Group Questions List (BoF/SDG Question Based Questions for PostGrads)

1. If future ironmaking moves from carbon-based to hydrogen-based reduction, how

will this affect the role and use of the Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF)?
 This will drastically reduce the use of the BOF from its dominant position because
they give the steel making process flexibility according to market conditions;
 BOF may still refine scrap-based steel and be used in steel-making in developing
nations but would see reduced use in primary steelmaking.

2. If this shift leads to replacing BOF with Electric Arc Furnace (EAF), how will that
impact the overall energy efficiency of iron-making?
 Steel making of today uses a lot of energy and the conversion of Fe 2O3 is only at
about 22-33% efficient showing this process with the rest being waste heat (only 52%
is useful heat and the remainder is wasted).
 The major advantage of EAF is that it can use any type of feedstock as charge be it
iron ore, scrap, molten iron etc.
 In terms of energy efficiency, moving over to EAF will greatly improve it because the
electric power can be carefully controlled to impart heat to the bath at different
desired rates which allows precise control of the refining reactions.
3. What are the main ways energy efficiency can be improved in EAF to support its
wider adoption over BOF?
 The first major way is to optimise arc operation by adjusting the system reactance and
power factor to create a more stable and smooth arc, leading to less electrode
consumption and flicker.
 Use of more scrap metal in the EAF as feed material also results in up to 70% energy
savings.
 Moreover, since there is greater control of electricity and the ensuing reactions
(process control), the EAF allows the tailoring of products to the quality expected; no
energy is waste is encountered since all reactions occurs in one go.
 To limit energy usage from electricity, the EAF will be used in conjunction with the
blast furnace (BF), so that the hot mix from it (Make the process autogeneous) which
is often at the required temperature for operations in the EAF is used and this limits
electricity usage through co-generation (CHP), waste heat recovery, insulation of
 furnaces and process integration are all compatible with EAF to improve energy
efficiency but not with BOF.
4. What technical or operational challenges might steelmakers face when transitioning
from BOF to EAF-based production?
 The first challenge is electricity usage which is quite high in EAF than BOF.
 Raw material challenges are also another factor as EAFs need high quality scrap for
production of higher quality products.
 Fluctuations in raw materials and energy prices have a direct impact on the production
costs of EAF-based steel.
 There is need for close financial and metallurgical accounting or consultation to
determine the stage of production in line with market conditions to switch over to
EAF as there is a rough estimate guideline which outline that 2.5–3.0Mt is essentially
the switching point, i.e. conversion to DRI/EAF, any larger and the complexity is
increased as one BF is being replaced with multiple units.
 Decrease in scale of production as BF-BOF combination is suited to high production
rate/mass production of steel while EAF is suited to low production of specialised
steel.

5. Can carbon capture and storage (CCS) be effectively applied to BOF steelmaking,
and what are the technical or economic limitations of doing so?

In my view CCS can be applied to BOF, but not effectively for the process to for achieve net-
zero emissions because:

