Spirituality and Indian culture –

"Spirituality is the foundation of Indian culture. From the very beginning, this culture has not
been materialistic but has been centered on renunciation. That is, Indian culture is
inherently connected with the concept of the Self (Atman) and the Supreme Self
(Paramatman).

Here, instead of contemplating material pleasures and comforts, people emphasize spiritual
contemplation—on God, the soul, creation, and the Supreme Being. They value renunciation
more than enjoyment, and consider religion more important than wealth. India has always
remained detached, and this has cultivated a spirit of renunciation and sacrifice.

The central message of the Rigveda is: He who hoards for himself and does not give to
others, hoards sin. Therefore, first renounce, then acquire.

In our religious systems, we have the organization of Brahmacharis (celibates), ascetics,

saints, renunciants, and forest-dwellers (vanaprasthis)—all of which highlight the
importance of renunciation in life.

Thus, we understand spirituality and the dual commitment to renunciation and action in
reference to the Ishavasyopanishad."

Spirituality is considered the essence of Indian culture. From the beginning, this culture has
not been materialistic but rooted in renunciation. Indian culture links human life to the soul
(Ātman) and the Supreme Soul (Paramātman).

Topics such as God, the soul, karma (action), and desire are deeply contemplated in Indian
philosophy. Among all the Upanishads, the Īśāvāsyopaniṣad is considered the foremost
spiritual text. It comprises 18 mantras, in which various philosophical ideas—such as the
nature of the soul, the importance of karma, the distinction between knowledge and
ignorance, and self-realization—are discussed.

This Upanishad is written in simple and concise language, aiming to make even an ordinary
person capable of realizing the self. It presents a brief yet profound interpretation of spiritual
ideas and their results.

In this context, the Īśāvāsyopaniṣad teaches:

"God is omnipresent and pervades everything; all creatures are born from Him and
ultimately dissolve into Him."

(Ref: Ṛgveda 3.1)

Similarly, it is stated in the Īśāvāsyopaniṣad:

"Whatever exists in this dynamic world is enveloped by God. Therefore, enjoy only what is
allotted to you. Do not covet what belongs to others."

This means that everything in the world is the property of God; every atom and object is
filled with His presence. He is the creator, sustainer, and regulator of the universe. Therefore,
a human being is only a temporary trustee and not the owner. All activities must be
performed with this awareness and detachment. One should not hoard or possess more
than what is necessary, and should never accumulate excessive wealth. A person should lead
a life of devotion with the understanding that everything belongs to God.

In the first mantra of the Īśāvāsyopaniṣad, while explaining the omnipresence and supreme
nature of God, the human being is encouraged to become detached. In the second mantra,
the individual is guided to live a life full of action (karma) yet without attachment. The
mantra says that a person should live in this world by performing action, but not be bound
by the results.

Here, performing action without attachment means being free from selfish desires. Where
one acts with detachment, he is liberated from the snares of greed, selfish work, and
despair. As a result, he reaches a state of self-realization.

Therefore, the Īśāvāsyopaniṣad teaches the ideal of working without attachment. It later
questions: "If you must act, then how should you act? What should you not do?" The answer
is given clearly:

Everything in this world is transient and perishable. Only the indwelling Spirit (Ātman) is
eternal and worthy of realization.

Hence, filled with the spirit of renunciation, one should use all physical resources without
greed. One should neither desire another person’s wealth nor accumulate more than is
necessary.

A person should live in constant awareness of God, and conduct life in a manner that is:

• Detached from materialism

• Anchored in service

• Spiritually disciplined

Conclusion:
Life should be lived with detachment. Human life must be based on selfless action. One must
attain complete knowledge of both the visible (material) and invisible (spiritual) realms. That
knowledge should be harmoniously combined with action. In this way, a person should
establish a life of universal well-being. This is the true message of the Īśāvāsyopaniṣad.

Sthitpragaya in Gita
The Bhagavad Gītā is one of the most revered philosophical texts in Indian literature.
Composed of 18 chapters and 700 verses, it forms the philosophical core of the epic
Mahābhārata (Chapters 23–40 of the Bhīṣma Parva). It addresses social, spiritual, and ethical
dilemmas of human life. In fact, it is often referred to as a summarization of all the
Upanishads.

The main concern of the Gītā is to resolve the practical dilemmas of life. When a person
wonders what to do or not do, what is right and what is wrong, the Gītā provides guidance.
Just as Arjuna, in a state of confusion and emotional turmoil on the battlefield, is taught by
Lord Krishna the principles of duty and detachment, similarly the Gītā teaches how to
elevate the self to its highest state through spiritual knowledge and selfless action.

The essence of the Gītā lies in the integration of religion(dharma), detached action, and
knowledge as the path to self-realization. It spiritualizes not only the individual but also
affirms the interconnectedness of human life. It is a universal scripture for all of humanity.

The term "Sthitaprajña" is formed by combining two words: "Sthita" (established) and
"Prajña" (mind/wisdom). Thus, one whose wisdom is firmly established is known as a
Sthitaprajña. When Arjuna is overwhelmed by grief and attachment, Krishna first explains
the immortality of the soul and the perishability of the body. However, this does not
immediately resolve Arjuna’s conflict. Then So, Krishna introduces the concept of
Sthitaprajña.

He teaches that just as a sage remains undisturbed in sorrow and does not crave pleasure,
so too must Arjuna follow his personal duty as a warrior despite difficulties. In the end,
Krishna imparts to Arjuna the knowledge of Karma Yoga (the yoga of action)—that is,
performing one's duties with detachment. This encourages acting without attachment to the
outcomes and promotes both spiritual development and inner harmony.

श्लोक 2.54 – अर्जुन का प्रश्न

स्थितप्रज्ञस्य का भाषा समाधििस्य केशव |

स्थितप्रज्ञ व्यस्थि की भाषा (लक्षण) क्या है, जो समाधि में स्थित है , हे केशव?

स्थिति ीः धकिं प्रभाषेत धकमास त व्रर्ेत धकम् ||

ऐसा स्थिर बुस्थिवाला व्यस्थि कैसे बोलता है, कैसे बैठता है और कैसे चलता है ?

श्लोक 2.55 – श्र कृष्ण का उत्तर

प्रर्हाधत यदा कामान्सवाुन्पार्ु मनोगतान् |

जब व्यस्थि मन में उत्पन्न होने वाली सभी कामनाओं का त्याग कर दे ता है , हे पार्थ,

आत्मन्येव आत्मना तजष्टीः स्थितप्रज्ञस्तदोच्यते ||

और आत्मा में ही स्वयं संतुष्ट रहता है , तभी वह स्थिरबुस्थि (स्थितप्रज्ञ) कहा जाता है।
 श्लोक 2.56

दज ीः खेष्वनजधिग्नमना: सजखेषज धवगतस्पृह: |

जो दु ुः खों में धवचधलत नहीं होता और सुखों में इच्छारधहत होता है ,

व तरागभयक्रोिीः स्थिति मजुधनरुच्यते ||

वह राग, भय और क्रोि से रधहत व्यस्थि मुधन (ज्ञानी) कहलाता है , धजसकी बुस्थि स्थिर है।

श्लोक 2.57

यीः सवुत्रानधभस्नेहस्तत्तत्प्राप्य शजभाशजभम् |

जो व्यस्थि धकसी भी वस्तु में आसस्थि नहीं रखता, और जब वह शुभ या अशुभ को प्राप्त करता है ,

नाधभनन्दधत न िे धष्ट तस्य प्रज्ञा प्रधतधिता ||

तो वह न तो हधषथत होता है और न द्वे ष करता है — उसकी बुस्थि स्थिर होती है।

श्लोक 2.58

यदा सिंहरते चायिं कूमोऽङ्गान व सवुश: |

धजस प्रकार कछु आ अपने अंगों को सभी धदशाओं से समेट लेता है ,

इस्थियाण स्थियार्ेभ्यस्तस्य प्रज्ञा प्रधतधिता ||

उसी प्रकार जो व्यस्थि इं धियों को धवषयों से समेट लेता है , उसकी बुस्थि स्थिर होती है।

श्लोक 2.59

धवषया धवधनवतुन्ते धनराहारस्य दे धहन: |

धवषय (इं धिय भोग) इं धियों से दू र हो जाते हैं धनराहारी (त्यागी) व्यस्थि के,

रसवर्ं रसोऽप्यस्य परिं दृष्ट्वा धनवतुते ||

लेधकन उनका रस (आकषथण) बना रहता है ; वह भी परमात्मा को दे खने के बाद समाप्त हो जाता है।

ट का (व्याख्या के अिंश)

• भगवद्गीता में स्थितप्रज्ञ व्यस्थि का आदशथ रूप में वणथन है।

• वह सभी कमों को परमात्मा को अपथण करता है और फल की धचंता नहीं करता।

• वह इं धियों को वश में रखता है, भोगों में धलप्त नहीं होता।

 • वह शोक-सुख में समान रहता है और द्वे ष या मोह से मुि होता है।

• उसका जीवन शांत, संतुधलत और सेवा से प्रेररत होता है।

Krishna says that one who performs action with detachment attains a steady and pure mind.
Such a person is called a Sthitaprajña.

Sthitaprajña is described as one who is not disturbed by sorrow nor excited by joy. He
remains balanced in both pain and pleasure. This implies that such a person’s desires,
emotions, and ego are all subdued. He neither attaches himself to anyone nor hates anyone.
He is free from desire, anger, and greed.

Further, Krishna explains that a Sthitaprajña remains detached from good and bad outcomes
alike. He does not become arrogant upon success nor despondent upon failure. Rather, he
performs his duties equanimously, recognizing all situations as divine manifestations.
Everything is perishable and created by God.

Krishna adds that a Sthitaprajña controls his senses the way a tortoise withdraws its limbs.
He withdraws from the objects of the senses and protects his inner self. This self-restraint
leads to wisdom.

Krishna warns that merely refraining from sense-objects is not true renunciation. If a person
still mentally indulges in desires, his renunciation is false. Even the ego of renunciation can
be destructive if the desires remain unresolved. True renunciation is surrendering one's
desires and actions to God.

Therefore, Krishna concludes that through realization of the Supreme Self (Ātman), one
develops a deeper connection with others. This results in social harmony and mutual
respect. It fosters a spirit of service toward others, encouraging people to serve society with
humility, guided by the sense of duty.

The individual, by embracing the philosophy of the Sthitaprajña, progresses toward self-
realization and solidarity. This contributes to both spiritual and material development in
society, creating a just and cooperative world.

In conclusion, the Gītā presents the ideal of the Sthitaprajña—a person who, recognizing the
divine within, acts in the world with detachment and unwavering wisdom. This ideal,
exemplified in the state called Brahmabhūta (oneness with the Supreme), is the core of
Gītā’s spiritual message.

Yogasutra

The culture of any nation reflects the intellectual, personal, and spiritual evolution of its
people.
If we talk about Indian culture in particular, it not only emphasizes the mental and spiritual
development of the individual but also focuses on strengthening the body.
In other words, it considers it essential to make a person’s lifestyle conducive to overall
development.

In the Indian Upanishads, it is stated that a distressed or ill person cannot realize the
Supreme (Paramātman) — (ref: Chāndogya Upaniṣad).
Therefore, maintaining the health and balance of the body is itself considered the primary
purpose of human birth for the attainment of the Divine or bliss (moksha).

According to Indian philosophy, the foundation of ideal human development and inner
purification lies in the integrated principle of Religion (Dharma), Wealth (Artha), Action,
Desire (Kāma). And moksha- liberation
Hence, to fulfill these goals, it becomes absolutely essential to adopt a healthy lifestyle.

Physical activities, nutritious diet, proper rest, restraint over the senses, skillful work, and
good moral conduct — all are important components of a healthy lifestyle.
Indian philosophies constantly encourage the individual to maintain a respectful attitude
towards all beings, and to consistently practice self-discipline.
These are fundamental aspects of a healthy life.

In this sequence, the Ashtanga Yoga (Eight-limbed path) system described by Maharishi
Patañjali in the text Yogasutra is considered a scientific and practical guide to a balanced life.
These eight limbs — Yama (moral restraints),

• Niyama (discipline),
• Āsana (posture),
• Prāṇāyāma (breath control),
• Pratyāhāra (withdrawal),
• Dhāraṇā (concentration),
• Dhyāna (meditation), and
• Samādhi (absorption) — are all essential to living well.

In Indian culture, the practice of these principles is considered not just beneficial for health
but also vital for improving social systems.
The disciplines of yoga and its principles significantly contribute to the upliftment of society.

Swami Vivekananda considered yoga and these disciplines as the scientific foundation of
human transformation.
Hence, understanding and practicing the limbs of Ashtanga Yoga in the light of Patañjali
Yogasutra is considered extremely important.
Here is the detailed English translation of the passage you've shared, which explains the
meaning and purpose of Yama in the Yogic tradition (specifically from Patanjali’s Ashtanga
Yoga):

Meaning of Yama and Its Significance

The meaning of Yama is:

“To withdraw one’s thoughts and intentions from external subjects (material life), regulate
them, and turn them toward divine contemplation (God-centered thinking).”

The practice of Yama shapes a person’s art of social living.

In other words, it teaches how to behave properly with others and how to lead a balanced
life in society.
Thus, Yama belongs to the category of social ethics or restraints.

Among the eight limbs of Yoga, Yama is the first. In Patanjali’s Yogasutra, five kinds of Yamas
are mentioned. Here is an explanation of these five Yamas:

Here is the English translation of the Hindi text about Indian culture and the principles of
Yama (ethical restraints) from Patanjali's Yoga Sutras:

Indian Culture and Healthy Lifestyle

The culture of any country serves as a guide for human personal life and spiritual upliftment.
Speaking of Indian culture, emphasis is placed not only on mental or spiritual development
of humans but also on making them physically strong. That is, making one's lifestyle effective
for the comprehensive development of humans is considered extremely necessary.

The Indian Upanishads state that a weak or sick person cannot have the vision of the
Supreme Soul (Mundakopanishad). Therefore, keeping the body-vessel healthy and strong to
achieve the goal of attaining Brahman (liberation) is the primary purpose of human birth.

The foundation for the Purushartha Chatushtaya (the four goals of human life: Dharma-
Artha-Kama-Moksha) determined by Indian sages for the worldly and otherworldly progress
of individuals is a healthy body. Therefore, adopting a healthy lifestyle is extremely
necessary to fulfill these purposes.

