORY

Archaeological record
The oldest verifiable brewery has been found in a prehistoric burial site in a cave near Haifa in

modern-day Israel. Researchers have found residue of 13,000-year-old beer that they think might

have been used for ritual feasts to honor the dead. The traces of a wheat-and-barley-based

alcohol were found in stone mortars carved into the cave floor.Some have proposed that

alcoholic drinks predated agriculture and it was the desire for alcoholic drinks that led to

agriculture and civilization.

As early as 7000 BC, chemical analysis of jars from the Neolithic village Jiahu in the Henan

province of northern China revealed traces of a mixed fermented beverage. According to a study

published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences in December 2004,chemical

analysis of the residue confirmed that a fermented drink made of grapes, hawthorn berries,

honey, and rice was being produced in 7000–6650 BC. This is approximately the time when

barley beer and grape wine were beginning to be made in the Middle East.

Evidence of alcoholic beverages has also been found dating from 5400 to 5000 BC in Hajji Firuz

Tepe in Iran,3150 BC in ancient Egypt,3000 BC in Babylon,2000 BC in pre-Hispanic Mexico

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and 1500 BC in Sudan. According to Guinness, the earliest firm evidence of wine production

dates back to 6000 BC in Georgia.

Sumerian tablet from 2050 BC, a dated and signed receipt written by a scribe called Ur-Amma

for the delivery of beer, by a brewer named Alulu. The text translates as "Ur-Amma

acknowledges receiving from his brewer, Alulu, 5 sila (about 4 1/2 liters) of the 'best' beer."

The medicinal use of alcohol was mentioned in Sumerian and Egyptian texts dating from about

2100 BC. The Hebrew Bible recommends giving alcoholic drinks to those who are dying or

depressed, so that they can forget their misery

In 55 BC, the Romans took notice of an alcoholic cider being made in Britain using native

apples. It quickly became popular and was imported back to the continent where it spread

rapidly. People in Northern Spain were making cider around the same time period.Celtic people

were known to have been making types of alcoholic cider as early as 3000 BC.

Wine was consumed in Classical Greece at breakfast or at symposia, and in the 1st century BC it

was part of the diet of most Roman citizens. Both the Greeks and the Romans generally drank

diluted wine (the strength varying from 1 part wine and 1 part water, to 1 part wine and 4 parts

water).

In Europe during the Middle Ages, beer, often of very low strength, was an everyday drink for

all classes and ages of people. A document from that time mentions nuns having an allowance of
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six pints of ale each day.Cider and pomace wine were also widely available; grape wine was the

prerogative of the higher classes.

By the time the Europeans reached the Americas in the 15th century, several native civilizations

had developed alcoholic beverages. According to a post-conquest Aztec document, consumption

of the local "wine" (pulque) was generally restricted to religious ceremonies but was freely

allowed to those who were older than 70 years.The natives of South America produced a beer-

like beverage from cassava or maize, which had to be chewed before fermentation in order to

turn the starch into sugar (beverages of this kind are known today as cauim or chicha). This

chewing technique was also used in ancient Japan to make sake from rice and other starchy

crops.

Ancient China

Main article: History of alcohol in China

The earliest evidence of wine was found in what is now China, where jars from Jiahu

which date to about 7000 BC were discovered. This early rice wine was produced by fermenting

rice, honey, and fruit.What later developed into Chinese civilization grew up along the more

northerly Yellow River and fermented a kind of huangjiu from millet. The Zhou attached great

importance to alcohol and ascribed the loss of the mandate of Heaven by the earlier Xia and

Shang as largely due to their dissolute and alcoholic emperors. An edict ascribed to c. 1116 BC

makes it clear that the use of alcohol in moderation was believed to be prescribed by heaven.

Unlike the traditions in Europe and the Middle East, China abandoned the production of

grape wine before the advent of writing and, under the Han, abandoned beer in favor of huangjiu
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and other forms of rice wine. These naturally fermented to a strength of about 20% ABV; they

were usually consumed warmed and frequently flavored with additives as part of traditional

Chinese medicine. They considered it spiritual food and extensive documentary evidence attests

to the important role it played in religious life. "In ancient times people always drank when

holding a memorial ceremony, offering sacrifices to gods or their ancestors, pledging resolution

before going into battle, celebrating victory, before feuding and official executions, for taking an

oath of allegiance, while attending the ceremonies of birth, marriage, reunions, departures, death,

and festival banquets."Marco Polo's 14th century record indicates grain and rice wine were drunk

daily and were one of the treasury's biggest sources of income.