TECHNICAL CHALLENGES ECONOMIC CHALLENGES

The retrofitting of CSS to BOF requires significant The process requires very significant investment of
energy commitment. financial and human capital.
There is need for large scale infrastructure for CSS. The operational costs of these CSS technologies are
high.
There are high risks of CO2 leakages. The long-term viability and success of CCS projects
can be uncertain.
There is need for CO2 purification. There are currently few commercial-scale CCS
There are varied pollution sources in the process facilities for BOF steelmaking, and even existing
which makes it difficult to design a single, efficient pilot projects have not demonstrated the technology's
capture system. feasibility
6. How does BOF slag recycling work in practice, and how can it reduce emissions or
support a more circular economy in steelmaking?
 A circular economy (CE), is an economic system aimed at minimising waste and
maximising the value of resources by keeping products and materials in use for as
long as possible, this section aims to show how waste is minimised and recycled in
BOF to reduce emissions.
 The BOF slag which is generated in the basic oxygen converter during the pig iron
oxidation process, by the combination of steel impurities with the lime or dolomite
added during oxygen blowing cycles inside the converter.
 The slag is tapped from the furnace at 1650 °C, and up to 65% of this heat can be
recuperated and reused in the process.
 The molten BOF slag is cooled slowly by natural cooling or water spray in a cooling
yard, promoting the formation of a very crystalline structure which has a lower silica
content in comparison with the blast furnace slag, therefore steel slag hardly vitrify,
even when rapidly cooled.
 Approximately 110 kg of slag is generated for each ton of produced steel and,
annually, around 100 million tons of BOF slag are produced globally, corresponding
to the main process of steel production
 Traditionally, BOF steel slag has been used as unbound material in preparing steel
subgrades, sub-bases and bases for beds and railways and may be recycled in road
construction.
 5–10% of BOF slag are used for per ton clinker in cement manufacturing because the
slag is composed by CaO (up to 65%), SiO2 (10–15%), FeO (about 30%), Fe2O3
(above 20%), Al2O3 (2–17%) and MgO (1–10%). The high CaO content in BOF slag
may cause the slag volumetric expansion and disintegration after cement hardening
due to the free-CaO hydration reactions, this instability is considered a limiting factor
for BOF slag use as raw material for cement production or as a concrete aggregate in
civil industry.
With the economic growing and technological development of society, the efficient resources
usage, re-usage and material recycling are imperatives for sustainable development and for
natural resources conservation. Currently, the industries are producing a considerable amount
of BOF waste and a major part of the extracted resources are wasted through the linear
process that is why the environmental sustainability should involve not only the by-products
recycling, energy and water management, but also the development of new competitive
products and technologies that provides benefits for the environment and for industries such
as steel subgrades for a number of uses, as well as the industry dependence reduction on raw
materials, which is fundamental to change the linear process economy and achieve a circular
economy.

7. What opportunities exist for decarbonising or improving the eco-efficiency of BOF

operations, and which options are the most realistic today?
 The iron and steel BF-BOF is a major greenhouse gas emitter, releasing up to 9% of
global CO2 emissions.
 The BOF is one of the hard-to-decarbonise sectors due to the inherent carbon-
intensive nature of its production, however there are a number of ways to improve its
eco-efficiency as outlined in this section.
1. The first is to close the old BF-BOFs and replace them with DRI-EAFs
powered by renewable electricity, which has the potential to save 1.5 Gt of
CO2 emissions annually and this is already commercialised and proved to
function.
2. A second option is to increase the scrap recycling rate, this is also a
manageable and achievable function because steel is already one of the most
recycled materials and its usage as feed material of the BOF results in a 90%
reduction of CO2 emissions and 70% energy savings compared with virgin
iron ore in a BF-BOF.
3. Another proposed solution is iron ore electrolysis, which has a Technological
Readiness Level (TRL) of 6 meaning the technology has been demonstrated
but is not industrially operational. The TRL allows for consistent comparisons
of the maturity of different technologies, with a scale of 1–9 where 9 is the
most mature and has been proven in the operational environment.
4. A related technology is a natural gas-powered furnace with carbon capture,
use and storage (CCUS), which also has a TRL of 5–7. Although several
methods of CCUS have been demonstrated and a few industrial CCUS
facilities are operational, the cost is expected to be $100 per tonne of CO 2 for
capture and $160 per tonne for transport and storage by 2030, with costs
falling moderately by 2050
5. Finally there is also another option of reducing, reducing iron with hydrogen
in BOF but it is less efficient in terms of energy as it uses 3.72 MWh per
 tonne of liquid steel produced compared to 3.48 MWh/t for the BF-BOF
route. This is already in use but still under development.

8. What are the key carbon-emitting steps in BOF steelmaking, and how could these
emissions be reduced using current or emerging technologies?

KEY CO2 EMISSION STEPS HOW TO REDUCE EMMISSION

USING CURRENT TECHNOLOGIES
Coke, a purified form of coal, is essential  Use of CCUS to capture, store and
for the blast furnace, which produces the hot use the CO2. TRL 8.
metal used in the BOF. The process of  Use of alternative Carbon sources
converting coal to coke through heating at such biomass, sewage sludge and
high temperatures releases significant crop residue, plastic and other
amounts of CO2. biogenic materials as reductants in
The blast furnace uses coke as a reducing replacement of CO2 because they
agent to extract iron from iron ore. This have very low net carbon emissions.
chemical reaction produces large volumes TRL 8.
of carbon dioxide.  Use hydrogen and natural gas as
(Fe2O3+3CO→2Fe+3CO2). reductant and fuel respectively
The burning of coke also provides the high
temperatures required for the process,
further contributing to CO2 emissions.