Physical activities, nutritious diet, dress and ornaments, good habits, rest and relaxation,
work skills, excellent conduct and behavior - all these are important components of a
healthy lifestyle. The inspiration to maintain respect for revered persons and the good
inspiration to follow moral conduct mentioned in Indian scriptures - all these are integral
parts of a healthy lifestyle.

The Eight Limbs of Yoga

In this sequence, the Yama and Niyama enumerated among the eight limbs of Ashtanga Yoga
described in the "Yoga Sutras" composed by Sage Patanjali are also foundational elements of
a healthy lifestyle. Their observance is considered mandatory in Indian culture. Not only
from the perspective of health, but Yama and Niyama also play an important role in
strengthening social systems. Swami Vivekananda described Yama and Niyama as the
foundation of character building. Therefore, it is extremely essential to know the Yamas and
Niyamas described in Patanjali's Yoga Sutras.

The Meaning of Yama

Yama means restraining one's mental tendencies or thoughts from external objects (worldly
life), controlling them, and engaging them in contemplation of God. The observance of
Yamas teaches humans the art of living social life. In other words, Yama teaches how to
remain pure in behavior with others. Therefore, Yama is counted in the category of social
duties.

Yama comes first among the eight limbs of yoga. In Patanjali's Yoga Sutras, five types of Yama
are mentioned. The introduction to these five Yamas is as follows:

1. Ahimsa (Non-violence)

Causing physical or mental suffering to any living being through body, mind, and speech with
feelings of lust, anger, greed, delusion, fear, etc., is violence (himsa), and avoiding this is non-
violence (ahimsa). When someone oppresses us considering us weak, the feeling of taking
revenge also leads us toward violence. The feeling of completely destroying or harming that
which we fear also leads us toward violence. At the root of all this lies anger.

Due to greed for wealth and property and the desire to possess land and inheritance, a
person also tends toward violence. Similarly, to please deities, fulfill desires, or perform
animal or human sacrifice in the name of God while under the influence of ignorance or
delusion is also a cause of violence.

Considering that violent actions performed by oneself or caused to be performed by others

under the influence of greed, anger, or delusion give infinite sorrowful results, one should
try to abstain from these. The mentality of "blood for blood" or "thorn removes thorn"
should be removed from the mind.

That is, when someone shows enmity or does us harm, harboring feelings of enmity, harm,
or revenge in return never pacifies enmity; rather, removing the feeling of enmity from the
mind is the only solution.

However, punishing or disciplining someone for their improvement without being under the
influence of attachment, hatred, and anger is not violence. Similarly, the cutting and surgery
performed by surgeons, being done with the patient's welfare in mind, does not fall under
the category of violence. If enemy soldiers have to be killed in war, that action would be
called duty fulfillment rather than violence. Similarly, physical punishment or verbal scolding
given by parents or teachers for the removal of bad qualities is also for the welfare of the
student or child.

When non-violence is fully established, a person's enmity toward all beings ceases, and
other beings also abandon their enmity when they come in contact with such a person.

2. Satya (Truthfulness)

Conducting oneself in mind and speech exactly as an object is seen, heard, and known is
called truth. It is stated in the Shanti Parva of Mahabharata that speaking truth which causes
suffering to an innocent being or forces them to lose their life is not truth but sin.

Unconnected speech (speaking or chattering without purpose), harsh speech, tale-bearing

or criticism, and lying - these are four types of sins committed through speech. For their
prevention, one should remain silent, speak after thinking, use sweet speech, praise others'
qualities, and practice truthful speech diligently.

Truth is always simple. In truthful speech, there is no deceit, fraud, or crooked behavior. That
which, when spoken, maintains fearlessness in the mind, does not bring feelings of
hesitation, fear, or shame to the mind, and maintains enthusiasm - that is truth.

"Silence" is the ornament of speech. Speak only as much as necessary! Remaining silent,
contemplate the truth-form Supreme Soul. Before saying anything, think about it and then
speak! Fulfilling whatever promise is made to someone and practicing truth in mind-speech-
action, that is, saying with speech exactly what is in the mind and behaving according to
what is said - this leads to the accomplishment of truth.

When truth is fully established in mind, speech, and action, whatever a person says with
their speech, that statement becomes fulfilled.

3. Asteya (Non-stealing)

Being under the influence of greed, breaking the bounds of scriptures, and forcibly or
deceitfully taking others' possessions through injustice is theft (steya). Abandoning this, that
is, giving up stealing, is called non-stealing (asteya).

Truth-seeing sages have called not desiring others' possessions in mind, speech, and action
as asteya. Taking someone else's object without permission, obtaining wealth without effort,
taking bribes, weighing less, taking more than appropriate price, taking salary without
fulfilling one's duties, being careless in work - all these actions come under theft.

Humans should consider that the Supreme Soul is pervading both inanimate and animate
things. All this wealth is given by Him. Therefore, after making effort, one should remain
happy with whatever is obtained. One should not desire others' wealth. Greed and delusion
should be controlled through contentment.
The desires arising from enjoying pleasures are called "attachment" (raga). Under its
influence, a person engages in wealth accumulation even through improper means. This
should be remedied through discrimination and detachment.

When a practitioner completely abandons theft in mind, speech, and action, they become
trustworthy to all. All excellent objects begin to come to them naturally.

This text continues the discussion of the remaining Yamas and their benefits for individual
and social development, emphasizing how these ancient principles form the foundation of a
healthy and ethical lifestyle.

In Maharishi Patanjali’s Ashtanga Yoga, the second limb after Yama is Niyama, which refers
to self-discipline and personal observances.
Niyama is concerned with how one treats oneself — in body, mind, and action — to
develop a life that is clean, strong, and spiritually focused.
It is classified under individual moral duties, unlike Yama which deals with social behavior.

Complete Translation from Hindi to English

On Contentment (Santosh)

After making efforts, whatever material things a person receives, being pleased with them
and abandoning the desire to obtain more is called contentment (santosh). Even if all the
wealth and prosperity of the entire world were to be given to one person, their
satisfaction would still not be achieved. Therefore, it is said in the Upanishads:

The meaning of this is that human desires can never be fulfilled through wealth.
Therefore, contentment is the greatest means of happiness.

Just as ghee (clarified butter) added to fire makes it burn even more, similarly, while
enjoying pleasures, the senses become weak but even more restless and begin demanding
other pleasures. A person wanders restlessly to gather these pleasures.

A person should contemplate that wealth, property, wife, children, etc. - these means are
obtained by an individual according to the karma of previous births and this birth.
Whatever effort (purushartha) a person makes, they receive accordingly. In the world, the
more plans are made to enjoy pleasures, the more diseases will attack. It is also said:

After enjoying pleasures, their impressions (sanskaras) again inspire the person toward the
same direction.

Areas Where Contentment Should Be Practiced

One should be content:

 • In their wife

• In whatever food is received

• In wealth

Areas Where Contentment Should NOT Be Practiced

One should NOT be content but should always try to increase more and more in:

• Giving charity

• Performing penance

• Studying knowledge

• Knowledge and science

• Self-study (swadhyaya)

• Devotion to God (Ishvara bhakti)

• Charity and welfare work for others

On Penance (Tapa)

Tolerating dualities like heat-cold, hunger-thirst, honor-dishonor, happiness-sorrow, joy-

grief, etc., while continuing to progress on one's path is penance (tapa). Just as a skilled
charioteer successfully reaches his destination by driving restless horses over uneven and
rough terrain, over high and low ground, taking the chariot to its destination, similarly a
seeker should continue moving forward steadfastly on their duty-path, crossing all
obstacles that come in life, remaining unwavering and continuing to progress.

The Vedas themselves, describing the glory of penance, say:

That is, one who has not made their body capable of enduring hardships by heating it
through penance is raw/uncooked. Just as water does not stay in an unbaked/raw pot,
similarly, without penance, attainment of the Supreme Soul (Paramatma) is not possible.

Through penance, purification of the body and senses occurs, and supernatural powers
like anima (becoming minute) are attained.

On Self-Study (Swadhyaya)

Chanting of Pranava (Om) and study, contemplation, and reflection on scriptures related to
liberation (moksha) is called self-study (swadhyaya). This has two meanings:

1. Swa + adhyaya, meaning self-contemplation or self-examination

2. Su + a + adhyaya - study of good books/scriptures

The first meaning is mentioned in the Smriti texts:

Just as a shopkeeper checks the account of income and expenditure of the whole day in
the evening, similarly a person should examine their day's actions. They should consider
which of their actions are like those of animals and which are worthy of humans. Through
proper self-contemplation, abandoning bad qualities (durgunas) and adopting good
qualities (sad-gunas) is called swadhyaya.

Chanting Om, Gayatri, and other desired mantras, and studying and reflecting upon
scriptures that describe the nature of the soul (atma) and Supreme Soul (Paramatma) is
also swadhyaya.

Through swadhyaya, the attainment of Parabrahma (the Supreme God) occurs.

On Surrender to God (Ishvara Pranidhana)

The meaning of Ishvara Pranidhana is to offer everything to God - to surrender one's all to
God. Surrendering one's entire being - body, senses, and inner faculties (antahkarana),
along with actions performed through them and their results - completely offering oneself
entirely to God is Ishvara Pranidhana.

Just as a small child sitting in mother's lap becomes fearless and worry-free from all sides,
similarly a person should abandon the ego-feeling of "I am the doer" and surrender all
their activities to that supremely loving universal mother (jagat-janani), becoming worry-
free.

Shri Krishna, explaining this very thing to Arjuna in the Gita, says:

"O Arjuna! Whatever actions you perform - eating, sacrifice (yajna), charity (dana),
penance (tapa), etc. - offer them all to the Supreme Lord. Your right is only in performing
action. Giving its result is in God's hands."

Ishvara Pranidhana is the fundamental principle (mool-mantra) of Bhakti Yoga. Bhakti is

the form of intense attachment (tivra anurag) and divine love toward God. Worldly love is
done for selfish purposes, but the devotee's divine love with God surrenders everything to
God.

Result of Ishvara Pranidhana: By surrendering oneself completely to God, samadhi (deep

meditative absorption) is attained very quickly.

Benefits of Following Yamas and Niyamas

• Balanced Lifestyle: By following yamas and niyamas, one's lifestyle can be made
balanced and systematic.

• Health Benefits: By following yamas and niyamas, a person remains healthy and
disease-resistance capacity also increases.

• Mental and Emotional Balance: Mental and emotional balance is established,

leading to growth of happiness, contentment, positivity, and creativity in life.
 • Spiritual Development: A person's spiritual development occurs.

• Reduction of Negative Qualities: In a person's life, through observance of vows

(vrata) and discipline, there is natural absence of defects like violence (himsa), fear
(bhaya), confusion (bhrama), etc.

• Social Contribution: There is a positive contribution in strengthening society's

systems.

1.7 Social Harmony and Coordination in the Context of Indian Culture

India is a country filled with diversity, but Indian thinkers have not viewed this diversity as a
problem. Rather, they have accepted and respected the multiplicity in philosophy, literature,
and society. The Indian perspective has always been to view diversity as unity in disguise. In
fact, diversity itself has been seen as a promoter of unity. Indian thinkers have seen different
ideologies, traditions, and viewpoints not as contradictions, but through a lens of
coordination and harmony. This makes Indian culture a symbol of unity in diversity. In this
context, we examine the social behavior and harmony depicted in Vedic literature.

1.7.1 Possibility of Social Harmony and Coordination in Vedic Literature

Indian culture is based on ideals of social unity, mutual cooperation, universal respect,
equality, and harmony. These ideals are especially emphasized in Vedic literature, which is
why it is seen as the foundation of Indian culture. That’s why it is said that Vedic literature
represents the world's oldest and most universal culture.

"Sā prathamā sanskṛtirviśvavārā."

(Yajurveda)
"This is the first and foremost culture in the world."

Vedic literature is known for its tolerance and inclusiveness. The term "viśvavārā" implies
something that is accepted by the whole world. It implies that Indian culture is not just
national but global. It is universal in appeal, and that is why the concept of “Vasudhaiva
Kutumbakam” (the whole world is one family) arises from Indian thought. This ideal reflects
the values of global unity and harmony.

Example: "Uddhretā ghanān laghūyatāram।"

(Manusmriti: 4/71)
"Lift the heavier ones, reduce the lighter ones"—in this context, it means to uplift the weak
and reduce the burden on the strong for the sake of harmony and balance.
This mantra conveys the principle of social equality and cooperation. When weaker sections
of society are supported and stronger ones are regulated with responsibility, only then can
an ideal and just society be formed.

In essence, Vedic literature emphasizes mutual respect, collaboration, and a spirit of

equality. The idea of "Sahajeevan" (coexistence) and social responsibility is deeply rooted in
it. Even today, these Vedic values are relevant for building a harmonious world society.

Spiritual Foundation of Indian Culture: Compassion, Equality, and Universality

Indian culture is deeply rooted in non-violence (ahiṃsā), sacrifice (tyāga), love (prema),
compassion (karuṇā), and a sense of universal brotherhood (sarva-bhūta-hitāya). These
are considered essential human values and are upheld with pride. These values are not
confined to human beings alone, but extend to animals, birds, and all living beings. Indian
philosophy envisions the welfare of all creatures and integrates this into everyday conduct.

A widely upheld motto in Indian thought is:

"Jīvo aur jīne do"

“Live and let live.”

This universal message is reflected in Vedic prayers like:

Shloka 1:

सवे भवन्तज सजस्थखनीः , सवे सन्तज धनरामयाीः ।

सवे भद्राधण पश्यन्तज, मा कधिद् दज ीः खभाग्भवेत्॥
Sarve bhavantu sukhinaḥ, sarve santu nirāmayāḥ;
Sarve bhadrāṇi paśyantu, mā kaścid duḥkha-bhāgbhavet.

Meaning:
May all be happy, may all be free from illness.
May all see what is auspicious, may no one suffer.

This reflects the universal compassion and altruism central to Indian culture. Such Vedic
sentiments demonstrate an inclusive worldview that sees the whole world as a family.

Indian Culture and the Concept of Spiritual Cosmopolitanism

A unique aspect of Indian culture is its concept of spiritual cosmopolitanism—a vision that
transcends borders and emphasizes unity of all humanity. This outlook promotes mutual
respect, peace, and impartiality towards all nations.

This idea is enshrined in the ancient Vedic phrase:

Shloka 2:
वसजिैव कजटज म्बकम्
Vasudhaiva Kuṭumbakam
“The world is one family.”

This line comes from the Maha Upanishad (Chapter 6, Verse 72), and emphasizes that the
entire world is to be treated with love and equality, without distinction.

