l10 MODERN EUROPE : 1789-1945

Metternich tricd to block the emergence of revolutionary ideas by

the
applying force. To him monarchical autocracy appeared to be
ideal system and he, throughout his life, tried to protect the system
Europe was concerned, as
at any cost. As far as international scene in
that
David Thomson observes. "Metternich reahced the conclusion
the restored mönarchy must hang together if they were not to hang
separately."
E.
In the long run, the system of Metternich was bound to fail.
Lipson aptly remarked, "The fundamental weakness of Metternich's
famous system was that it only retarded, it could not avert, the day
of reckoning." He tried to subdue the revolutionary forces by impos
ing a compulsory silence upon the disconteded elements. He did little
to remove the sources of discontentment. As a result, the revolution
ary forces occasionally disappeared from sight but contiuned in
operation underground. The struggle of the forces of nationalism and
liberalism either against the Habsburg domination or against the
monarchical tyranny ultimately culminated in the volcanic eruptions
of 1848.A series of revolutions in 1848, starting from the
February
Revolution of France, gave a staggering blow to the reactionary and
conservative system of Metternich. Even hisown country Austria failed
to evade a revolutionary upsurge. In the wake of a violent
the revolutionary forces in 1848 Metternich, the Austrain
outburst of
had to flee his own country and take Chancellor,
Britain.
political asylum in Great

J4.4 Nationalism
Probably the most important political development in early
century Europe was the emergence of popular 19th
whelming appeal of nationalism over the past nationalism.
two
The over
tracted a number of political centuries had at
theorists.(In the 1840s, Karl Marx ex
pressed his confidence that world
erase the national identities in revolution by the prolerariat would
and Nationalism Since 1780 futureEric HÍbsbawm in his Nations
force in an era of global
observed that nationalism is a losing
interdependence and in the
contemporary
industrialized societCharles Breunig and Matthew Levinger, how
 rerqeneeROPE AFTER NAPOLEON
ever, argued that "the Ob suaeby morpho
end of the Cold War, resurgence of nationalist movements since the
made such obituaries both in £astern Europe and
appear premature.Dln elsewhere, has
an analysis of Ihow
n and whysu controver
SIes among the
historians, spite
spite of
of such
emerged in Europe during the period of the French nationalism
Napoleon
A appear to be essential. Revolution and
nation means a
community of people within a
graphical territory, which they believe to be their specific geo
and at the same time they common
share a common tradition, homeland
torical development and preferably
preterably a common language.common nis
nation was not new in thethe 19th The term
meaning tribe or 'race , dates back tocentury.
19th century. The Latin term 'natio', (1)
the days ofthe Roman Empire)
In medieval and early modern Europe, the term TBE
nation
most an amorphous linguistic and cultural community: "connoted
But modern
at RACE
concept of nationhood appears significantly different. Since the late ()
18th and early 19th centuries, the "nation began to
be seen as a ANOR
political entity as wel)David Thomson observes that the "European PHOUs
nationalism in its modern sense, of L1NG
the desire of such a community_ LSTIC
to assert its unity and independence vis-a-vis other communities or
groups, is mainly a product of the 19th centuryhe French Revo
lution and the Napoleonic Empire played asignificant role in che
course of its triumphant development. The word began to carry demo (tu)
POu
cratic connotations, as it implied that everyone living within the same
nation-state had a say in political life.)} .-"TICA
-

The Jacobin doctrine of the sovereignty of the people played a ENTI

significant role.It asserted the right of the people to determine the TY.
activities and form of the'government. The assertion was in compli- (V)
ance with the revolutionary ideals of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity.
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen claimed chat "che
SOurce of all vereignty resides essentially in the nation." Only when
a
the government could be closely identified with all che people,
be freeI
nation could be considered to
nationalist
Napoleonic conquests in several parts of Europe stirred
in Spaini, Poland
feelings, particularly in Germany and Italy, and also
Belgiúm. Nationalist resistance in different countries of Europe
and
 MODERN URO|}: 1789 |945