Alcoholic beverages were widely used in all segments of Chinese society, were used as a

source of inspiration, were important for hospitality, were considered an antidote for fatigue, and

were sometimes misused. Laws against making wine were enacted and repealed forty-one times

between 1100 BC and AD 1400. However, a commentator writing around 650 BC asserted that

people "will not do without beer. To prohibit it and secure total abstinence from it is beyond the

power even of sages. Hence, therefore, we have warnings on the abuse of it."

The Chinese may have independently developed the process of distillation in the early

centuries of the Common Era, during the Eastern Han dynasty.

Ancient Egypt

Brewing dates from the beginning of civilization in ancient Egypt, and alcoholic

beverages were very important at that time. Egyptian brewing began in the city of Hierakonpolis
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around 3400 BC; its ruins contain the remains of the world's oldest brewery, which was capable

of producing up to three hundred gallons (1,136 liters) per day of beer.Symbolic of this is the

fact that while many gods were local or familial, Osiris was worshiped throughout the entire

country. Osiris was believed to be the god of the dead, of life, of vegetable regeneration, and of

wine.

Both beer and wine were deified and offered to gods. Cellars and wine presses even had a

god whose hieroglyph was a winepress. The ancient Egyptians made at least 17 types of beer and

at least 24 varieties of wine. The most common type of beer was known as hqt. Beer was the

drink of common laborers; financial accounts report that the Giza pyramid builders were allotted

a daily beer ration of one and one-third gallons. Alcoholic beverages were used for pleasure,

nutrition, medicine, ritual, remuneration, and funerary purposes. The latter involved storing the

beverages in tombs of the deceased for their use in the after-life.

Numerous accounts of the period stressed the importance of moderation, and these norms

were both secular and religious. While Egyptians did not generally appear to define drunkenness

as a problem, they warned against taverns (which were often houses of prostitution) and

excessive drinking. After reviewing extensive evidence regarding the widespread but generally

moderate use of alcoholic beverages, the nutritional biochemist and historian William J. Darby

makes a most important observation: all these accounts are warped by the fact that moderate

users "were overshadowed by their more boisterous counterparts who added 'color' to history."

Thus, the intemperate use of alcohol throughout history receives a disproportionate amount of

attention. Those who excessively use alcohol cause problems, draw attention to themselves, are
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highly visible and cause legislation to be enacted. The vast majority of drinkers, who neither

experience nor cause difficulties, are not noteworthy. Consequently, observers and writers

largely ignore moderation.

Evidence of distillation comes from alchemists working in Alexandria, Roman Egypt, in

the 1st century AD.Distilled water has been known since at least c. 200 AD, when Alexander of

Aphrodisias described the process.

Ancient India
Alcohol production was occurring in India as early as 2000 BCE. Alcoholic beverages in
the Indus Valley civilization appeared in the Chalcolithic Era. These beverages were in use
between 3000 BC and 2000 BC. Sura, a beverage brewed from rice meal, wheat, sugar cane,
grapes, and other fruits, was popular among the Kshatriya warriors and the peasant population.
Sura is considered to be a favorite drink of Indra.

The Hindu Ayurvedic texts describe both the beneficent uses of consuming alcoholic
beverages and the consequences of intoxication and alcoholic diseases. Ayurvedic texts
concluded that alcohol was a medicine if consumed in moderation, but a poison if consumed in
excess.Most of the people in India and China, have continued, throughout, to ferment a portion
of their crops and nourish themselves with the alcoholic product.

In ancient India, alcohol was also used by the orthodox population. Early Vedic literature
suggests the use of alcohol by priestly classes.

The two great Hindu epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, mention the use of alcohol. In
Ramayana, alcohol consumption is depicted in a good/bad dichotomy. The bad faction
members consumed meat and alcohol while the good faction members were abstinent
vegetarians. However, in Mahabharata, the characters are not portrayed in such a black-white
contrast.

Alcohol abstinence was promoted as a moral value in India by Mahavira, the founder of
Jainism, and Adi Shankaracharya.
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Distillation was known in the ancient Indian subcontinent, evident from baked clay
retorts and receivers found at Taxila and Charsadda in modern Pakistan, dating back to the
early centuries of the Common Era. These "Gandhara stills" were only capable of producing
very weak liquor, as there was no efficient means of collecting the vapors at low heat.
Ancient Babylon

Beer was the major beverage among the Babylonians, and as early as 2700 BC they worshiped a

wine goddess and other wine deities. Babylonians regularly used both beer and wine as offerings

to their gods. Around 1750 BC, the famous Code of Hammurabi devoted attention to alcohol.