Unity and Harmony as Spiritual Duty

Indian thought also emphasizes social harmony and discourages discrimination based on
caste, creed, race, or belief. The following Vedic mantra promotes collective thought and
cooperation:

Shloka 3:

सिंगच्छध्विं सिंवदध्विं सिं वो मनािंधस र्ानताम्।

दे वा भागिं यर्ा पूवे सिंर्ानाना उपासते॥
Saṅgacchadhvaṁ saṁvadadhvaṁ saṁ vo manāṁsi jānatām;
Devā bhāgaṁ yathā pūrve sañjānānā upāsate.
— Rigveda 10.191.2

Meaning:
Walk together, speak together, let your minds be in harmony,
just as the ancient gods worshipped together in unity.

This mantra calls for collective progress, shared thoughts, and harmony, and is a guiding
light for social unity.

Power of Collectivity and Shared Intent

The unity of minds and hearts is further emphasized in this Vedic verse:

Shloka 4:

समान व आकूधतीः समाना हृदयाधन वीः ।

समानमस्तज वो मनो यर्ा वीः सजसहासधत॥
Samānī va ākūtiḥ samānā hṛdayāni vaḥ;
Samānamastu vo mano yathā vaḥ susahāsati.
— Rigveda 10.191.4

Meaning:
Let your aims be common, your hearts be one.
Let your minds be united, so you may live in harmony.

This ideal inspires the formation of a society based on unity, compassion, and shared
values.
Conclusion

The Indian cultural outlook is one of spiritual unity, compassion for all beings, and moral
universality. Its core tenets promote not only peace among humans, but harmony with all
living creatures. This ethos has been evident in India’s humanitarian efforts, including
during recent global crises like the COVID-19 pandemic.

Complete Translation: Samjnana Sukta (Hymn of Unity)

Introduction to Samjnana Sukta

The Samjnana Sukta is the final and most important hymn of the tenth mandal (book) of the
Rigveda Samhita. The Samjnana Sukta contains only four mantras in total. Among these, the
deity of the first mantra is Agni, while the deity of the remaining three mantras is Samjnana.
The meaning of Samjnana is: equality, mental and intellectual unity. The seer
(mantradrashta) of this sukta is Rishi Angiras, who actually reveals the meaning of
unity/harmony.

At the beginning of the Samjnana Sukta, a prayer has been made to Agni, the deity who
grants happiness and prosperity to all beings, that mutual harmony and goodwill should
increase among all beings and all should become prosperous with wealth and grains.

Understanding Social Behavior and Coordination in Samjnana Sukta

The social behavior and coordination propounded in the Samjnana Sukta can be understood
through the following points:

1. Imbued with the Spirit of Equality

The Samjnana Sukta presents a beautiful example of the egalitarian perspective of the Vedic
period, in which the inspiration for complete harmony and fraternal feelings is inherent in
the actions, movements, thoughts, and contemplation-reflection of mind and intellect of all
people. As stated:

Meaning: "May we all walk together, may we all speak together, may our minds be united.
Just as the conduct of the gods was in ancient times, therefore they are worthy of respect."

Actually, in these lines, the entire human group has been inspired to work with mutual love
and unity, abandoning mutual opposition or enmity. Because this very harmony and feeling
of equal respect binds the community together. This instruction given by the Vedic sage
holds universal and eternal importance.

2-3. Social Brotherhood and Harmony

Social brotherhood means the feeling of mutual intimacy or friendship among all individuals
living in society. That the mutual love of human groups should not be affected due to caste,
religion, community, gender, or economic inequality, and that friendly feelings should
remain at the same level among all of them - this is social brotherhood.

In the Samjnana Sukta, while wishing for the welfare of all humans, a clear call has been
made that all citizens should live in an atmosphere of love and brotherhood, forgetting
mutual differences, and should adopt a progressive outlook for the nation. As stated:

Meaning: "O human community! May all your thoughts be the same, may you live together
united without discrimination. Along with your hearts, may your minds also be the same -
such a wish has been made."

In this mantra, the sage has inspired all individuals to maintain unity, social brotherhood,
and goodwill. The resolve of the entire human society should be the same, along with their
thoughts, activities, and working methods should be the same. This strengthens emotional
unity and organizational power. Actually, such a welfare-oriented outlook of the citizens
undoubtedly leads the nation toward progress. At present, not only in our country but in the
entire world, there is a great need for such feelings.

The following mantra of the Samjnana Sukta expresses this very sentiment:

Meaning: "May your resolve and feelings be united, may your hearts be the same, may your
minds be the same, so that you all can live together and all can work in unison."

From the perspective of emotional unity, this mantra has an important place. The basic
sentiment of this mantra is that all the affairs of the entire human society should be alike,
and there should be no discrimination among them in any way.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it can be said that the Samjnana Sukta, exemplifying the saying "Unity is
Strength," gives the message to human society to remain bound in the thread of unity and
to maintain mutual goodwill and harmony. This sukta proves useful in developing and
nurturing the true concepts of nationalism, social goodwill, and the feeling of "Vasudhaiva
Kutumbakam" (the world is one family). Actually, this very sentiment also establishes the
importance of the Samjnana Sukta.

Key Themes and Messages

1. Universal Unity: The sukta emphasizes that all human beings should think, act, and work
together as one unified community.

2. Elimination of Discrimination: It calls for abandoning all forms of discrimination based on

caste, religion, community, gender, or economic status.

3. Mental and Emotional Harmony: The hymn stresses the importance of having unified
thoughts, hearts, and minds for social cohesion.
4. National Progress: It suggests that when people unite with common purpose and
goodwill, the nation naturally progresses.

5. Global Relevance: The principles outlined in this ancient hymn remain relevant for
modern times and have universal application.

6. Spiritual Foundation: The sukta begins with invoking Agni, showing that material
prosperity should be accompanied by spiritual values.

The Samjnana Sukta thus stands as a timeless guide for creating harmonious societies based
on unity, equality, and mutual respect - principles that are as relevant today as they were
thousands of years ago.

Sāṅkhya Sūtra – The Power of Unity

The Sāṅkhya Sūtra forms the concluding and most significant part of the final chapter of the
Sāṅkhya Darśana. It consists of four sections, the first dedicated to Lord Vishnu, and the
remaining three focused on the principle of unity. The word Sāṅkhya implies balance—
mental, spiritual, and social harmony.

The beginning of the sūtra includes a prayer to Lord Vishnu for collective happiness and
refined intellect among all beings. This reflects the central theme of the Sāṅkhya Sūtra: that
unity in thought, feeling, and action is vital for a well-functioning society and civilization.

1. The Spirit of Oneness – Harmony in Life

In Vedic times, sages envisioned a society where all human beings live in spiritual and
emotional unity. They emphasized shared values, common purpose, and synchronized
living. This vision was captured in the Ṛgveda:

"Sangacchadhvam samvadadhvam sam vo manāmsi jānatām"

Let us walk together, let us speak in one voice, let our minds be in harmony.
— Ṛgveda 10.191.2

"Samāni va ākūtiḥ samānā hṛdayāni vaḥ |

Samānam astu vo mano yathā vaḥ susahāsati"
Let your intentions be united, your hearts be united, and your minds be one so that you may
live together in harmony.
— Ṛgveda 10.191.4

These ślokas represent the spiritual basis of collective strength—the ideal that “we are one”,
and this shared awareness was the very foundation of their social structure.
 2. Social Cohesion – The Foundation of Society

True society is built on mutual respect and freedom from discrimination—be it of caste,
creed, religion, gender, or status. The Sāṅkhya Sūtra insists that there must be no superiority
or inferiority, but only equality in dignity and service.

"Vasudhaiva kuṭumbakam"
The world is one family.
— Maha Upanishad 6.71–75

This idea is not theoretical—it is practical. The sūtra urges that love and empathy should
replace prejudice and division. All people must be treated as equals and work together for
shared progress.

3. Unity is Strength – The Power of Organization

The sūtra also emphasizes that a well-organized society, guided by shared ideals and
common purpose, possesses immense spiritual and material strength. When everyone
contributes without conflict or selfishness, national harmony and progress naturally follow.

"Ekam sat viprā bahudhā vadanti"

Truth is one, the wise express it in many ways.
— Ṛgveda 1.164.46

"Sarve bhavantu sukhinaḥ, sarve santu nirāmayāḥ

Sarve bhadrāṇi paśyantu, mā kaścid duḥkhabhāgbhavet"
May all be happy, may all be free of disease. May all see good things. May none suffer
sorrow.
— Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad

This unity—born of shared purpose, not forced uniformity—becomes the foundation of

cultural and national upliftment.

4. Universal Welfare – Collective Human Good

Indian philosophy envisions not only human harmony but harmony among all beings—
humans, animals, nature, and the cosmos. The Sāṅkhya Sūtra reminds us that true unity
extends to all living entities, promoting ecological and moral balance.

"Mātṛ devo bhava, pitṛ devo bhava, atithi devo bhava"

Treat your mother, father, and guest as divine.
— Taittirīya Upaniṣad 1.11.2
"Ahimsā paramo dharmaḥ"
Non-violence is the highest dharma.
— Mahābhārata 18.116.37

Ancient sages dreamed of a world where all living beings are respected and nurtured, and
this is the true foundation of sustainable dharma.

Conclusion: “Unity is the Strength of the Sāṅkhya Sūtra”

In conclusion, the essence of the Sāṅkhya Sūtra can be summarized in the phrase:

"Lāghavaṁ sāmānyaṁ śaktiḥ"

Simplicity and unity are strength.

This sūtra is a call for all humanity to rise above selfishness and division, and embrace the
values of harmony, collective progress, and compassionate action. It promotes:

• National unity

• Social equality

• Spiritual brotherhood

• Global cooperation

It is through unity in diversity that human civilization achieves its highest form, and this is
the eternal message of the Sāṅkhya Sūtra.

Continuation of notes aec

Since god is the ultimate truth and power ,tho human is most sophicted and intelligent
being – it is not above god , hence there is no scope of arrogance . human should focus on
doing good deeds ( in accordance with dharma) , to attain self- realisation and liberation
from world .

Sub-themes-

Inspires to sacrifice-

The mantra describes the powers of god on one hand , also inspires for humans to be self
aware

Human should focus on its karma but not be bound by its fruit
When human is attached to fruit it succumbs to hatred , harmful passion , greed , anger
.hence these are obstacles to self realisation

Ten tyakten bhujitha …

All except god is transient , we should use worldly things we a sense of abandonment
(detachment) . we should not be greedy of other’s possessions and ourselves not acquire
more than we need .we should be happy with what is divinely bestowed with contentment

UNIT 2

The Vedas are the root of Dharma. In fact, Dharma as practiced has been most simply
described in the form of Vedic literature.

From religious literature, we also gain knowledge about the social, moral, and political
systems of ancient India. In all religious scriptures, the soul (Atman) holds the highest
importance.

In general, the Veda is called “Shruti” (that which is heard), and religion (Dharma) is referred
to as “Smriti” (that which is remembered). Maharishi Manu has clearly referred to Smriti as
“Dharma Shastra”.

Human beings have ancient Smritis like those of Manu, Yajnavalkya, Vishnu, Parashara, and
others. However, the writing of Smritis continues over time. Today, the number of Smritis is
said to be around one hundred.

Here is the exact English translation of the passage you provided:

Most Smritis are influenced by human memory (Manu-smriti). The major Smritis are
believed to have been written between 200 BCE and 200 CE. These texts describe the duties
of kings, work of state officials, law and judicial systems, international relations, and other
such topics. They reflect the human-centered evolution of thought. Due to their alignment
with the meaning of the Vedas, they have gained more acceptance.

These Smritis strongly emphasize four values: Dharma (righteousness), Artha (wealth),
Karma (action), and Moksha (liberation). They describe various types of religions such as
Varnashrama Dharma, Vairagya Dharma, Bhakti Dharma, Guna Dharma, Nirmit Dharma,
Common Dharma, and Universal Dharma. Hence, Smriti is considered the scriptural base of
religious philosophy. These texts are indeed religious texts, and thus, political topics have
been discussed as a part of Dharma.
The creation of Smritis while Vedas were still prevalent happened because “due to the
changes in time, future generations may not understand the deep meanings of the Vedas.”
This concern led the philosopher Yaska to present a comprehensive religious message to his
disciple Manu in a hundred thousand verses. Still, he thought, "Humans may not be able to
follow such an elaborate religion," and thus he summarized it and passed it on to sages like
Atri, Bhrigu, and others.

Thus, religious knowledge passed down from great sages is still practiced today.

Rishi Vritta Garga performed intense penance and gave birth to the first human being with
universal knowledge—Swayambhuva Manu. He too, after great effort, gave birth to ten
sons: Priyavrata, Uttanapada, Agnidhra, Nabhi, Ilavrita, Ramya, Hiranmaya, Kuru,
Bhadrashva, and Ketumala. These ten progenitors then gave birth to seven more
enlightened beings, known as Saptarishis, who were insightful and capable guides of their
generations.

Though the number of generations is large, their wisdom and connection to the Supreme
God (Brahman) is uninterrupted.

The Supreme God, through sage-like religious regulations, gave this wisdom primarily to
Swayambhuva Manu, who later passed it to the ten progenitors such as Atri and others.

In Smriti, God refers to Himself as Manu, and hence this tradition came to be known as
Manu Smriti or Human Religious Tradition. It is also called Human Dharma Philosophy. This
tradition started with sages who recorded their understanding of religion and philosophy in
the form of treatises.

Certainly. Here's the direct English translation of your provided Hindi text without
summarizing:

In Manusmriti, there is a wide range of subjects discussed. It contains a total of 2694 shlokas
(verses). In brief, it discusses topics such as: regional vision, property rights, rituals, dietary
rules, reincarnation, concepts of virtue and vice, purity, the status of women, behavior,
governance, justice, war policy, donations and rituals, distribution of wealth, the origin of
castes, duties in adverse times, punishment methods, social movements, desire control, self-
realization, assessment of virtues and faults, nationalism, political science, etc. A detailed
discussion of many such topics is found in it.

The commentator T.H. Cole, referring to the various types of knowledge of humans, says that
he had absorbed the meanings of all the Vedas — hence he was ‘Manu’.

The subject of Manusmriti is the conflict of time. It is accepted that it was not composed all
at once but has been undergoing changes and modifications from time to time. In
Manusmriti, it appears that its composition was based on the societal foundation of the late
third or early fourth century BCE. Due to the importance of Manusmriti, many
commentaries have been written on it. Among those, the names of commentators like
Medhatithi, Govindaraja, Kulluka Bhatta, Narayana, Jha, Bhikshu, Manu, and Harsha are
included. Among these, Kulluka Bhatta’s Manvarthamuktavali commentary and Medhatithi’s
Manubhāṣya have a special place.