While the BOF process itself is autogenous  Use of renewable electricity as

(self-heating due to exothermic reactions), energy source.
the overall steelmaking plant requires
substantial energy for various operations,
including material handling, gas processing,
and auxiliary equipment. If this energy is
derived from fossil fuels, it contributes to
 indirect CO2 emissions.

The BOF requires large quantities of oxygen

and releases carbon monoxide and carbon
dioxide in the BOF Gas stream.
The mining and transportation of iron ore, Use renewable fuels.
coal, and other raw materials to the steel
plant also generate carbon emissions,
depending on the modes of transport and
energy sources used.

Fluxes like lime (CaO) and dolomite (CaMg Replace BOF with emerging technologies
(CO3)2) are added to the BOF to remove that aim to produce iron directly from iron
impurities. The production of lime from ore using electricity, potentially eliminating
limestone (CaCO3) involves calcination, the need for reducing agents like coke or
which releases CO2 (CaCO3→CaO+CO2). hydrogen. If powered by renewable energy,
this could be a revolutionary low-carbon
steelmaking route.

9. How does implementing circular economy principles in BOF operations help achieve
SDG 12: Responsible Consumption and Production?
 Iron- and steelmaking by-products result from the processes producing steel by two
main routes: the iron ore-based steelmaking and the scrap-based steelmaking.
 In total, 70% of the world steel is produced utilising the first one, based on Blast
Furnace (BF), where iron ore is reduced to pig iron, which is afterwards converted
into steel in the Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF). Input of this route are mainly iron ore,
coal, limestone and steel scrap. e.
 During the iron-and-steelmaking processes in the BOF, several by-products are
produced, such as slags, dusts, mill-scales and sludges, on average, for one tonne of
steel 400 kg of by-products are produced.
 Using the CE concepts of Reduce, Reuse, Recycle and Restore in the blast furnace.
 i. Reduce represents the concept based on avoiding or minimising the
environmental impact, which means that the slag from this process must not
be dumped as waste but used responsibly.
ii. Reuse concerns the internal recycling of by-products, such as the sludges
reuse (through the thermal technologies, eliminating or reducing its Zn
content) as well as the slag reuse (focused on the lime content reduction,
resulting in its direct recycling). Energy which is emitted from these is also
recycled and reused i
iii. The Recycling concept concerns also the creation of Industrial Symbiosis
(IS), which aims at developing the synergies among different sectors,
identifying new business opportunities for underutilised resources outside
the boundary of the production chain for these products: slags, dusts, mill-
scales and sludges from the BOF.

This implementation of circular economy principles in BOF operations, as outlined, above

directly contributes to achieving SDG 12 which focuses on Responsible Consumption and
Production by reducing waste generation through embedding in the process the responsible
use of by-products and energy instead of dumping which is based on the principle of internal
recycling. Moreover, by encouraging industrial symbiosis there is fostering of collaboration
across industries which enables the finding of new uses for BOF by-products and reducing
overall resource consumption. The improvement of resource efficiency through the
valorisation of by-products instead of treating them as waste, improves the overall efficiency
of resource utilisation in the steelmaking process is enhanced and the alignment to the SDG
12 and this also minimises the environmental burden associated with disposal and the
extraction of new resources. This shows that the holistic application of Reduce, Reuse, and
Recycle principles embedded in the circular economy approach fosters more sustainable
production patterns within the iron and steel sector and alignment to global initiatives such as
SDG 12.

10. What role can digital technologies like artificial intelligence and real-time
monitoring play in improving energy efficiency and reducing emissions in BOF
operations?
  Nowadays, manufacturing and process industry, and steel sector in particular, is facing
the global challenge of Sustainability. Sustainability is based on economic,
environmental and social pillars expressed by the Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs) in 2030 the Agenda for Sustainable Development, which was adopted by all
United Nations Member States in 2015.
 Digitalisation which involves the creation and use of technologies such as Artificial
Intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) plays a key role in supporting
organisations and processes like BOF in aligning with sustainability principles.
 Digital technologies revolutionise BOF operations by enabling:
i. Optimised process control through AI-powered real-time analysis of sensor data,
leading to dynamic adjustments of parameters like oxygen flow and lance height
and the minimisation of energy consumption.
ii. AI also enhances resource efficiency by optimising the furnace charge mix and
slag management.
iii. Predictive maintenance, driven by anomaly detection, reduces downtime and
associated energy waste. Furthermore, real-time off-gas analysis maximises
energy recovery.
iv. AI monitoring provide data-driven insights for continuous improvement,
significantly boosting energy efficiency and curbing emissions in BOF
steelmaking.