However, there were no penalties for drunkenness; in fact, it was not even mentioned. The

concern was fair commerce in alcohol. Although it was not a crime, the Babylonians were

critical of drunkenness.
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[Chapter 2] — TYPES OF ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES

 Distilled And Undistilled Alcohol

 There are two categories of alcoholic beverages: distilled and undistilled. Undistilled drinks
are also called fermented drinks. Fermentation is the process by which bacteria or yeast
chemically converts sugar into ethanol. Wine and beer are both fermented, undistilled
alcoholic beverages. Wineries ferment grapes to make wine and breweries ferment barley,
wheat, and other grains to make beer.

 Distillation is a process which follows fermentation. The process converts a fermented
substance into one with an even higher concentration of alcohol. Distillation concentrates
alcohol by separating it from the water and other components of a fermented substance.
Liquors and spirits are distilled alcoholic beverages. They contain more alcohol by volume
than undistilled drinks. In general, a distilled alcoholic beverage will have a higher alcohol
proof.

Alcohol by volume (ABV) and alcohol proof are two measures of alcohol content, or the
concentration of alcohol in a drink. Alcohol by volume is the number of milliliters of ethanol
per 100 milliliters (or 3.4 fl.oz.) in a solution, while alcohol proof is twice the percentage of
alcohol by volume. For example, a drink which has 50% ABV will be 100 proof.
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UNDISTILLED DRINKS

Beer
Beer is the most popular alcoholic beverage worldwide. In fact, after water and tea, beer is the

most commonly-consumed drink in the world. Beer is also most likely the oldest alcoholic drink

in history. A standard beer, whether it be a lager or an ale, has between 4% to 6% ABV, although

some beers have higher or lower concentrations of alcohol. For example, “light beers” only have

between 2% to 4% ABV while “malt liquors” have between 6% to 8%

 Wine
Wine is another popular and ancient alcoholic beverage. Standard wine has less than 14% ABV.

Champagne, the most well-known sparkling wine, has an alcohol concentration of about 10% to
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12%. Some wines are “fortified” with distilled alcohol. Port, Madeira, Marsala, Vermouth, and

Sherry are examples of fortified wines. They usually have about 20% ABV.

Hard Cider

Hard cider is fermented apple juice. It usually has about 5% ABV.

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Mead

Mead, a blend of water and fermented honey, has between 10% to 14% ABV.

Saké

Saké, a well-known Japanese drink made from fermented rice, has an alcohol concentration of

about 16% ABV.

Distilled Drinks (Liquors and Spirits)

Gin

 Gin is a spirit typically made from a base of grain, such as wheat or barley, which is first
fermented and then distilled. To be classified as gin, however, the predominant flavor must
be of juniper berries, otherwise the drink cannot be called gin, by law. Most gins have
anywhere from 35% to 55% ABV.
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Brandy

Brandy is distilled wine. The concentration of alcohol in brandy ranges from 35% to 60%. For

example, one famous brandy, Cognac, has 40% ABV.

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Whiskey

Whiskey is a spirit made from fermented grain. The ABV of whiskey ranges from 40% to 50%.

Rum

Rum, a distilled drink made from fermented sugarcane or molasses, has a typical alcohol

concentration of 40% ABV. Some rum is “overproof,” meaning that it has alcohol concentration

of at least 57.5% ABV. Most overproof rum exceeds this minimum, usually reaching 75.5%

ABV, which is equivalent to 151 proof.

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Tequila

Tequila is a type of liquor. The main ingredient of tequila is the Mexican agave plant. The

alcohol concentration of tequila is typically about 40% ABV.

Vodka

Vodka, a liquor usually made from fermented grains and potatoes, has a standard alcohol

concentration of 40% ABV in the United States.

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Absinthe

Absinthe is a spirit made from a variety of leaves and herbs. There is no evidence for the idea

that absinthe is a hallucinogen, but it does have a high alcohol concentration. Some forms of

absinthe have about 40% ABV, while others have as much as 90% ABV.