In religious philosophy, Manusmriti holds the highest reverence because it is believed to

present the essence of the Vedas comprehensively. The teachings of Manu have guided
Indian society and culture since ancient times. In Manusmriti, the foundational philosophical
principles of the ideal human are expressed in this manner:

In Manusmriti, human life is structured into four varnas and four ashramas. Manu
considered the origin of these four varnas from Brahma. For the development of vision,
Brahma created the varnas and from his mouth — Brahmins, from his arms — Kshatriyas,
from his thighs — Vaishyas, and from his feet — Shudras originated.

The Varna system is the foundation of Hindu culture. The ashrama system was created for
harmonizing and spiritualizing human life, under which a person can develop socially and
spiritually. The ultimate goal of the ashrama system is the attainment of the supreme truth.
The discussion of the proper and improper duties of humans is done under the framework
of the ashrama system. By performing his appropriate limited duties, a person attains desire
fulfillment.

Here is the English translation of the Hindi text shown in the image:

(i) Brahmacharya Ashrama

The stage of Brahmacharya involves students living in the house of a guru (teacher) where
they learn various disciplines such as self-control, study, humility, cleanliness, and celibacy.
The student had to follow strict discipline and live a simple life. He would wake up early,
bathe, collect firewood for the teacher, and beg for alms (bhiksha), which he would give to
the guru. According to the Manusmriti, during the Brahmacharya stage, one must study the
Vedas daily and lead a life of restraint. The student should always serve the guru and speak
truthfully, eat moderately, and remain detached from worldly pleasures. He must sleep on
the ground and avoid cosmetics, perfumes, women, gambling, and entertainment.

Quote from Manusmriti (2/192):

“The body is purified by water, the mind by truth, the soul by knowledge and austerity, and
the intellect by true wisdom.”

(ii) Grihastha Ashrama

The Grihastha Ashrama (householder stage) begins when a person completes his education
and enters married life. According to Manu, a householder is someone who lives a family life
and fulfills his responsibilities towards family and society. He is the support system for the
other three ashramas (stages of life). He provides for ascetics, students, and sages through
charity and hospitality. He must earn wealth through righteous means and spend it on
religious and household duties. Hospitality, charity, sacrifices, and offerings to ancestors and
deities are central to his responsibilities.

Quote from Manusmriti (3/70):

“Let the householder strive to please gods, ancestors, guests, and his dependents by offering
them food.”

This Ashrama is considered the foundation of society because it supports the economic,
moral, and spiritual welfare of all.

Translation:

People in the Vanaprastha Ashrama who are filled with knowledge and renunciation are
respected by all. That is why Vanaprastha Ashrama is considered the best. Hence, those who
wish for happiness in this world and those contemplating liberation should always be ready
to adopt Vanaprastha Ashrama sincerely. Brahmins, elders, deities, ancestors, and guests
are always hopeful of receiving respect and offerings from Vanaprastha individuals.
Therefore, people who are particularly aware of religious duties should make arrangements
to serve them.

(iii) When a person enters Vanaprastha Ashrama:

When a person begins to live in the Vanaprastha Ashrama, he should give up attachment to
his appearance, affection for his children, and even the feeling of ownership over his wife
and children. Living in this Ashrama, one had to follow various strict disciplines. A person in
Vanaprastha Ashrama must always strive for self-restraint by controlling his mind and
senses. According to Manu’s views, a Vanaprastha should always detach from sexual
pleasures, physical beauty, and items like soft beds, meat, honey, wine, and intoxicants. He
should accept joy and sorrow alike, treat everyone equally, maintain friendship with all, keep
the senses restrained, give without expecting return, not accept gifts, and be kind to all
living beings. He properly performs rituals like Agnihotra (fire rituals), and worships plants
and trees like the sacred fig (Peepal). He eats only food that grows in the forest—roots,
fruits, vegetables, and liquids derived from them.

In this way, various disciplines regarding the diet and lifestyle of a Vanaprastha have been
explained.

(iv) In the fourth part of life (Sannyasa Ashrama):

A person should renounce all worldly attachments after fulfilling his duties toward gods,
teachers, and parents. The mind must be fully immersed in self-control. Without studying
the dual scriptures (Purusha and Atman) and without raising children, one who accepts
Sannyasa becomes a hypocrite. According to Manu, a person should first detach himself
from the pleasures of the senses, leave his home and live as a recluse in a forest. He should
avoid greed, lust, and the illnesses of the body, and live with a steady intellect focused on
meditation and detachment. Beyond this, he should reside on pure land, speak the truth,
and keep his mind calm. He should accept others' words, not insult anyone, and behave
humbly even when insulted.

With the help of rites (Saṁskāras), the purification of a human's faults takes place.
According to Manu, through various rites such as conception, initiation, and sacrificial
rituals, the faults present from birth can be removed. In Manusmriti, such rites are
mentioned extensively. Their brief descriptions are as follows:

1. Garbhādhāna Saṁskāra (Conception Rite):

This is the first rite and is performed after the conception of a child.

2. Jātakarma Saṁskāra (Birth Rite):

Performed immediately after the birth of a child.

3. Nāmakaraṇa Saṁskāra (Naming Rite):

The child is given a name after birth.

4. Niṣkramana Saṁskāra (First Outing):

When the child sees the sun for the first time, this rite is performed.

5. Annaprāśana Saṁskāra (First Feeding):

This rite is performed when the child eats solid food for the first time.

6. Cūḍākaraṇa Saṁskāra (Head Shaving):

This involves shaving the child’s head for the first time after birth.

7. Vidyaārambha Saṁskāra (Beginning of Education):

When the child is taken to the teacher for education.

8. Upanayana Saṁskāra (Initiation):

Here, the guru begins imparting Vedic education to the student.

9. Samāvartana Saṁskāra (Completion of Education):

Done at the end of education, marking its completion.

10. Vivāha Saṁskāra (Marriage Rite):

Manu has described eight types of marriages.

11. Vānaprastha Saṁskāra (Retirement to Forest):

After completing the householder stage, one enters the Vanaprastha (forest-
dwelling) stage.
 12. Sannyāsa Saṁskāra (Renunciation):
After the Vanaprastha stage, one accepts Sannyāsa (renunciation).

13. Antyeṣṭi Saṁskāra (Final Rites):

This rite is performed after death.

Dharma

Manu on the Ten Characteristics of Dharma (Religion)

Manu has mentioned ten characteristics or features of Dharma (Religion). According to him,
true Dharma includes:

1. Dhṛti (Patience or perseverance)

2. Kṣamā (Forgiveness)

3. Dama (Self-restraint)

4. Asteya (Non-stealing)

5. Śaucam (Purity)

6. Indriya-nigraha (Control of senses)

7. Dhiḥ (Intellect)

8. Vidya (Knowledge)

9. Satya (Truth)

10. Akrodha (Non-anger)

Shloka Reference (Manusmṛti 6.92):

"Dhṛtiḥ kṣamā damaḥ śaucam asteyaṁ indriya-nigrahaḥ।

Dhiḥ vidyā satyam akrodho daśakaṁ dharma-lakṣaṇam॥"

These ten traits should always be practiced by all four varṇas (castes), and a person following
them becomes truly righteous. According to Manu, one who practices Dharma through
action, speech, and thought achieves liberation (moksha).

Action (Karma) as the Basis of Dharma

In the philosophy of Dharma, complete emphasis is placed on actions performed by the

body, speech, and mind. According to Manu and the scriptures, āchāra (conduct) is
considered the highest Dharma.
Hence, for a person desirous of spiritual progress, these ten characteristics should be
cultivated with conscious intent and practice.

Shloka Reference:
“Ācāraḥ paramo dharmaḥ”
("Conduct is the highest form of Dharma.")

A person cannot attain the fruits of Vedic rituals without the right conduct. Therefore,
Āchāra (righteous action) is the true result-bearing aspect of Dharma.

Five Pillars of Dharma According to Manusmṛti

Manu says the following five are the foundations of Dharma:

1. All Vedas

2. Memory and practices of learned seers (Smṛtis)

3. Conduct of virtuous persons

4. The conscience or satisfaction of one's own soul

5. The path followed by truthful, wise people

These are supported by scriptures like:

• Ṛgveda

• Sāmaveda

• Yajurveda

• Atharvaveda

Even traditions not directly from the Vedas are also accepted if they stem from right conduct
and truthful action.

Universal Nature of Dharma

The righteous who understand and live by the teachings of the Vedas and Smṛtis are
considered truly noble. The knowledge of Dharma has been disseminated for the benefit of
people who live righteously, with faith in truth and knowledge. For those who doubt
Dharma, liberation is not possible.

For them, faith (śraddhā) is the supreme authority.

Spread of Sanātana Dharma and its Universal Message

The best land for practicing Dharma is Bhāratavarṣa (India), especially the land between the
Gaṅgā and Yamunā rivers, which is known as Madhyadeśa, a divine region created by the
gods.

This region is:

• Rich in scriptural knowledge

 • Home to noble customs

• Birthplace of saints and rishis

After this comes the eastern region of Magadha and Kaliṅga, and westwards to Āryāvarta,
all known as Dharma-bhūmi (land of righteousness). After India, places like Greece
(Yavana), China, Persia (Pārasa), and Arabia (Mleccha regions) are considered to have
adopted Dharma later.

Manu says: All human beings across the earth should learn from the practices of righteous
people.

Manu on the Supreme Importance of Karma (Action)

Manu places great emphasis on action:

• Action brings strength

• Action brings fame

• Action brings wealth

• Action removes bad traits

Even a person born with defects can attain heaven by righteous actions, while a person of
high birth but with bad conduct cannot.

A person who is selfish and disregards others’ faults but not his own, may live for a hundred
years but remains far from liberation.

Soul (Ātman) and Action

Manu declares the soul (Ātman) to be of prime importance. One should perform actions
that uplift the soul and renounce those that degrade it.
Hence, he considers Dharma-śāstra (spiritual law) to be action-based, and criticizes those
philosophies that oppose virtuous action.

He states that such people may find temporary pleasures but not true liberation.

Conclusion: The Four Identifying Traits of Dharma

According to Manu and other sages, Dharma is recognized through the following four traits:

1. Scriptures (Śruti and Smṛti)

2. Good Conduct (Ācāra)

3. Pure Action (Shuddha Karma)

4. Inner Purity (Citta-śuddhi)

One must practice righteous actions diligently, not merely study them. Manu says:
“A man achieves heaven through action, gains happiness through action, attains wealth
through action, and removes his evil traits through action.”

Rajdharma

From ancient times, the concept of Rājadharma (Duties of a King or Political Ethics) has been
discussed in religious philosophy. Rājadharma is considered the essence or the collective
form of all religions. Almost all political philosophers have divided the state into six
components: Sovereign (Lokeśa), Treasury (Vitta), Territory (Janapada or Nation),
Fortifications (Durga), Army (Danda), and Allies (Mitra).

Man (i.e., human beings) has said:

“In the true sovereignty of a state, the Lokeśa (king) is supreme.”

The king's duty is to ensure proper governance, security, and the welfare of his subject
regions, through vigilance and adequate protection.

To structure this kingship, the Supreme Being (Īśvara) appointed the following eight deities
as guardians over the king:
Indra (Rain), Vāyu (Wind), Sūrya (Sun), Varuṇa (Water), Kubera (Wealth), Yama (Justice),
Candra (Moon), and Brahmā (Creation).
Thus, the king derives his status from these eight divine powers, making him the most
powerful of all beings.

The king possesses the same level of control as Lokeśa, and he puts into action the duties he
conceives. Man has said that statecraft is a great work, and therefore, in the king’s support,
ministers should be appointed.

Governance flows from land, and the king’s control over land gives rise to national
sovereignty. On this land, the king should eliminate evil because evil harbors precious
resources and even weapons.

From wealth and property, governance originates. This has been elaborated greatly in
Indian philosophical texts.

Man believes that only through punishment (daṇḍa) do all beings perform their respective
duties. It is punishment (daṇḍa) that makes one a king, a human, and a leader.
It is punishment that grants kings their kingdom, manages governance, and provides
security.

Punishment is always awake. That itself is Dharma.

Even gods like Viṣṇu, Śiva, Brahmā, Kārttikeya, Indra, and the Sages are devoted to their
duties only because of fear of punishment.
Among the six parts of the state, Mitra (Ally) is also considered crucial. For the king, it is
absolutely essential to have trustworthy and impartial allies, who offer proper counsel and
support during difficulties.
Key Shloka Reference: (From Manusmriti 7.15)

दण्ड एव धह भूतानािं स्विमे धनयमीः स्मृतीः ।

"Punishment alone is the controller of all beings, keeping them within their own righteous
duties."

Interpretation and Core Message:

• The king derives authority from divine sources.

• The state has six fundamental elements—king, treasury, nation, fortifications, army,
and allies.

• Punishment (daṇḍa) is central to discipline, social order, and governance.

• Without punishment, even gods and sages would stray from duty.

• Effective governance requires just rule, trustworthy advisors, and protection of

national resources.

Kautilya

Kautilya and the Arthashastra - English Translation

Introduction to Kautilya

Kautilya is known by this name, hence it is his patronymic name. Kautilya's actual name
given by his father was Vishnugupta. This name has also been used in the Arthashastra.
From Kamandaka's Nitisara, we also learn that Kautilya destroyed the Nanda dynasty and
established the Maurya dynasty in its place. The Vishnu Purana contains a story about the
destruction of the Nanda dynasty, according to which a Brahmin named Kautilya destroyed
the last successor of that kingdom, Nanda, and coronated Chandragupta, the first powerful
ruler of the Maurya dynasty, in his place. Chandragupta Maurya became the ruler of
Magadha around 323 BCE and ruled until 298 BCE.

In ancient Indian tradition and history, Kautilya has a reputation as the founder of a vast
empire, teacher, prime minister, economist, jurist, and diplomat. In a verse from the
conclusion of the Arthashastra, Chanakya proudly states that "he composed this treatise on
economics who, with great determination, simultaneously rescued the science, weapons,
and the earth that had fallen into the hands of the Nanda king."

Along with the composition of the Arthashastra, two other works are found in Chanakya's
name - Chanakya Niti or Chanakya Niti Darpan and Chanakya Sutra. Among scholars, there
are considerable differences of opinion regarding the actual authors of these two works, but
in popular consciousness, Chanakya is considered the author of both these works.