11. What are the challenges in transitioning BOF operations to use hydrogen as a fuel or
reducing agent, and how feasible is this shift in the near term?

Transitioning BOF operations to hydrogen faces significant challenges as outlined below:

 Green hydrogen production, essential for truly low-carbon steelmaking, is currently

expensive and lacks the necessary large-scale infrastructure.
 Adapting existing BOF plants to handle hydrogen as a fuel or direct reducing agent
requires substantial technological modifications and safety protocols which requires
significant costs and need expertise which might not be readily available in the
market.
  The economic feasibility of this shift in the near term is limited by these costs and the
availability of green hydrogen at an industrial scale.

12. How can BOF decarbonisation strategies be aligned with national climate targets
and industrial emissions reduction policies to support SDG 13: Climate Action?
 BOF decarbonisation strategies can align with national climate targets and industrial
emissions reduction policies by contributing directly to greenhouse gas (GHG)
emission reductions, a key objective of SDG 13.
 Moreover, the utilisation of cleaner energy sources like green hydrogen and
implementing carbon capture (CCSU) technologies in BOF operations directly
support emission reduction targets.
 Furthermore, policies incentivising the adoption of these technologies and promoting
circular economy principles in the steel industry create a supportive framework for
achieving both national climate goals and SDG 13.

13. How do modern BOF technologies compare to traditional designs in terms of

reducing CO₂ and SOx emissions, especially when evaluated against SDG 13 climate
targets?

Modern BOF technologies as compared to traditional designs, generally incorporate features

aimed at reducing CO₂ and SOx emissions through the mechanisms outlined below:

 Improved energy efficiency measures which minimise indirect CO₂ emissions from
power generation.
 Enhanced process control and optimised combustion which reduce direct CO₂
emissions from fuel use.
 In modern BOFs, advancements in gas cleaning and capture technologies are often
integrated to address air pollutants, aligning with the broader environmental goals of
SDG 13 by mitigating the climate impact of steel production.

14. Which energy efficiency upgrades in BOF operations contribute most significantly
to meeting SDG 7.3, which targets improved energy intensity?
Several energy efficiency upgrades in BOF operations significantly contribute to meeting
SDGs 7 and 3 which focus on affordable and clean energy and good health and well-being
respectively. These initiatives are:

 Waste heat recovery systems capture and reuse thermal energy, reducing the overall
energy input per unit of steel produced.
 Improved insulation of furnaces minimises heat loss.
 Process integration and intensification streamline the steelmaking process, reducing
energy-intensive steps.
 Advanced process control systems optimise energy input based on real-time data,
leading to lower energy intensity.

These initiatives indirectly support SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-being) by reducing air
pollution associated with energy production which means lower energy consumption and less
burning of fossil fuels which lead to decreased emissions of harmful pollutants that impact
respiratory and cardiovascular health, thereby contributing to overall well-being.

15. How effective is renewable hydrogen integration in BOF processes, and how well
does this support both SDG 7 (clean energy) and SDG 13 (climate action)?
 Renewable hydrogen integration in BOF processes can be highly effective in
supporting both SDG 7 and SDG 13 because it replaces fossil fuels as a reducing
agent and energy source, green hydrogen (produced from renewable electricity) and
drastically reduces direct CO₂ emissions, aligning with SDG 13's climate action
goals.
 Furthermore, the use of renewable hydrogen promotes cleaner energy sources,
directly supporting SDG 7's objective of increasing the share of renewable energy in
the global energy mix.

16. How can modifying slag chemistry in BOF operations help promote material reuse
and support SDG 12’s goals for sustainable production?
 Modifying slag chemistry in BOF operations can significantly promote material reuse
and support SDG 12's goals as shown above.
 Therefore, by adjusting the composition of slag, its suitability for use in other
industries like cement production, road construction, or agriculture can be enhanced.
  Moreover, by valorisation of the by-products, there is reduction in waste and
conservation of natural resources which promotes a more circular economy and
alignment with sustainable production and consumption patterns.