Everclear

Everclear, a grain-based spirit, is another drink with a heavy concentration of alcohol. The

minimum ABV of Everclear is 60%, but Everclear can also have 75.5% and 95% ABV.
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[Chapter 3] —EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL AND ADDICTION

The Cycle of Alcohol Addiction:

Alcohol, like other drugs, has a powerful effect on the brain, producing pleasurable feelings and

blunting negative feelings. These feelings can motivate some people to drink alcohol again and

again, despite possible risks to their health and well-being. For example, research shows that

over time, drinking to cope with stress—while it may provide temporary relief from emotional

discomfort—tends to enhance negative emotional states between bouts of alcohol consumption.

These changes can motivate further drinking and cause an individual to become stuck in an

unhealthy cycle of alcohol consumption.

Stages of the Addiction Cycle:

Addiction can be framed as a repeating cycle, with three stages. Each stage is linked to

and feeds on the others. These stages primarily involve three domains: incentive salience,

negative emotional states, and executive function. The domains are reflected in three key regions

of the brain: the basal ganglia, the extended amygdala, and the prefrontal cortex, respectively. A

person may go through this three-stage cycle over the course of weeks or months, or progress

through it several times in a day.

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A person can enter the cycle of addiction at any one of the following stages:

1. Binge/Intoxication Stage: reward, incentive salience, and pathological habits

During this stage, a person experiences the rewarding effects of alcohol, such as euphoria, the

reduction of anxiety, and the easing of social interactions.

Repeated activation of the basal ganglia’s reward system reinforces alcohol drinking behavior,

increasing the likelihood of repeated consumption. The basal ganglia play an important role in

motivation as well as in the formation of habits and other routine behaviors.

This repeated activation of the basal ganglia also ultimately triggers changes in the way a person

responds to stimuli associated with drinking alcohol, such as specific people, places, or alcohol-

associated cues such as certain glassware or images or descriptions of drinking. Over time, these

stimuli can trigger powerful urges to drink alcohol.

Repeated alcohol consumption also results in changes in the basal ganglia that lead to habit

formation, ultimately contributing to compulsive use.

2. Negative Affect/Withdrawal Stage: reward deficits and stress surfeit

When a person who is addicted to alcohol stops drinking, they experience withdrawal symptoms

—or symptoms that are opposite to the positive effects of alcohol that are experienced when

drinking it. These symptoms can be physical (sleep disturbances, pain, feelings of illness) and

emotional (dysphoria, irritability, anxiety, and emotional pain).

The negative feelings associated with alcohol withdrawal are thought to come from two sources.

First, a diminished activation in the reward systems—or a reward deficit—of the basal ganglia

makes it difficult for people to experience the pleasures of everyday living. Second, an increased
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activation of the brain’s stress systems—or a stress surfeit—in the extended amygdala

contributes to anxiety, irritability, and unease.

At this stage, the person no longer drinks alcohol for the pleasurable effects (“high”), but rather

to escape the “low” feelings to which chronic alcohol misuse has contributed.

3. Preoccupation/Anticipation Stage: craving, impulsivity, and executive function

This is the stage at which an individual seeks alcohol again after a period of abstinence. A person

becomes preoccupied with alcohol and how to get more of it, and looks forward to the next time

he or she will consume it.

The prefrontal cortex—an area of the brain responsible for executive function, including the

ability to organize thoughts and activities, prioritize tasks, manage time, and make decisions—is

compromised in people experiencing alcohol addiction. As a result, this area of the brain plays a

key role in this stage.

Hyperkatifeia
Hyperkatifeia is a word that can be used to describe the negative emotional state associated
with drug withdrawal. This overactive negative emotional state is hypothesized to drive the
consumption of alcohol to find relief from this emotional state, and it may be caused by
profound changes in the brain reward and stress systems.
Why Should We Be Concerned About AUD and Alcohol Addiction?

Alcohol consumption is linked to many health and social consequences, including interference

with personal relationships, heart and liver diseases, cancers, motor vehicle collisions and other

accidents, alcohol overdose, violence, homicide, and suicide. If a person has AUD, particularly if

it is moderate to severe and involves alcohol addiction, they are more likely to regularly consume

alcohol in levels associated with these effects on health.

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Young people are especially at risk for AUD. Using alcohol during adolescence (from preteens

to mid-20s) may affect brain development, making it more likely that they will be diagnosed

with AUD later in life. However, most people with AUD—no matter their age or the severity of

their alcohol problems—can benefit from treatment with behavioral health therapies,

medications, or both.