Structure of the Arthashastra

The Arthashastra contains a total of 15 sections (adhikarana) and 150 chapters. The naming
of the sections is as follows:

1. Vinayādhikārika (Disciplinary)

2. Adhyakṣa-prachāra (Superintendent's duties)

3. Dharmasthīya (Legal proceedings)

4. Kaṇṭaka-śodhana (Removal of thorns/enemies)

5. Yogavṛtta (Secret service)

6. Maṇḍala-yoni (Circle of states)

7. Ṣāḍguṇya (Six-fold policy)

8. Vyasanādhikārika (Calamities)

9. Abhiyāsyat-karma (Preparation for war)

10. Saṅgrāmika (War)

11. Vṛtta-saṅga (Secret conduct)

12. Ābalīyasa (The weaker king)

13. Durgalambhopāya (Siege warfare)

14. Aupaniṣadika (Secret practices)

15. Tantra-yukti (Scientific methodology)

Thus, chapters are also named according to their subjects. Looking at the expansion of the
topics covered, it can be said that this Arthashastra is an integrated form of political science,
economics, sociology, and military science. Acharya Kautilya is a supporter of an
independent and prosperous state in which the spirit of public welfare exists. Some of the
main ideas of the Arthashastra are being presented here:

I. Council of Ministers (Mantriparishad)

From the perspective of national organization in ancient India, the council of ministers holds
an important place. Kautilya says that just as a cart cannot move with one wheel, similarly,
governance cannot function without a council of ministers. Therefore, the king should run
the government with the advice of capable ministers.

Kautilya has called this assembly of ministers the 'Mantriparishad' (Council of Ministers).
Kautilya says that learning about unknown subjects, determining known subjects, giving
permanent form to determined subjects, resolving doubts when differences of opinion arise,
and thoroughly understanding any subject even when there is partial knowledge of it - all
these tasks come under the 'Mantriparishad.'
II. Four Types of Knowledge

Acharya Kautilya considers four types of knowledge:

Ānvīkṣikī (Philosophy): Sāṅkhya, Yoga, and Lokāyata - these philosophies come under
Ānvīkṣikī knowledge. This knowledge, which determines the importance and non-
importance of Trayī and other knowledges through different arguments, benefits society. It
keeps the intellect steady in happiness and sorrow, and makes one capable of thinking,
contemplating, speaking, and acting.

Trayī (Vedic knowledge): Under Trayī come Sāma, Ṛk, and Yajus - these three Vedas along
with Atharvaveda and history, and Vedāṅgas: śikṣā, kalpa, grammar, nirukta, chandas, and
jyotiṣa. The dharma described in Trayī is very beneficial to society because it keeps all four
varṇas (castes) and four āśramas (life stages) steady in their respective duties.

Vārtā (Economics): The contemplation of subjects like agriculture, animal husbandry, and
trade are the subjects of Vārtā knowledge. With the treasury and army strength derived
from this knowledge, the king brings both his own side and the opposing side under control.

Daṇḍanīti (Political Science/Governance): The happiness and prosperity of Ānvīkṣikī, Trayī,

and Vārtā - all these knowledges depend on Daṇḍa (governance/punishment). Daṇḍanīti is
such a powerful knowledge through which the other three knowledges can be properly
managed. This policy helps obtain what is not obtained, protects what is obtained, and
directs enhanced objects to appropriate works. The world's journey depends on this. A great
political scientist like Kautilya has divided the judicial system into two parts: Vyavahāra (civil
law) and Kaṇṭakaśodhana (criminal law).

Finding the root causes of mutual disputes among citizens, examining them, and then
impartially punishing the guilty and freeing the innocent - this is Kautilya's first aspect of
establishing justice, Vyavahāra. The second aspect of the judicial system relates to
government employees, but it also includes capitalists and wicked people. That is, how to
protect the people from government employees, businessmen, and wicked people - for
fulfilling this purpose, the second aspect of justice called Kaṇṭakaśodhana was established.
The existence of justice depends on punishment. For this reason, Kautilya has elaborated
extensively on the punishment system.

III. Espionage System

In Kautilya's political economy, spies hold a very important place. The king would find out
about the troubles, distresses, and sufferings of the people through spies. The work of
informing the king about how to suppress those who create obstacles in the people's peace
and happiness and those who obstruct the observance of royal regulations was that of the
spy.

For knowledge of the internal situation of society, spies were divided into two categories.
The first being stationary spies and the second being mobile spies. Stationary spies were
divided into nine categories, and because they work while staying in one place, they are
called by the name 'Saṃsthā': Kāpāṭika, Udāsthita, Gṛhapati, Vaidehaka, Tāpasa, Satrī,
Tīkṣṇa, Rasada, and Bhikṣukī. Thus, a king desirous of conquest should appoint his spies in all
places near the enemy, friend, neutral and indifferent kings and their eighteen types of
subordinate officials like ministers, priests, commanders, etc.

After studying the work of these spies, we find out how useful and solid this espionage
department of ancient India's governance system was. Their organization, their secret
mysteries, and their signal system were so complex, yet so systematic, that the king would
get knowledge of what was happening in which part of international politics of that time
through spies alone.

IV. Fortifications (Durg)

The king should have war-worthy natural fortifications constructed in all four directions of
the state boundaries. Kautilya has described four types of fortifications: Audaka, Pārvata,
Dhānvaka, and Vana.

A fortification surrounded by water on all sides and appearing like an island surrounded by
deep ponds is called 'Audakadurg.' A fortification built in the form of large rocks or mountain
caves is called 'Pārvatadurg.' A fortification built on completely barren land devoid of water
and grass is called 'Dhānvakadurg.' Similarly, a fortification surrounded by swamps or
covered with dense thorny bushes is called 'Vanadurg.' Among these, Audaka and Pārvata
fortifications are used for protecting the state during times of crisis. Dhānvaka and Vana
fortifications are useful for protecting forests, or during times of crisis, the king can also
protect himself by fleeing to these fortifications.

V. Treasury (Kośa)

Among all the means and resources described for the progress and security of the nation,
the treasury holds the primary place. For this reason, Kautilya has considered very carefully
the employees of the treasury department, the security of the treasury, means for its
growth, sources of its income, and causes of its expenditure. Among the means of
accumulating the royal treasury, which Kautilya has called the 'income body,' the main ones
are: fortifications, nation, mines, bridges, forests, herds, and trade routes. All means of the
state's progress depend on its economic system. Therefore, apart from the above-
mentioned sources of income for the royal treasury, the money earned from economic fines
related to weights and measures, state share obtained by citizens, agricultural tax, share of
produce, tribute tax, religious tax, commercial tax, and import-export of commercial goods
was also deposited in the royal treasury.

According to Kautilya, the royal tax should be such that it does not prove burdensome on the
people. The king should keep his conduct like that bee which collects honey from trees
without causing them pain. According to Kautilya, the king should take the wealth of wicked
people in the same way as ripe fruits are taken from a garden, but he should leave alone the
wealth of righteous people just as unripe fruits are left alone. Wealth taken from righteous
people like unripe fruit becomes a cause of people's anger.

VI. Marriage System

Kautilya considers the beginning of worldly affairs after marriage. According to him, there
are eight types of marriages: Brāhma, Prājāpatya, Ārṣa, Daiva, Gāndharva, Āsura, Rākṣasa,
and Paiśāca.

• Brāhma marriage: Adorning with clothes and ornaments and formally giving the
daughter in marriage.

• Prājāpatya marriage: When both groom and bride take a vow to follow dharma
together and accept this idea.

• Ārṣa marriage: The marriage performed by taking a pair of cows from the groom.

• Daiva marriage: The gift of daughter made to a priest sitting in a pavilion equipped
with a marriage altar.

• Gāndharva marriage: Marriage performed by the free will of both the bride and
groom.

• Āsura marriage: Marriage performed by the groom giving money to the bride's
father.

• Rākṣasa marriage: Forcibly marrying a girl.

• Paiśāca marriage: Abducting and marrying a girl while she is asleep.

VII. Seven Elements of State (Saptāṅga)

Kautilya considers the state to be endowed with seven elements: Svāmī (ruler), Amātya
(minister), Janapada (territory), Durga (fort), Kośa (treasury), Daṇḍa (army), and Mitra (ally).

Svāmī (Ruler): The king is called Svāmī because he is the head of state administration and
the group of ministers. Kautilya has spoken about the king's hereditary qualities, wisdom
qualities, enthusiasm qualities, etc. Punishing the wicked, protecting the people, and justly
increasing the treasury are his main duties.

Amātya (Ministers): Kautilya says the king should appoint ministers only after considering
their knowledge, intelligence, courage, merits, faults, country, time, and character. The king
should appoint the best ministers and follow their advice, because through the advice of
ministers, the king can easily solve even the most difficult tasks.

Janapada (Territory): From the perspective of governance and comfort facilities, Kautilya has
divided the entire nation into two parts: Pura and Janapada. By Pura he means city, fort, or
capital, and by Janapada he means the rest of the entire nation. Among the seven elements
of the state, Janapada and Durga (Pura) have been considered separately for this reason.

Durga (Fort): The king should have war-worthy natural fortifications constructed on all four
boundaries of the territory. The treasury and army are protected through fortifications.

Kośa (Treasury): Kautilya's statement on this subject is that the treasury should be collected
righteously, not unjustly. It should contain the earnings of ancestors and one's own. The
treasury should be full of precious gems, gold, etc., which can protect the people during
long-term calamities and famines.

Daṇḍa (Army): Kautilya states that the army should be such that it has hereditary,
permanent, and controlled soldiers who are satisfied and skilled. One who has excellent
military strength not only retains friends but enemies also become friends. During attacks,
only the army is useful. Kautilya says that protected by the punishment system, all four
āśramas and the entire world, being engaged in their respective dharmic works, accomplish
excellent deeds.

Mitra (Ally): In the Arthashastra, allies have been considered extensively. An ally should be
hereditary, permanent, under one's control, with whom there is no possibility of conflict,
who can help when the time comes - having these qualities in friends is called being
endowed with allies. The teacher says that thus a king does not become as prosperous by
obtaining kingdom, army, and land as he does by obtaining one virtuous friend.

VIII. Six-fold Policy (Ṣāḍguṇya)

To clarify dealings with other states, the teacher has described the policy of six qualities.
These six qualities are: Sandhi, Vigraha, Yāna, Āsana, Saṃśraya, and Dvaidhībhāva.

• Sandhi: The agreement of two kings on certain conditions is Sandhi. When two kings,
abandoning mutual enmity, make an agreement to help each other, that is called
Sandhi attitude.

• Vigraha: Harming the enemy in some way is called Vigraha. If one considers oneself
more powerful than the enemy, then one should undertake Vigraha (attack).

• Yāna: Marching (for war) is called Yāna.

• Āsana: Ignoring is called Āsana.

• Saṃśraya: Self-surrender is called Saṃśraya.

• Dvaidhībhāva: Taking advantage of both Sandhi and Vigraha is called Dvaidhībhāva.

IX. Women's Property Rights

A woman's wealth is of two types: Vṛtti and Āvadhya. A woman's Vṛtti wealth is that which is
deposited in banks etc. in the woman's name. Its amount should be at least two thousand.
Jewelry or ornaments etc. are called Āvadhya wealth, for which there is no fixed rule
regarding quantity. In the Arthashastra, there has been extensive discussion on the use of
this women's wealth, inheritance division, general rules of succession, etc.

Gautam Buddha Founding of Buddhism:

Bhagwan Buddha is considered the founder of Buddhism. He was born approximately 563
BCE. His birth took place in the royal garden of Lumbini, situated in the Himalayan foothills
at a place called Kapilavastu. Buddha’s childhood name was Siddhartha.

In hopes of making his life happy, his father used all possible pleasures and comforts to
distract him, ensuring Siddhartha's mind wouldn't turn toward the world's sorrows or
suffering. Despite his father's many efforts, Siddhartha could not be kept away from the
realities of the world.

It is said that one day while on a journey, Siddhartha saw an ill person, an old man, and a
dead body. These sights had a profound impact on his sensitive heart. After seeing them, he
deeply understood that the world is full of suffering.

To find a way to end this suffering, one night he left his wife Yashodhara and newborn son
Rahul, and quietly departed from the palace to live the life of an ascetic. By renouncing his
wife’s love, the value of his son, and the luxury of the palace, Siddhartha demonstrated his
deep detachment and determination.

After six years of intense penance and hardship, around the age of thirty-five, while
meditating beneath the Bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya, he attained the light of knowledge
(enlightenment). From that moment, he came to be known as Buddha (the Enlightened
One). He was also called Tathagata (one who knows the truth) and Bhagwan (the Blessed
One).

After gaining knowledge of the truth, Buddha was filled with a sense of service toward
humanity and decided to spread his teachings to the people. To fulfill this goal, he traveled
extensively, preaching and guiding the masses. Through his efforts and teachings about the
causes of sorrow and ways to end it, he encouraged humans to be free from suffering.

Eventually, at the age of about 80, he passed away near Kushinagar in Eastern Uttar Pradesh
(District Deoria, U.P.). This significant life story includes three major events — his birth,
enlightenment, and final salvation (Mahaparinirvana).

Here is a clear and concise English translation of the second part of your passage about
Buddhism and the Tripiṭaka — perfect for exams:
The Spread of Buddhism and the Creation of the Tripiṭaka:

That day became historic — the day when Buddha attained enlightenment. As a result of his
teachings, the Buddhist religion and philosophy began to spread widely.

Buddhism spread throughout India and, with the help of kings and followers, it reached Sri
Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Malaysia, Indo-China, Central Asia, Tibet, China,
Mongolia, Korea, and Japan. In this way, Buddhism became a world religion.

Buddha did not write any books himself — his teachings were passed down orally. After his
death, his disciples compiled his teachings into a collection called the Tripiṭaka. The
Tripiṭaka is considered the original and most authentic source of early Buddhist philosophy.

It was written in the Pali language.

• The word "Piṭaka" means box or basket.

• "Tri" means three.

So, Tripiṭaka literally means “three baskets” — the three sections of Buddhist
scriptures.

The three Piṭakas (scriptures) are:

1. Sutta Piṭaka – deals with religious discourses. It also includes the Dhammapada, a
famous collection of Buddha’s sayings.

2. Vinaya Piṭaka – contains the rules and code of conduct for monks and nuns. It
discusses monastic discipline and moral teachings.

3. Abhidhamma Piṭaka – contains the philosophical and theoretical explanation of

Buddha’s thoughts, dealing with psychological and metaphysical ideas.