17. How can digital twin technology be used to simulate and optimise BOF operations,
and what benefits does this offer in terms of energy savings and productivity?
 Digital twin technology can be used to create virtual replicas of BOF operations,
allowing for the simulation and optimisation of various process parameters without
disrupting actual production.
 Therefore, by simulating different scenarios, optimal operating conditions for energy
efficiency and productivity can be identified.
 This leads to benefits such as reduced energy consumption through optimised process
control, increased steel output due to refined parameters, and decreased downtime
through predictive maintenance insights gained from the digital twin's analysis.

18. What types of infrastructure or innovations (e.g. digital control systems, process
retrofits) are needed in Australia to modernise BOF steelmaking and meet SDG 9:
Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure?

Modernizing Australian BOF steelmaking to meet SDG 9 requires infrastructure and

innovations such as:
 Development of green hydrogen production facilities and efficient delivery systems to
power new processes.
 Investment in and deployment of EAF technology capable of utilizing green
electricity and increased scrap input.
 Implementation of advanced sensors, AI, and real-time monitoring for optimised
energy use and process efficiency in current in operation furnaces and development
and integration of systems to capture emissions from existing BOF plants during a
transition phase.
 Adapting existing BOF infrastructure to accommodate alternative fuels or processes
where feasible such as hydrogen, biomass and natural gas.
 Facilities for sorting, processing, and upgrading domestic scrap metal for increased
use in steel production.
  Investment in facilities to test and scale up innovative low-carbon steelmaking
technologies.

19. How does the decline in iron ore grades affect the long-term viability of BOF-based
steelmaking, and how does this relate to SDG 12 on sustainable resource use?
 Declining iron ore grades necessitate processing larger volumes of ore to produce the
same amount of iron, thereby increasing energy consumption and waste generation in
the upstream blast furnace process.
 This negatively impacts SDG 12 by straining natural resources and increasing the
environmental footprint per unit of steel produced, undermining sustainable resource
use.
20. How do policy or economic factors (like emissions trading schemes or subsidies)
influence a company’s decision to invest in more sustainable BOF technologies?
 Policy and economic factors significantly influence investment in sustainable BOF
technologies because emissions trading schemes create a financial disincentive for
carbon emissions, making cleaner technologies more economically attractive.
 Subsidies and tax incentives directly reduce the capital costs associated with adopting
sustainable technologies, encouraging investment and accelerating the transition
towards lower-emission steelmaking.

21. How do top gas recycling systems reduce carbon emissions in blast furnace–BOF
steelmaking chains, and how do they contribute to SDG 13 goals?
 Top gas recycling systems capture and reuse the carbon monoxide-rich gas produced
in the blast furnace and by reinjecting this gas as a fuel and reducing agent, less
external fuel (typically coke) is required, leading to lower overall carbon emissions in
the BF–BOF chain.
 This contributes to SDG 13 goals by directly reducing greenhouse gas emissions from
steel production.

22. Between hydrogen injection and carbon capture, which option is more cost-effective
for decarbonising the blast furnace–BOF route while supporting SDG 9 innovation
goals?
Determining the more cost-effective option between hydrogen injection and carbon capture
for decarbonizing the BF–BOF route while supporting SDG 9 depends on various factors,
including the cost of green hydrogen production, the efficiency of carbon capture
technologies, and the potential revenue from captured carbon utilisation or storage.
 Currently, hydrogen injection, especially with green hydrogen, faces cost challenges
related to production.
 Carbon capture adds operational costs but allows continued use of existing
infrastructure.
From this section it is clear that both options drive innovation in their respective fields,
supporting SDG 9. However, a comprehensive cost-benefit analysis considering regional
factors and technological advancements is needed to determine the more economically and
technologically viable path.

23. How do newer low-carbon ironmaking technologies (like direct reduction) compare
to the blast furnace–BOF route in supporting SDG 7: Affordable and Clean Energy?

 Newer low-carbon iron-making technologies like direct reduction (DRI), especially

when powered by renewable hydrogen or coupled with electric arc furnaces (EAFs
using green electricity), offer a significantly lower carbon footprint compared to the
traditional blast furnace–BOF route.
 This directly supports SDG 7 by promoting cleaner energy sources and reducing
reliance on fossil fuels like coal and coke, which are inherent to the BF-BOF process.