in the carly
against French aggression began to gather momentum
local institutions.
19th century. Much importance was attributed to
language7,
native customs, traditional çulture, and national unifcation of
Napolcon probably unknowingly paved theway for1806.Napoleon
German:. Hedestroyed the Holy Roman Empire in
included Bavaria.
also formed the Confederation of the Rhine, which
Ger
Wurtemberg, Baden, Hese-Darmstadt and twelve other smaller
the entire western
man statesThe Code Napoleon was introduced in
were abandoned.)
Germany Our dated laws and judicial procedures began
nationalism
To quote David Thomson, "Inevery aspect German
French meth
as a strange mixture of benefits derived from adopting thought,
ods or institutions, and resentful reactions against French
domination and victory.)(The Prussian victory at Leipzig in 1813
played a vital role in arousing nationalist feeling among the Germans.
The Victory boosted nationalist zeal and inspired the German patri
ots for achieving a total liberation.
Napoleonic victory witnessed a contrast response in Italy. French
domination over Italy was not that unacceptable in that country.
Iralian sentiment was much more anti-German or anti Spanish. The
French conquest over Italy gave a blow to the power of the pope and
demolished the power of small princes. The educated urban middle
class of Italy welcomed the development and they expressed satisfac
tion over some greater amount of efficiency. Moreover, Napoleon
reduced the number of Italian states to three only, and thus strength
ened the idea of Italian unification. The ultimate unification of Ger
many as well as of Italy, which took place in 1870, owed much to
Napoleon's activities.
Napoleon's obsession with bringing Britain to its knees involved
him in the bloody, strainous and protracted Peninsular war (1808
1813) in Spain. Napoleon forced the Spanish ruler Ferdinand
abdicate the throne and installed his brother Joseph Bonaparte. But
Napolcon found stiff resistance from the Spanish people. Spanish
an important part in French defeats in the
guerrilla bands played an
Peninsular War. The resistance put forward by the Spanish people had
 EUROPE AFTER NAPOLEON 113

later been glorified as expressions of Spanish national spirit. But the

forces hostile to Napoleon were royalist and clerical elements in Spain.
During the period betwcen 1772 and 1795, Poland was erased
from the map of Europe. Poland was dismemberd by the empires of
Prussia, Russia and Austria In 1807, Napoleon made Polandche
Grand Duchy of War_awand gave it anew constitution. The Polish
people welcomed the process as a step forward for achieving their
independence. But Napoleon held his sway over Poland and used is
as his pawn against Russia, The aim of the
Polish patriots to regain
unity and independence remained unfulfilled.)
During the early 19th century, nationalism developed close affini
ties with liberalism, becuse both the
the movements were influenced by
spirit of popular sovereignty. It was possible because nationalism
had not yet taken on the exclusive parochial character that it
assumed PARO
later. Some of the leading nationalists were even influenced by theCtl LA
cosmopolitan heritage of the Enlightenment, Mazzini, one of the
significant nationalist propagandists before 1858, and a strong cham
pion for Italian Unification, believed that loyalty to one's
nation aDd
loyalty to humanity was naver incompatible. To him an ideal nation
was a "fellowship of free and equal men bound, together in a brotherly
concord of labour towards a single end."
In spite of close alliance between nationalism and liberalism in
early 19th century, a fundamental tension existed between the two
ideals. Liberalism had a much more universal appeal, as the liberal
doctrine was desígned to be applied to all humanity, wheraes nation
alism was concerned about aparticular group of people, residing in
a particular territory with certain specific historical experiences, One
cannot deny that "the obsession with defining one's own politica!
community in opposition to the foreign other is an inevitable conse
quence of national consciousness." An aggressive tendencyis enshrined
in the principle of nationalism, andit takes different
forms in varying
political situations.
it hasalso been alleged by some historians that the nationalist
movements of the 19th century gave rise to political anti-Semitism in
Europe and more particularly in Germany. Breunig and Levinger
Europe-&
 |14 MODERN EUROPE: 1789-1945

obscrve, The anti-Semitic rhetoric of the student fraternities was part

of larger backlash ag:ainst the jews of central Eruope in the aftermath
of the Napoleonic cra." The rcark obviously contain some bitter
drops of truth. But by no mcans all nationalists were anti-Semites.
lo a large cxtent, nationalism may be understood as a form of
political romanticism. In early 19th century Europe, nationalism
emenged as an important force of change which posed a powerful
challenge to the forces of continuity. In that sense, despite certain
aberations, nationalism played a progressive role in the history of
modern Europe
45 Romanticism &Clliral Europeanzaben
Romanticism appeared as one of themost powerful cultural currents
AH across much of Europe from the late 18th through the mid-19th
centuries.Romanticism emphasized imagination and emotion in per
sonal development,, which left profound impact on the literary, artis
tic and musical movements of the ageRomanticism had a political
aspect as well, as the romantic temperament manifested itself in strik
ingly different ways in diverse political ideologies like conservatism
and nationalispit)
Romanticism first contributed to the conseryative revival(Many of
thecarly Roamtic writers were religious and conservative in tempera
ment Sir Walter Scott of Britain was an ardent Tory. His novels
revived interest in the Middle Ages and traditionalism. His novels
earned popularity chroughout Europe and it is known, that the Czar
Nicholas I of Russia read them aloud to his Prussian wifeEnglish
poets like William Wordsworth, SamuelTaylor Coleridge and Robert
Southy journeyed to the Lake district of Northern England in 1798
and became known as the Lake poetsA an early stage, they were in
all praise for the French Revolution. But eventually the early Roman
ticwriters had become disillusioned by its violent turn. By 1815 they
Awere allsupporters of conservatism, traditionalism and religionThe
French novelist and poet, Rene Chateaubriand, was a Conservat1ve at
heart. He even served as the foreign minister of Louis XVIII, after the
restoration of the Bourbons. He had unflinching faith in Roman
 Bberal
UROPE AFTER NAPOLEON