The Tripiṭaka is believed to have been compiled in the third century BCE. Apart from the
Tripiṭaka, ancient Buddhist texts also mention the Milindapañha or The Questions of King
Milinda, which is a dialogue between the Buddhist monk Nāgasena and the Indo-Greek king
Menander.

Later, Ashvaghosha, a great Buddhist writer, regarded the Tripiṭaka as the standard and
authoritative text of Buddhism.

Thus, the Tripiṭaka provides a comprehensive account of Buddha’s major teachings and
doctrines.

Certainly! Here's the exact English translation of the full text you provided, closely following
your original structure and style, while remaining suitable for academic or exam purposes:

All of Buddha’s Teachings Are Contained Within the Four Arya Truths
The four Arya Truths are as follows:
(i) The world is full of suffering.
(ii) There is a cause behind this suffering.
(iii) The end of suffering is possible.
(iv) There is a path leading to the end of suffering.

(i) According to the first truth, the world is painful.

This is established through worldly experience. Diseases, old age, death, medicine,
helplessness, injustice, violence, and pollution are all signs of social suffering. All substances
in the world are perishable and impure, hence painful in nature. Even worldly pleasures
arise from suffering; when one attempts to attain such pleasure, pain is inherently involved.
If it is attained, it doesn't last—this contemplation itself causes pain, and its impermanence
causes pain again.
Work, birth, wealth, ego, pollution, disease, birth, old age, and death—all are sufferings.
Inactivity is suffering, so is hyperactivity. Unfulfilled desire is suffering. Attachment, insult,
conflict, etc., are painful. Form, speech, grammar, culture, and science—these five senses
are the root of pain. In summary, from birth to death, the entire life is full of suffering, and
death is not the end of suffering because there is rebirth after death and death after birth. In
this way, the cycle of birth–death or emotional cycle continues, and the person, stuck in it,
remains suffering.

(ii) The second truth states that suffering has a cause.

This means that suffering arises and has a beginning or origin. This origin is called a cause,
and every action must have some cause. Without cause, no action can take place. Action
always results from cause. “Only with cause does action happen”—this is a fundamental
law. Material is essential for the creation of any action. The chain of cause-and-effect keeps
unfolding in a continuous sequence. This cause-effect chain is the root cause of suffering,
and ignorance is its origin.
Due to ignorance, illusion spreads in the world and the cycle of desires continues.
In the second Arya Truth, Buddha analyzed the cause of suffering and gave a principle known
in Sanskrit as "Pratityasamutpada" (Dependent Origination). Upon analyzing this, we find it
is made from two words—Pratitya (dependence) and Samutpada (arising). Pratitya means
"being dependent on something," and Samutpada means "arising of something else."
Hence, its literal meaning is: the arising of one thing dependent on another. This theory is
based on the law of causation. It confirms that every action depends on its cause.
According to Dependent Origination, every phenomenon has one or the other cause.
Suffering is an event. The cause of suffering is caste. The cause of caste is emotion. The
cause of emotion is desire. The cause of desire is ignorance. The cause of ignorance is
tradition. The cause of tradition is initiation. The cause of initiation is aspiration. The cause
of aspiration is name-form. The cause of name-form is science. The cause of science is
culture. The cause of culture is ignorance.
In this way, Buddha presented the grand sequence of causation. In this sequence, there are
many links, the first being birth and the last being ignorance. All other links fall between
these two.
Dependent Origination is known by many names. It is the theory that, to understand the
cause of suffering, one must analyze several links, and each link is called a “step.”
Because the number of these steps is many, this theory is also known as "Twelve-Linked
Chain of Causation."

(iii) According to the third Arya Truth, Buddha acknowledged the end of suffering.

This confirms that if the cause of suffering ends, suffering itself will definitely end. When the
cause becomes ineffective, how will action be generated? The state in which all suffering
ends is called “Nirodha” (cessation of suffering). Buddha called it Nirvana.
It must be noted that in other Indian traditions, what is called Moksha (liberation), Buddha
defined in his view as Nirvana.
In Buddhist vision, the word Nirvana is extremely significant because it is considered the
ultimate goal of life. This is the foundational belief of Buddhist philosophy.
The third Arya Truth elaborates on the characteristics of Nirvana:
It is possible to attain Nirvana in this life itself.
If a person overcomes passions, sins, ego, violence, and attachment during this lifetime, then
they become liberated. Even while living in the world, such a person remains untouched by
worldliness. Such a liberated person is called Arahant.
Lord Buddha attained Nirvana at the age of 35, and remained alive till 80. Just like Buddha,
other individuals too can attain Nirvana during their life.
Even after attaining Nirvana, the body continues to exist, because it is the result of past
birth. Until their karmas are fully exhausted, the body remains. Hence Nirvana is an internal
realization.
Buddha’s belief respects both ordinary beings and spiritually awakened ones.
Buddhist vision also discusses the concepts of Nirvana and Parinirvana among both
laypeople and monks.
Parinirvana means Nirvana attained after death. Buddha attained Parinirvana at the age of
80.
Therefore, Nirvana does not imply the end of life; rather, it is a state of realization attained in
life itself.

(iv) In the fourth Arya Truth, Buddha discussed the path to attain the cessation of
suffering.

This path is called the Middle Path (Madhyama Marga). It consists of eight components:

• Right Understanding – Knowing the true nature of objects

• Right Thought – Decision to live life according to the four truths

 • Right Speech – Use of truthful and beneficial words

• Right Action – Doing good deeds and avoiding bad ones

• Right Livelihood – Earning a living with compassion and righteousness

• Right Effort – Abandoning evil tendencies and cultivating good ones

• Right Mindfulness – Awareness of the true nature of things

• Right Concentration – Cultivating a focused and peaceful mind

After walking this eightfold path, a person becomes capable of overcoming their emotions
and attaining a state of liberation.

According to the doctrine of Dependent Origination, every phenomenon arises due to a

cause.

When the cause ceases to exist, the phenomenon also ceases. This confirms that every
entity is impermanent.
The principle of Dependent Origination operates within the framework of impermanence.
Every phenomenon in the world continues to flow like the current of a stream. There is no
such thing in the world that is unchanging. Change is the inherent nature of the world.
Thus, according to impermanence, everything in the world—whether solid or abstract—is
transient.

Buddha, explaining the law of impermanence, said:

“What is born will age and remain aged. What is sick will remain sick. What is mortal will
certainly die. What is perishable cannot be permanent.”
It is said in the Dhammapada:
“That which appears to be permanent and stable is also impermanent. Even that which
appears great and significant is subject to decline.”

Buddha’s followers interpreted the law of impermanence through momentariness.

"Momentariness" is the developed form of impermanence. According to it, the existence of
every object lasts only for a single moment. This principle goes even beyond
impermanence. According to the doctrine of momentariness, not only is every object
impermanent, but even the gods (divine beings) are impermanent.

Just as a wave in a river appears only for one moment for the purpose of flowing, and in the
next moment, that same wave disappears—
similarly, all objects in the universe retain their existence only for the sake of action.
The stability of an object can only be accepted as long as it has the capacity to perform
action.
Just like a spark that is weak cannot ignite anything, an object that cannot produce any
effect cannot be said to have existence.
Thus, it is established that if an object can generate action, it has existence;
but if it cannot generate action, then it lacks existence.
Only one action can be performed by one object at a given time.
If at one moment, one action is produced by one object, and in the next moment, another
action is produced by another object,
then it is proven that the existence of the first object lasts only for the duration necessary
to perform that one action—
because with the creation of the second object’s action, the existence of the first object
ends.

Buddha questioned the existence of an eternal creator (Ishwar).

It is commonly said that the world is the manifestation of God, and that God is the creator of
the universe. God is considered eternal and complete.
However, according to Buddha’s philosophy, this world functions based on the law of
Dependent Origination (pratītyasamutpāda).
The entire world is governed by the laws of cause and effect, creation and destruction. The
world is impermanent and ever-changing.

To attribute the creation of this unstable and changing world to an unchanging and eternal
God is illogical.
If, even for a short time, God is considered the creator of the world, then many
contradictions arise.
If God is truly the creator of the world, then the world should not undergo change or
destruction.

However, the world appears to be in a constant state of transformation. We observe

happiness and sorrow, prosperity and misery—if all this exists, then considering God as
perfect becomes highly questionable.

According to Buddha, this world is governed entirely by the law of Dependent Origination.
All entities in the world are part of the cycle of cause and effect. There is no object which is
not subject to causation.
Trees, plants, humans, and even deities operate under the law of cause and effect.

The law of causality governs every corner of the universe.

Some people try to establish God as the controller of this law of causation.

However, according to Buddha, accepting God as the cause of the causal law is
contradictory, because a causal law can only be created for something that is incomplete
or lacking—
and doing so would imply that God is not complete or perfect.

Thus, based on the law of causation, accepting the existence of God is irrational.
In this way, through different arguments, Buddha rejected theism (belief in a creator God).
Buddha gave the instruction to his disciples to seek truth through self-inquiry and inner
illumination.
Just like other philosophies, Buddhism also underwent divisions into sects.
Primarily, two main sects emerged: Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna.
Hīnayāna is the earlier and more conservative form of Buddhism, while Mahāyāna
represents its later and more developed form.

SWAMI VIVEKANANDA

Here is the English translation of the Hindi text:

Swami Vivekananda was one of India's most influential religious thinkers of the 19th century.
Swami Vivekananda was born on January 12, 1863, in the famous Datta family of Bengal
(Kolkata). Swami ji's real name was Narendranath. His father Shri Vishwanath Datta was a
famous lawyer of Bengal, and his mother Srimati Bhuvneshwari Devi was a religious,
intelligent, and courageous woman. Swami ji's grandfather Shri Durgacharan Datta was a
very noble person. He was a great scholar of Persian, Sanskrit, and law. Therefore, Swami ji
was greatly influenced by his parents and grandfather. Swami ji's father wished that his son
would study and become a famous lawyer, but destiny brought him into contact with
Ramakrishna Paramahamsa. The young Narendra, leaving behind his widowed mother,
brothers, and others, moved forward on the path of eternal happiness and illuminated
human society with divine light by traveling throughout the entire world.

Swami ji's education began at his home itself. At the age of seven, he was admitted to
Metropolitan College established by Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar. After this, he took
admission in Presidency College. Here, Narendranath studied literature, philosophy, religion,
and ancient as well as modern history in addition to the college curriculum subjects. He
passed his B.A. in 1884. But in the same year, his father passed away, due to which he had to
work in the economic field for the maintenance of his family.

Swami Vivekananda was an inquisitive youth from the beginning. He was considerably
influenced by the Brahmo Samaj. In 1881, he had the darshan (meeting) of Shri
Ramakrishna. When Narendra met Ramakrishna, Ramakrishna immediately recognized
Narendra's spiritual practice through his own austerity, penance, and spiritual discipline and
said, "I know you are an incarnation of Narayana himself who has taken birth on this earth to
uplift humanity." As soon as Narendra had this meeting with Ramakrishna Dev,
conversations began between them like guru and disciple. The company of the
Paramahamsa had such an effect on his mind that he [moved toward] eternal happiness...

[Note: The text appears to cut off at the end with "6" suggesting this is page 6 of a larger
document]

Here is the English translation of the continuation:

moved forward on the path of eternal happiness. In 1886, after the death of Shri
Ramakrishna, Narendra propagated his teachings and paved the way for the world's people
to walk on the right path by giving them knowledge about Vedanta, spirituality, morality, and
religion. After taking sannyasa (renunciation), Narendra made the lifestyles and teachings of
the great ascetics of past eras his goal. He continued to advance on the path of study
through self-study, meditation, and concentrated contemplation.

Shri Ramakrishna had established a religious organization before his death, whose purpose
was to serve the poor and helpless people of the world. Narendra was the chief functionary
of this organization. During his continuous travels, Swami ji became acquainted with the
customs, traditions, and thoughts of various provinces of India. In his journey from the
Himalayas to Kanyakumari, Swami ji gained extraordinary knowledge about India.

He reached Western countries including America, Lanka, Singapore, Hong Kong, Chicago,
and other places. In 1893, he delivered his first lecture at the World Parliament of Religions.
Thereafter, a continuous stream of his lectures began to flow. Swami ji began his speech with
Hindu religion. He described Hindu religion as the mother of all religions because it alone
taught the world the lesson of tolerance and universality. To support his view, he proved
through quotations from the verses of the Gita that there is no place for communalism,
narrow-mindedness, or religious fanaticism in Hindu religion.

Thus, Swami ji proclaimed the victory of Vedanta from the platform of this great spiritual
religious assembly. He gave America, England, and other countries knowledge of the
fundamental principles of Indian philosophy. This was a new message for world humanity.
This provided mankind, wandering in the darkness of ignorance, with a novel path of
welfare.

On July 4, 1902, at the Ramakrishna Math in Belur, Swami Vivekananda renounced his life
while in a meditative state, attaining mahasamadhi. His disciples and followers built a temple
there in his memory and established more than 130 centers throughout the entire world for
propagating the messages of Vivekananda and his guru Shri Ramakrishna.

Some of the principal thoughts of Swami Vivekananda are being presented here:

Swami Vivekananda's Philosophy and Thoughts

I. Nationalism and Internationalism

Swami Vivekananda was a practical karma yogi. He wanted to reconstruct his nation and
society according to Indian culture and traditions. He was a staunch nationalist and a strong
advocate of independence.

Swami Vivekananda was a staunch nationalist. Yet his philosophy appears to be permeated
with internationalism. His nationalism was not narrow, but rather a nationalism that would
provide inspiration for other nations as well. He loved his country and was eager to elevate
it, because our country's character had been very high since ancient times. But in between,
due to foreign rule, we had forgotten our glory and spiritual practices. Therefore, Swami
Vivekananda's purpose was to awaken the country from darkness and bring it into light.
According to Neo-Vedanta, unity exists in all humanity, but its development happens
gradually. The development of international sentiments can only occur on the foundation of
strong national pride. Swami Vivekananda preached nationalism imbued with religious
tendency.

II. Democracy and Socialism

Swami Vivekananda was a strong supporter of democracy and socialism. He wanted to

provide free opportunities for individual development. Swami Vivekananda said, "Freedom
is the first condition of development. If anyone has the audacity to say that I will save this
woman, this child, then he is wrong. They will solve their problems themselves. Every soul is
a form of God. Consider everyone as divine. You can only serve. Serve the children of God
whenever you get the opportunity. If by God's will you can serve any of His children, then
truly you are blessed. You are blessed that you received that fortune while others were
deprived of it. Do that work with the spirit of worship."