24. What waste heat recovery systems can be integrated into BOF or associated
processes to improve energy efficiency and contribute to SDG 7.3 targets?

 Several waste heat recovery systems can be integrated into BOF or associated
processes.
 These include recovering heat from hot off-gases using waste heat boilers to generate
steam for electricity or heating, utilising the sensible heat of slag for other industrial
processes, and implementing top gas recovery turbines in the blast furnace to capture
energy from the furnace exhaust gases.
 These systems improve overall energy efficiency, directly contributing to SDG 7.3
targets by reducing energy intensity per unit of steel produced.
25. How might the introduction of a carbon price affect the adoption of low-emission
technologies in BOF operations across different countries or regions?

 The introduction of a carbon price can significantly affect the adoption of low-
emission technologies in BOF operations, but the impact may vary across countries or
regions.
 In areas with high carbon prices (like the EU ETS), the economic incentive to invest
in cleaner technologies such as hydrogen-based DRI or carbon capture becomes
stronger as emitting CO₂ becomes more expensive.
 However, in regions without carbon pricing or with lower prices, the economic
drivers for adopting these costlier low-emission technologies may be weaker,
potentially leading to slower adoption rates unless other supportive policies are in
place.
ANOTHER SET OF QUESTIONS

1. How effectively do top gas recycling technologies reduce carbon emissions in

blast furnaces to support SDG 13 climate targets?
 Top gas recycling reduces carbon emissions by reusing the carbon monoxide-rich
blast furnace gas as a fuel and reducing agent, decreasing the need for additional
fossil fuels like coke.
 This directly lowers the overall carbon footprint of the blast furnace, contributing to
SDG 13 climate targets by mitigating greenhouse gas emissions from steel
production.

2. Is hydrogen injection or carbon capture more cost-effective for reducing

emissions in blast furnaces while supporting SDG 9 innovation goals?
 The cost-effectiveness comparison between hydrogen injection and carbon capture
varies. Hydrogen injection, especially with green hydrogen, currently faces high
production costs but drives innovation in green hydrogen technologies.
 Carbon capture adds operational costs but allows continued use of existing
infrastructure and spurs innovation in carbon capture and utilisation/storage.
 The optimal choice depends on regional factors, energy prices, and technological
advancements in both fields.

3. What policy approaches would best support blast furnace decarbonisation in

developing countries while promoting SDG 9?

 Policy approaches for developing countries should include technology transfer

agreements, financial aid for adopting cleaner technologies, capacity building
programs, and incentives for research and development in locally relevant solutions.
 Gradual implementation timelines aligned with economic development and access to
affordable green energy sources are crucial for promoting both decarbonisation and
sustainable industrialisation (SDG 9).
4. Which blast furnace slag applications best contribute to SDG 12.5 circular
economy targets?
 Applications of blast furnace slag that best contribute to SDG 12.5 include its use as a
substitute for cement in concrete production, as a raw material in road construction
(aggregate), and as a soil amendment in agriculture.
 These applications divert a waste product from landfills, conserve natural resources,
and create value from by-products, aligning with the principles of a circular economy.

5. What are the impacts/implications of implementing the circular economy in

decarbonisation in BoF in achieving SDG12?

 Implementing the circular economy in BOF decarbonisation, through strategies like

by-product reuse (slag, dust), internal recycling of materials and energy, and industrial
symbiosis, significantly contributes to SDG 12 by reducing waste generation,
promoting efficient resource utilisation, and minimising the environmental impact of
steel production.
 This shift towards a circular model fosters more sustainable consumption and
production patterns.

6. How can digital technologies such as AI enhance energy efficiency and reduce
emissions in BoF to achieve SDG12?

 Digital technologies like AI and real-time monitoring enhance energy efficiency in

BOF operations by optimising process parameters (e.g. oxygen flow, temperature)
dynamically, reducing energy consumption and associated emissions.
 AI can also improve resource management, predict equipment failures to minimise
downtime, and optimize energy recovery from off-gases.
 These improvements lead to more efficient resource use and reduced environmental
impact, directly supporting SDG 12.