Catholiisn. "I wept and Ibclieved" wrote Chateaubriand, relating

his reconvctsion to Catholicisgn alterthe turnoil of the Revolution
aty and Naoleoniccra, He, bowever, oppossed the absoluist policies
ofthe lFench monarch, Charles X, after 1824. But he championcd
the causc of constitutional monarchy and never became arepublican.
Chatcaubriand's "influence on French literature was almost supremc
in his generation and it was in general a conservative influence",
observed David Thomson(In Germany, two great Romantic writers,
Friedrich Novalis and Friedrich Schlegel, followed the spiritual and
political lines of the English Lake Poets. They launched a severe attack
on the rationalism and 'Enlightenment of the 18th century and
defended authoritarian and paternalist government and romanticized
the hierarchical society of the Middle Ages.)Herder, another German
WTIter, was a passionate supporter of storm and stress movement, a
rebellion by young German writers against Enlightenment thought.
( Romantic writers saw the arts as embodying the relationship be
tween nature and spirit in the quest for freedom.)German romantics
like Schiller defined freedom as the unleashing of the senses and
passion of the soul. They were in search for the "heroic genius' who
fulfills himself in spite of constraints placed on him by state, religion
and society. Wolfgang Goethe (1749-1832), the great German writer
of the age, glorified the impassioned battle of the heroic individual.
Goethe's hero in Faust (1790) wages a battle against a society that fails
to undestand him. The emphasis on individuality found expression,
in writings of the Romantics, in revolt against society and societal
conventions.
Thencame a change in the realm of Romanticthought and litera
ture))The younger generation of Romantic writers, who came to
dominate the scene, after about 1820, developed closer afinities with
liberalism and democracy than with conservatism. In this generation,
the most prominent Romantic writers were French and English)Among
the English Romantics, significant were the contributions of Shelley.
Keats and Byron, who were outstanding poets Shelley openly sided
himself with the progressive and liberal movements of the age. He,
prote After the Peterloo
championed the cause of working class protest.
 116 MODERN EUROPE: 1789-1945

massacre of 1819, in which at least cleven protesting workers were

killed and several injured, Shelley wrote his famous poem The Mask
of Anarchy. He wrotc,
Rise Like Lions After Slumber,
In Unvanquishable Number
Shake your chains to Earth Like Dew
Which in Sleep Has fallen on you
Ye are many, They are Few.
Byron also upheld the nationalist and liberal causes throughout Eu
rope. To hinm politics was "a detestation of all existing governments."
JAmong the French Romantics of the new generation were Victor
Hugo, Lamartine, Merimee and Balzac. Hugo was a great poet and
anoutstanding novelist of his generation. Victor Hugo (1802-1885)
saw liberalism and romanticism as forces against the established order
of the restored monarchy. He wrote, "Romanticism, so often badly
defined, is.....othing less than liberalism is literature. Literary lib
erty is the daughter of political liberty. That is the principle of this
century, and it will prevail."
)The Russian Poet and dramatist Alexander Pushkin published his
two
outsatanding works Boris Godunov and Eugen Onegin in the 1820s.
The young Polish iberal, Adam Mickiewicz, wrote his great epic of
the Polish nation, Conrad Wallenrod in 1828.
In fact, the movement of Philhellenism formed the
strongest link
between the revolutionaries and the Romantic movement. A large
number of intellectuals, belonging to several parts of Europe, sympa
thized with the long Homeric struggle of the Greeks against the au
tocratic Turkish rulers. David Thomson remarked, "The Greek war
for Independence aroused every impulse behind the
Romantic move
ment." Chateaubriand and Hugo in France, along with Shelley and
Byron in England, everybody expressed solidarity with the cause of
Greek independence. "We are all Greeks". exclaimed Shelley, and the
young Byron, dying in Greece in 1824, "became the symbol of the
new spirit."
The element of nationalism in the Romantiç point of
view was an
important expression of the reaction against the Enlightenment. The
 EUROPE AFTER NAPOEON 117