According to Swami ji, whenever we get an opportunity for service, we should always be
ready. The person who is capable of doing this is truly blessed. Swami ji has repeated the
message of the Upanishads:

"Arise, awake, and do not stop until the goal is reached."

III. Caste System Reform

Swami Vivekananda considers virtue, action, and nature as the basis of the caste system.
Swami Vivekananda appears as a great patriot and social reformer. In ancient times, Hindu
society was divided into four varnas: Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra. This was
necessary for the comprehensive development of that time. But later, all four varnas became
corrupted and many evils arose in the caste system. One of these evils was that caste
became based on birth rather than on merit, actions, and nature. Thus this disease became
an infectious disease. Swami Vivekananda, opposing this, said that no one is small or big.

Everyone has an equal right to receive education - Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Shudras,
women, and all classes should receive education equally. If any person cannot come to
school due to lack of money for education, then social workers should make arrangements
so that people of weaker sections can receive education according to their needs. Swami ji
was in favor of a welfare state. He was pained to see the declining condition of Indian society
and the evils prevalent in society. Throughout his life, he tried to remove the evils spread in
India. Swami ji also strongly opposed untouchability. His opinion was that only through the
liberal views of the Upanishads could this evil practice of society be quickly destroyed.

IV. Philosophy of Action (Karma Yoga)

Swami Vivekananda says our only true duty is to work as a free individual without
attachment and surrender all our actions to God. Any action, any thought that produces
results is called karma. Therefore, to perform karma properly, it is necessary that we first
give up the feeling of attachment. Only that karma through which our spirituality develops is
true karma, and that karma which promotes materialism is non-karma. Whatever work is
before us should be done with complete dedication and selfless spirit, because all sorrows
and sufferings arise from attachment. A karma yogi does karma because doing karma is
beneficial for him, and he has no attachment to it. His position is like that of a giver, and he
never worries about receiving anything. He knows that I am giving and asking for nothing in
return. Whenever we experience doubt in any situation after doing karma, it is the result of
the process of attachment. Our culture is based on renunciation. The message of our
education and culture is that you have the right only to perform action, not to be attached to
the attainment of its results. The message in the Gita is this.

V. Nature of True Religion

What should be the nature of true religion according to Swami Vivekananda? Expressing his
thoughts on this: Religion is that thing by which an animal can rise to human level and a
human to the Supreme Soul. Every soul is an unmanifested God. The ultimate goal of life is
to manifest this divinity of the soul by controlling external and internal tendencies. By taking
help of one, two, or all of these means - karma, worship, mind control, or knowledge -
manifest your Brahma nature and become free. This alone is the essence of religion.
Worship methods, scriptures, temples, or other external activities are merely secondary
details.

The meaning of religion is the manifestation of that Brahmahood which already exists in all
humans. Religion is not found in scriptural texts, nor in principles, discussions, and logical
statements. Religion is something to be realized. Religion means self-realization. One should
try to become pure and selfless - all religion lies in this alone.

Swami ji sees the main characteristic of Hindu religion in its universality. He considers Hindu
religion as the world religion. One reason for this is that Hindu religion has equal respect for
different views, sects, and methods of spiritual practice. After Adi Guru Shankaracharya,
Swami Vivekananda re-established the eternal values of Hindu religion, which is life-giving
for Hindu life philosophy and India's cultural nationalism. He gave a very clear, pure, all-
pervading, all-touching interpretation of Hindu religion in its true sense and hoisted the
victory flag of Sanatan Dharma on the mental horizon of the world. Swami ji's philosophy of
religious education is essential for making Indian nationalism healthy, prosperous, and
glorious.

VI. Education Philosophy

In September 1893, Swami ji explained his Hindu religion at the World Hindu Religion
Assembly in the following words: "I am proud to belong to a religion that has taught the
world both tolerance and universality. We people not only believe in tolerance towards all
religions but accept all religions as true."

The purpose of Swami Vivekananda's educational philosophy is to make humans complete

beings endowed with both material and spiritual powers through education. The essence of
Swami ji's educational teachings is how to make a person a fearless and brilliant man
enriched with divine qualities. He gave the same education to all - to become human. This
work is possible only through spiritual and positive education. Swami ji says that the ideal of
positive education should be placed before the general public. If constructive thoughts can
be given to children, then even an ordinary person will become human and learn to stand on
his own feet.

In Swami Vivekananda's words: "That heap of information which is stuffed into brains and
creates disturbance all day is not called education. We should assimilate thoughts in such a
way that our life can be built through them, our character can be formed, and we can
become human." Swami ji says if we can assimilate some aspects of worldly and
otherworldly knowledge and form our life character accordingly, we will be much more
educated than the person who has memorized an entire library. Therefore, we need such
education that builds character, increases mental power, develops intelligence, and teaches
humans to become self-reliant and stand on their own feet.

VII. Universal Education

Swami ji was a supporter of universal and all-touching education. He said that just as God
has provided light, air, water, and other natural resources to all living beings without any
discrimination for survival, similarly all educated, resourceful people and religious teachers
of society have the true religion to educate the masses. Without the expansion of education
and free donation of knowledge treasure, the country's progress will not happen. He used to
say that if the poor and helpless cannot come to receive education, then education must go
to them. Hundreds of such selfless educated youth will be found in India. These people will
go village to village and provide education. In our country, there is a class of thousands of
goal-oriented and renouncing ascetics who go village to village giving religious education. If
some of them can be prepared to give instruction in worldly subjects, they can go village to
village, door to door, not only giving religious instruction but also providing material
education.

VIII. Women's Education

Vivekananda is a strong supporter of women's education. In Swami ji's words - those whose
mothers are educated and morally inclined, great people are born in their homes. He had a
firm belief that until the upliftment of womankind in Hindu society does not happen, it will
be impossible for Mother India to achieve her ancient glorious position. That's why he says,
"O India! Do not forget that your women's ideals are Sita, Savitri, Damayanti."
In India, womanhood is symbolic of motherhood. Motherhood contains greatness,
selflessness, suffering-tolerance, and forgiveness. Swami ji used to say that there are two big
evils in India - contempt for women and crushing the poor through caste discrimination, and
the result of these two evils has been suffered by the country's progeny for thousands of
years. If we really want to change India's fortune, we have to worship mother power and
embrace the poor. Without power, the world's salvation cannot happen. Here power is
disrespected. Swami ji says it is difficult to understand why such discrimination is maintained
between women and men in this country, when Vedanta scripture has said that the same
conscious reality exists in all beings.

While giving a speech in New York, Swami Vivekananda had said, "I would be very pleased if
Indian women make such intellectual progress as has happened in this country. But that
progress is desirable only when it keeps their pure life and chastity intact." In Swami ji's
words, those countries or nations that do not respect women have never been able to
become great, nor will they ever become great in the future. Women have many problems,
but not one of them cannot be solved by that magical word 'education'. They need such
education that builds character, increases mental power, develops intelligence, and teaches
the country's youth to stand on their own feet. When such education is received, women
will solve their problems themselves.

He was a supporter of religious education, education of sacrifice, education in worldly

subjects, self-defense education, and higher education for women. Swami ji, while
elaborating on what kind of educational system should be there for women, described the
arrangement of schools for girls in monasteries and women's monasteries, arrangement of
scriptural, spiritual, and worldly education in schools, and the spread of true education in
the country by characterful and religious preachers. In Swami ji's words, it may take fifty
years to conquer India through five hundred men, but through five hundred women, this can
be accomplished in just a few weeks.

Conclusion

Swami Vivekananda was a spiritual guru as well as a patriot and skilled speaker. He was an
expert in science, art, religion, philosophy, and literature. The influence of Swami ji's study of
Vedanta philosophy fell on all his thoughts. He created a stir of Indian culture and thoughts
throughout the world. In India, Swami Vivekananda's birth anniversary is celebrated as
National Youth Day.
Swami Dayanand Saraswati - Biography

Swami Dayanand Saraswati was a thinker of modern India and the founder of Arya Samaj.

Swami Dayanand was born in 1825 in a village called Tankara in the Morvi state of Kathiawad
in Gujarat province. His childhood name was Mulji Dayaram (Moolshankar). Swami
Dayanand's father, Karsanji Trivedi, was a large landowner and a tehsildar in the
government's revenue department. He was a follower of the Shaiva sect. Swami Dayanand's
mother's name was Yashodabai. She was a devout follower of the Vaishnava sect. When
Moolshankar was only five years old, he was made to memorize Sanskrit, shlokas, and Vedic
mantras. At the age of 8, he was also made to memorize the Yajurveda Samhita by heart.
Whenever there was a recitation of the Shiva Purana, his father would take Moolshankar
with him and make him sit nearby to properly understand the story. In this way,
Moolshankar continued to study, listen to, and contemplate the Shiva Purana and other texts
with his father. By the age of 14, Moolshankar had memorized the complete Yajurveda
Samhita and some portions of other Vedas, as well as some other minor grammar texts. His
father appointed 6 pandits to teach Moolshankar the Vedangas. The pandits taught
Moolshankar for 4 years: Yajnavalkya's teachings, Katyayana's Kalpa, Bhattoji Dikshit's
grammar, Yaska's Nirukta, Pingala's Chandas, and Parashara's Jyotisha. Along with this, for
the study of Jaimini's Purva Mimamsa philosophy and Dharma Sutra, Shrauta Sutra, and
Grhya Sutra, a Yajna expert and fire-maintaining Marathi pandit was appointed. By the age
of 18, the child Moolshankar had completed all the above studies.

His parents wanted to get Moolshankar married and settle him into householder life. Fearing
marriage, Moolshankar ran away from home. Wandering through many places, he reached
the Chaitanya Math in Baroda. This math was a center for Vedanta teaching and
propagation. Living there, Moolshankar began to receive education in Vedanta. Here he
came into contact with ascetics of various sects and learned about their principles. Learning
that there were great Vedanta scholars in Kashi, Swamiji reached Kashi to participate in
Vedanta conferences. There, discussions on Vedanta were organized at many places.
Moolshankar participated in all of them and listened to and understood the interpretations
of Vedanta. Now a desire arose in his mind to also study grammar and other sciences, so
staying there, Moolshankar received education in Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Sankhya, Yoga, Purva
Mimamsa, Uttara Mimamsa, and grammar from various gurus.

On the banks of the Narmada, at Vyasashram, the Hatha Yogi Karmanand Swami taught
Moolshankar Hatha Yoga for seven days. In Chanod, Moolshankar received education in
Vedantasara and Vedanta Paribhasha from Swami Parmanand Paramahansa. Dandi Swami
Purnanand Saraswati initiated Moolshankar into the religion of renunciation. Now
Moolshankar's name became Swami Dayanand Saraswati. After taking initiation into
renunciation, he received education in Yoga Vidya from Yoganand at Vyasashram.
Moolshankar received education in grammar from Pandit Krishna Shastri, after which he
lived with Yoga-accomplished persons on Mount Abu and began practicing according to the
guidance of gurus. Subsequently, he undertook journeys to many places.

During his travels, when Swami Dayanand Saraswati saw the misrule of the British
government and its oppression on the countrymen, his heart became distressed. In the
country enslaved by the British, economic, social, and political misery was prevalent
everywhere. The idea of awakening and organizing the countrymen had sprouted in Swami
Dayanand Saraswati's mind.

In search of knowledge, Dayanand reached Swami Virjanand in Mathura. Virjanand first

made him study the readable Shabdanushasana, and after that, the study of Patanjali's
Mahabhashya. After gaining knowledge of grammar, Swami Dayanand studied other sciences
and texts and took vows for the illumination and propagation of truth, and the propagation
of Vedic religion.

Subsequently, Swami Dayanand, while traveling through many parts of the country,
continued to hold religious discussions and scriptural debates. In this sequence, Swamiji
reached Kashi from Kanpur. In 1869, a scriptural debate began under the chairmanship of
the Maharaja of Kashi. After this scriptural debate, the Puranic pandits no longer had the
courage to debate with Swamiji. The fame of Swamiji's scholarship spread throughout India.
He began to be invited from place to place to deliver lectures. In Mirzapur, Swami Dayanand
established a Vedic school. In 1874, Swami Dayanand again went to Kashi. In Kashi, Raja
Jaykrishnadas asked Swamiji to compile his thoughts in book form. Swamiji had his text
"Satyarth Prakash" written by Pandit Chandrashekar, who was appointed by the Raja. This
was published in 1875. In 1875, Swamiji established the "Arya Samaj" in Bombay. After that,
he established Arya Samaj in many states. To give permanence to his thoughts, he composed
Veda Bhashya in 1877. Along with Swamiji's lectures and scriptural debates, his writing work
was also continuously ongoing.

In Ajmer, on October 30, 1883, on the day of Diwali, Swamiji's condition became extremely
grave and he passed away. Thus ended the earthly journey of Maharishi Dayanand
Saraswati, the pioneer messenger of renaissance and the epoch-maker.

Some of the main thoughts of Swami Dayanand Saraswati are being presented here:

Nationalist and Democratic Ideals

From the above thoughts of Swami Dayanand, it becomes clear that he was a true
nationalist and patriot. Freedom fighters like Mahatma Gandhi, Lala Lajpat Rai, Bhagat Singh,
and Bal Gangadhar Tilak received proper direction for their work from his thoughts. He
emphasized the organization of countrymen for the development of national sentiment and
said that until the countrymen are organized, the country cannot achieve self-rule.

Swami Dayanand Saraswati was a great supporter of democratic values. According to his
view, happiness, prosperity, and peace can remain only in a state that is properly based on
democratic values. He has mentioned inspiring the state to fulfill its duties as a public
servant: "If the king understands that he is a servant of the people, then he will never
behave in such a way that harms the people. This will never cause unrest in the state."

Keeping in mind public sentiment, Swamiji asked the king to do welfare work for the people:
"The king and royal officials should not go against the general consent of the people." Kings
and royal officials should not engage in misconduct; everyone should maintain a view of
righteousness and justice toward the people. Swamiji wrote for the state regarding
punishment for criminals: "Neither through friendship nor through the acquisition of wealth
should the king release without bondage and punishment a person who causes suffering to
all beings."

He spoke of giving greater punishment to kings and state employees for corruption than to
common people: "From the king to the smallest servant, royal officials should receive
greater punishment than common people for crimes." Swamiji emphasizes the propagation
of religion for the prosperity of the nation. According to him, as long as people remain
religious, the state grows, and when they become corrupt, it becomes destroyed and
corrupted.

Thus, Swami Dayanand emphasized adopting state governance policy based on Vedic system
and democratic political system for the prosperity of the nation and public welfare. His
nationalist and democratic thoughts are extremely relevant even in present circumstances.