rhilosophes of the 18th century were cosmopolitan in their outlook,

he ronantic writers showed imnmense /ntercst in their own national
sugins and traditions.
pridc in the nation was reflected in the writings of the romantic
bistorians(The eminentFrench historian, Jules Michelet (1798-1874),
WTOte his multivolume Histoy of France) His painstaking research
revealed his passionate devotion to his nation and its part.(Like other
romantic historians', observe Breunig and Levinger, "Michelet viewed
history as literaure, or even art, and his histories abound in imagi
native, detailed, descriptive passages full of colour.DAt the same time,
he was extremely careful to maintain factual accuracies of his study.
Thomas Babington Macaulay (1800-1859), a whig statesman and a
historian of England, being inspired by national feeling, attributed
moral and material progress of England to the British love of liberty.
Macaulay's History of England was classic, and gained popularity among
the Britons of many generations.)[The most noted German historian
of the 19th century was Leopold von Ranke (1795-1886). Ranke no
doubr shared the romantics interest in Germany's Past, but also went
beyond them by developing a new approach to historical studies. He
was cautious in using the sources of history. Ranke's book History of
the Latin and the German Peoples (1824) introduced modern historical
methodology and at the same, time tried to establish unity of the
Latin and Germanic nations. According to A. J.P. Taylor, Ranke's
writings revealed "apologies for Prussian power."
K The romantic mood of the 19th century deeply influenced the
visual arts also. The German painter, Dayid Friedrich (1774-1840),
the English painter William Turner (1775-1851) and the French
painter, Eugene Delacroix (1798-1863) dominated the scene)Friedrich
was a highly skilled artist ;
famous for his landscapes and seascapes.
His paintings reflected profund interest in nature and it was quite in
keeping with the traits of aromantic artist.(Turner is remembered for
his landscapes and his dramatic paintings of the sea. He painted on
varied subjects- -historical and mythological scenes, shipwrecks, dra
episodes, such as the burning of the House of Parliament
1834, and above all sunrises and sunsets over the waterTurner
 MODERN FUROPE : 1789-1945

licved in the freedom of an artist and showed skill

in
lightDelacroix was perhaps
perhaps the most celebrated of
paintersDelacroixliberated hinnself from established Frenchrenderormanting icof
gave tull cxpression to his Conventions
aesthetic imagination through his
subjects, his arrangement of figures, and his daring use ofchoi
and
ce of
colout)
JMany of his themes came from Shakespeare, Sir Walter
Byron. Politically astaunch liberal, Delacroix,
immortalizedScott and
Kevolution in France (1830) with his Libert the July.
was an
outstanding painting with the barebrestedLeading the PeoplÔT
figure of a woman
standing on the barricades, holding aloft the tricolour in
and a gun in the other, as she spurs the one hand
French Romantic painter Theodore Gericault revolutionaries on) Another
obsessed with shipwrecks, a subject that reflected (1791-1824) becama
personality. his volatile
Theromantics believed that music, like
could release torrents of emotion in painting, was poetry, which
stated that in music, listeners, though it has been
than in he visual romanticism tended to be less
revolutionary
arts."Historians
century was the period of classicism in
of music claim that the 18th
music, and romanticism
dominated the world of music in the 19th century.
a continuity between the But there remained
two
by Haydn, Mozart and periods, the classical forms developed
and
andtheYmphony
S Beethoven-the sonata, the string quartet,
-continued even in the romantic era.)(The
compositions of Beethoven
classical and romantic periods. (1770-1827) form a bridge between the
emotional
response, which was Beethoven excelled in evoking an
music) Before he began to lose his key to his romantic approach to
classical rules of structure and hearing, Beethoven's music followed
Franz Schubert harmonyThe
(1797-1828), further Viennese-born comnposer
influenceon
musical
c exemplified
music) Schubert made folk Songs part ofromanticisms
expression. is instrumental
compositions left profound impact
romantic musicians of subsequent On the
musicians like
to the traditional^chumann, Mendelgeneration,
ssohn and
(Apart from Schubert.
forms, made new Berlioz, remaining true

century. The romantic musicians experiments in music in the 19th

impulses of the listeners concentrated on evoking enmotional
 EUROPE AFTER NAPOLEON 119

VThe romantic mood encouraged the cause of social reform par

ticularly in the 1830s and 1840s. Reformers expressed humanitarian
concern for the plight of the African slaves and the sufferings of their
OWn
poorRomanticism may be considered a multifaceted, pervasive
phenomenon that inluenced almost all the doctrines or ideologies of
the age The
The romantic conservatives tried to revive interest .in the
mddt:ages and romanticized the honour,
chivalry and hierarchical
society of the medieval Europe. The romanticliberals served the
of freedom of the oppressed people and dreamed of a cause
from poverty and social ills. new society fre