Social Reforms and Caste System

The biggest obstacle to national progress emerged from within Hindu society itself. The caste
system that existed in the Vedas was no longer visible. Now birth had taken the place of
merit, which strengthened inequality and the subordination of lower professional groups
(castes) before higher-level castes. Hindu society fell into the trap of various objectionable
rituals, ceremonies, superstitions, and rigid orthodoxy related to idol worship, casteism,
child marriage, and polytheism. Under the stagnant society, individuals began to move away
from spirituality. Therefore, their dialogue with God was no longer possible. Dayanand
considered all this corruption that came in the post-Upanishadic period.

Therefore, Dayanand advocated returning to the principles of the caste system, under which
caste would not be determined merely by birth, but the basis of caste would be qualities,
actions, and nature. Naturally, this posed a broad challenge to the dominance of hereditary
higher castes and raised the level of oppressed and untouchable groups. He condemned
untouchability as inhuman and contrary to Vedic religion. According to his system, any
Shudra could obtain the title of twice-born through cleanliness, character building, and
environmental improvement.

Women's Rights and Education

Regarding women's issues, Dayanand was against the evil practices of child marriage and
widowhood restrictions, which according to him were not approved by the Vedas. He had
deep concern about the pitiable condition of child widows. He understood the meaning of
widow remarriage. To bring women forward, he repeatedly gave examples of Gargi and
Maitreyi. Through the Vedas, he proved that women have the same rights that men possess.
Along with India's independence, he also demanded women's independence. For the
purpose of happiness and peace in Aryavarta (India), Dayanand gave education a central
place in his worldview. Along with this, he established girls' schools, gurukuls, etc., to restore
women to their Vedic status. The whole world knows about his social struggle against the
atrocities committed on women, but he fought even more for educating women. He wanted
to see women again in their Vedic glorious position. Dayanand's mind was always busy
thinking about how to re-educate the one who is 'revered as mother.' Swamiji explained to
every young man and woman the need for intellectual strength and physical strength to
remove evils from the nation. Dayanand wanted education based on morality and religiosity
for all men and women. According to him, the burden of this education should be borne by
the emperor/state. India's renaissance depends on this. He was in favor of an education
system that emphasized the study of grammar, philosophy, Vedas, science, medicine, music,
and art.

Philosophy and Spiritual Views

(i) In Indian tradition, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa, and Vedanta are called
the six theistic philosophies, and Jain, Charvaka, Buddhist, etc., are called atheistic
philosophies.

(ii) According to Swamiji, the Vedas have four subjects: knowledge, science, action, and
worship. Knowledge and science are described in Rigveda and Atharvaveda, action in
Yajurveda, and worship in Samaveda. In the six philosophies too, dharma, artha, kama, and
moksha propounded in Vedic scriptures have been explained from various perspectives. All
philosophies accept the authority of the Vedas. Therefore, these are called Vedic
philosophies.

Swami Dayanand says: "The soul attains bondage due to ignorance, and when ignorance is
removed through knowledge, then being freed from bondage, the soul attains liberation."
Swami Dayanand calls the combination of knowledge, action, and worship the means of
salvation. The first means of salvation is knowledge. Knowledge means discrimination. The
second means of salvation is action. Here action means giving practical form to acquired
knowledge. Regarding the third means of salvation, worship, Swami Dayanand has written in
the Rigvedadi Bhashya Bhumika: "Worship is the best means of liberation, therefore all
learned people unite the God who pervades the world and the hearts of all humans with
their soul through the method of worship. This is the yoga-approved method of worship."

Swami Dayanand has described the method of worship with evidence from Patanjali's Yoga
Shastra and Vyasa Bhashya. In his literature, Swamiji has quoted the sutras of Yoga
philosophy and Vyasa Bhashya at many places and explained the importance of Yoga
philosophy. Along with this, he has also discussed philosophical subjects like attaining
salvation and enjoying bliss by the individual soul through worship of the formless Supreme
Brahman through yoga practice, and taking birth again.

Language and Literature

Dayanand was the person who gained control over the deteriorated condition of the Hindi
language. He was a great scholar of Sanskrit and Gujarati. He advised using Devanagari Hindi
not only for speaking and understanding throughout India but also for use in royal courts. He
wrote all his texts in Hindi. He commented on the Vedas in Hindi and ordered his
organization Arya Samaj to propagate the Hindi language as much as possible. Swamiji
dreamed of spreading Hindi throughout India: "I want to see the day when from the
Himalayas to the ocean and throughout Brahmavarta, only Hindi in Devanagari script is
adopted."
Mahatma Gandhi

The full name of Gandhi was Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. Mohandas Karamchand
Gandhi was born on October 2, 1869, at a place called Porbandar in India. He belonged to a
prosperous Baniya (merchant) family. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi's mother was a
religious and devoted woman. Her name was Putli Bai and Gandhi's father's name was
Karamchand Gandhi. They had six children and Mohandas was the youngest among them.
He was given such education at home that religious sentiments arose in his tender heart.
Therefore, Gandhi did not give much importance to material values. He was sent to study at
a primary school in Rajkot. After passing the matriculation examination, he was sent to
London in 1888 to receive higher education in law. Gandhi returned to India in 1891. Gandhi
went to South Africa in 1893 and there he experienced that the treatment meted out to
Indians was very unjust and oppressive. Mahatma Gandhi worked extensively for racial
equality in South Africa from 1893 to 1914. From 1915 to 1947, Mahatma Gandhi worked for
the country's independence in India. Through his spiritual practice and rigorous penance,
Gandhi played the most important role in liberating Mother India from slavery. Before him,
many sons of Mother India like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Surendranath
Banerjee, Pherozeshah Mehta, Dadabhai Naoroji, etc. were struggling in India's freedom
movement, but Gandhi gave the national movement the form of a mass movement. Not
only this, he gave practical form in politics to the ideals of truth and non-violence proclaimed
in the Vedas since ancient times. By adopting the long-established principle of non-violence,
Gandhi brought down the world's greatest empire. Under his shelter, many great men took
the vow to serve Mother India, whom grateful India can never forget.

Mahatma Gandhi was not only the foremost leader of the freedom struggle, but he was also
a high-class social worker, thinker, writer, and man of action. He had done serious thinking
on many subjects like society, politics, education, religion, and culture. Though always
inspired by the past, his thinking was free from orthodoxy. Through women's equality,
freedom from exploitation, self-rule, communal harmony, Harijan uplift, etc., taking the goal
of freedom for an egalitarian society, he fulfilled his national duty. Today, based on Gandhi's
ideas, a political philosophy has emerged in the name of Gandhism which is based on
principles like truth, non-violence, non-possession, sacrifice, etc. His ideas continue to be
published in his book 'Hind Swaraj' as well as in newspapers and magazines like 'Young
India', 'Harijan', etc.

For achieving the country's independence, Gandhi made non-violent satyagraha movement
the foundation. In his view, truth is the end and non-violence is the means to reach that end.
In reality, his entire life, whether its form was political or economic, social or cultural,
remained saturated with spirituality bound by non-violence. In all kinds of works, campaigns,
and decisions, he was always determined to fulfill non-violence. The evils against which
Mahatma Gandhi struggled included racism, imperialism, communalism, and untouchability
as the main ones. In South Africa, he fought against the policy of racial discrimination by
whites. In India, as a social reformer, Mahatma Gandhi strongly opposed social injustice,
oppression, and exploitation.

Key Ideas of Mahatma Gandhi

Non-Violence (Ahimsa)

The declaration of 'Ahimsa Paramo Dharma' (Non-violence is the highest religion) is found
throughout Indian literature, but Gandhi used it in politics in a new way. He used truth and
non-violence in all social, political, and personal situations and succeeded in overcoming
mutual animosity, hatred, enmity, and doubts through it. He believed that non-violence is
the only solution to all problems of human relationships. He firmly believed that violence is
an obstacle to real revolution in the social system. Non-violence is more powerful than
violence. It gives birth to love, respect, and understanding and inspires treating all humans
as equal. Gandhi also considered the pure form of love as non-violence. His statement is that
"when you want to know truth in the form of God, the only way is through love and non-
violence." The real meaning of non-violence is that one should not cause suffering to one's
opponent through mind, speech, or action. To oppose the wrongdoer fearlessly through
non-violent means is non-violence. Mahatma Gandhi believed that improvement in man and
society is possible not through bloody revolution but through non-violent methods. In his
opinion, the hearts of violent people can be changed. Non-violence is the religion of
courage.

Mahatma Gandhi never abandoned the path of non-violence in the freedom struggle. He
suspended his non-cooperation movement due to a violent incident at Chauri Chaura. He
completely boycotted movements based on violence and hatred.

Satyagraha

Mahatma Gandhi was a staunch supporter of satyagraha. The path he discovered for
resisting evils was called 'Satyagraha'. Satyagraha means insistence on truth. Its basic
meaning is to insist on something by accepting truth, or the force arising from truth and
non-violence. Since truth is the soul, it is also soul-force. Practically, satyagraha means non-
violent resistance. Gandhi believed that we can achieve our goal only through satyagraha.
Hatred does not end hatred. Instead of making one's opponents unhappy, bringing suffering
upon oneself to achieve victory of truth is 'Satyagraha'. The name of moral and spiritual
struggle for the victory of truth is satyagraha. 'Satyagraha' is based on love because it is
based on feelings of love and generosity towards the opponent. Only one who is truthful,
disciplined, and non-violent can be a satyagrahi. Satyagraha is the only weapon through
which resistance against injustice and evil is possible. Only a person who has soul-force and
moral strength can practice satyagraha. While facing injustice, violence, and oppression,
Gandhi propounded the non-violent method which was named satyagraha.

According to Gandhi, the main forms of satyagraha include non-cooperation movement, civil
disobedience movement, and fasting. Many scholars have supported Gandhi's idea of
satyagraha. He always abandoned the tendency of 'tit for tat' prevalent in contemporary
politics and insisted on living with love and peace.

Gandhi wrote, "The path of truth is only for the brave. Cowards have no place in it. If we
have to do any endeavor in this life and achieve our welfare, then we should give first place
to truth and have faith in it and keep moving forward unwaveringly. Truth is God." Gandhi
called his autobiography 'Experiments with Truth' because he remained engaged in the
search for truth throughout his life.

Swaraj (Self-Rule)

According to Gandhi, the word 'Swaraj' is a sacred word, a Vedic word which means 'self-
governance' and 'self-restraint'. Self-restraint does not mean freedom from all kinds of
restrictions, as independence is interpreted. Swaraj is the name of a satisfactory goal for all
times. According to Gandhi, Swaraj means complete freedom from foreign rule and also
complete independence. On one end of this is political independence and on the other end
is economic independence. It has two more ends. One is moral and social upliftment and the
other is religion, in its highest sense.

According to Gandhi, under 'Swaraj', people will be protected from the evils of capitalism
and just distribution of labor production will be done. He said that Swaraj will not be able to
achieve the status of complete Swaraj until even the poorest person becomes capable of
obtaining those necessities and comforts of life which princes and rich people have been
enjoying so far. He had explained complete Swaraj that "This is such a Swaraj which is as
much for the prince as it is for the farmer. It is as much for the rich landlord as it is for the
poor plowman."

Gandhi's ideal of complete Swaraj was 'Ram-Raj' (Rule of Rama). According to Gandhi, "This
is such a complete democracy in which there will be no place for any kind of inequality
based on wealth, color, caste, religion, or gender. In this, land and state will be the property
of the people, justice will be cheap and humane, and everyone will have freedom of
worship, lecturing, and press, and all this will be under the individual's self-determined
moral pressure."

The real form of Gandhi's Swaraj becomes clear from his ideal vows. He laid great emphasis
on spinning the wheel (charkha). He was not opposed to machines and industries. He had
said, "I will welcome those machines that give work to the poor. I am socialist to the extent
that such industries should be nationalized. We should make our minds capable of thinking
accordingly in the atomic age and space travel age." This makes it clear that Gandhi's
perspective was broad. He always said, "I don't want the doors and windows of the house to
remain closed, outside air should not come, but I also don't want the air to be so strong that
our feet get uprooted from the earth." In his opinion, knowledge is not the monopoly of any
one country or race.

In Gandhi's socialism, king and farmer, rich and poor, master and servant, all will be treated
equally, but according to Gandhi, such socialism cannot be established by any organized
party taking control of political power. It is absolutely necessary that socialists be truthful,
non-violent, and pure-hearted. They can bring real change. Therefore, Mahatma Gandhi
gave the most emphasis on the purification of the individual in his political plan. The spiritual
socialism that Gandhi wanted to establish could begin only with the moral upliftment of the
individual.

Patriotism and Swadeshi

Mahatma Gandhi had unshakeable faith in "Janani Janmabhoomischa Swargadapi Gariyasi"

(Mother and motherland are greater than heaven). A person who does not bow down to his
motherland and mother is not human. Shri Maithilisharan Gupta has rightly written this.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the Swadeshi movement had already begun. While
Lokmanya Tilak and Bipin Chandra Pal drew people's attention to Indian philosophy and
literature, Gopal Krishna Gokhale emphasized the use of indigenous goods. Gandhi was a
strong nationalist. His idea was that every village should fulfill its own needs. A network of
cottage industries should be spread. He believed that poverty in India could be removed
through the use of indigenous goods. He wrote in Harijan, "Swadeshi is that feeling of our
inner self which limits us to the use of our nearest environment rather than distant things."
Generally, Swadeshi means unshakeable love for one's country, maximum possible use of
goods made in the country, and inclination towards one's culture and civilization. Swadeshi
does not mean that we oppose international humanism in favor of blind nationalism. Gandhi
believed that only a true nationalist can become an internationalist.

During the non-cooperation movement, special emphasis was placed on the promotion of
indigenous goods. Under this influence, people boycotted foreign goods. People also burned
foreign clothes. National schools were opened in place of schools established by the
government. Mahatma Gandhi's concept of Swadeshi remained imbued with public welfare.
This expressed his love and devotion to the nation. The concept of Swadeshi is certainly
practical even today.

Conclusion

In the modern age, these ideas of Mahatma Gandhi are known in the world as famous
principles. The way he established truth, non-violence, equal respect for all religions, and
friendship in public life made them political ideals. In brief, Gandhi was the pioneer of
spiritual socialism. He accepted the spinning wheel (charkha) as his symbol. He used to say,
"Truth and non-violence are the basic elements of satyagraha and charkha is its symbol."
Today, due to his ideas and their relevance, Mahatma Gandhi is honored throughout the
world as a great man of the age and a great thinker.