Introduction of Human Anatomy

Haiqin LU
Department of Human Anatomy
Medical School of Southeast University
Email：haiqinlu@seu.edu.cn
 Philosophy 3 Questions

Who Where did

am I? I come
from?
 Learning objectives
To master:
◆ Concept of human anatomy.
◆ Anatomical position, terms of direction, axes and
planes of human body.
To be familiar with:
◆ Tasks and branches of human anatomy.
◆ Basic concepts and methods of studying systematic
anatomy.
To understand
◆ Regions and systems of human body.
◆ History of human anatomy.
 What is human anatomy?
◆ Human anatomy is the science concerned with the
structure of the human body and studies the structure of
body parts and their relationships to each other.
◆ Anatomy: Greek meaning is to cut apart
 The task of human anatomy is to
recognize the human body
◆ What is the human body made up of ?
◆ What’s the shape and structure of the human body?
◆ How is the structure of the body related with our daily life?
Why do we need to study human anatomy?
◆ Gives us a better understanding of the structures
of the body and how they work
◆ A foundation for medical students
◆ Anatomy forms the basis for the practice of
medicine. One of the key foundations of safe and
effective medical practice
 How can we study well in human anatomy?

◆ Need your time, effort and good memorization skills.

◆ Attend EVERY lab or lecture unless you are truly too
sick to attend.
◆ Know anatomical language.
◆ Fully use available anatomy study aids.
◆ Review, review, review.
 Branches of human anatomy
◆Branches:
Gross anatomy:
Systematic anatomy
Regional anatomy
Surface anatomy
Microscopic anatomy
Developmental anatomy
Pathological anatomy
Radiographic anatomy
Molecular biology
 Basic systems in human body
Locomotor (skeletal +
articular + muscular)
Digestive
Respiratory
Urinary
Reproductive
Circulatory (Cardiovascular
+ Lymphatic)
Sense organs
Nervous
Endocrine
◆ Regional anatomy deals
with the forms, positions, and
relationship of the structures
of the human body in a given
region.
◆ Parts of human body:
Head
Neck
Thorax
Abdomen
Pelvis
perineum
Upper limbs
Lower limbs
 Anatomical position ★
◆ The body is erect
◆ The feet are parallel
◆ The eyes are directed forward
◆ The arms are to the sides with the palms directed
forward, and the fingers are pointed straight down.

Anatomical position Attention position

 Directional
terms

◆ Superior, inferior

◆ Anterior (ventral),
posterior (dorsal)

◆ Medial, lateral

◆ Internal, external

◆ Superficial, profound

◆ Proximal, distal

◆ Ulnar, radial

◆ Tibial, fibular
 Anatomical Planes★

Sagittal plane Coronal plane Horizontal plane

 Anatomical Axes ★
Vertical axis
Sagittal axis
Frontal (transverse) axis
Abbreviations of terms
a., aa. artery, arteries
ant. anterior
f. fibre or fiber
inf. inferior
lig. ligament
ln. lymph node
m., mm. muscle, muscles
n., nn. nerve, nerves
post. posterior
sup. superior
v. vein
 Assessment
Attendance and class performance 10%
Laboratory practical quzzes 30%

Final written exam 60%

Total 100%

Written Exam
◆ Question types: MCQ, fill-in blanks, terms
explanation, and answer questions

◆ Contents to be covered: knowledge that are to be

mastered and to be familiar with.
 Laboratory practice
◆You are asked to group for laboratory practice and to
cooperate with each other during the lab time.
◆At least 10 tests will be given for assessment of the effect
of your lab study. There will be one student randomly chosen
from each group for the test each time.
◆In each test, you will be asked to recognize and point out 10
structures. 10 marks per structure and the total score of one
test is 100 marks. The test score obtained by the chosen
student will represent his or her group members’ score for
that test.
Reference books and online resource

https://www.icourse163.org/course/SEU-1472544175
Introduction to locomotor System

Learning objectives

To understand:
◆ Composition and functions of the locomotor system.
 Locomotor system

◆ Composition：
The skeletal system provides the
framework for our body, protects
the viscera, moves passively
The articular system provides the
axis for movement as a lever
The muscular system provides the
force for movement actively.

◆ Function: support,
protection and movement
Chapter 1 Osteology
 §1 General introduction

◆ Osteology: The science concerned

with the study of bones

◆ The adult skeletal system

consists of approximately 206
bones:

Skull 29 Axial
Bones of the trunk 51 skeleton

Upper limbs 32 × 2 Appendicular

Lower limbs 31 × 2 skeleton
 Learning objectives
To Master:
◆ Shapes, functions, classification and structure of bones;
bone marrow.
To understand:
◆ Composition and functions of the locomotor system.
◆ The chemical composition and physical properties of bones.
 Classification of bones ★
Four principal categories:
◆ Long bones

◆ Short bones

◆ Flat bones

◆ Irregular bones

Sesamoid bones
◆ Long bones (found in limbs):
Diaphysis or shaft ─ hollow
(medullary cavity), filled with
bone marrow
Two ends ─ epiphysis
articular surface
metaphysis
epiphysial cartilage
epiphysial line
◆ Short bones: cuboidal in shape,
e.g., carpal bones
◆ Flat bones: thin, have a
broad surface
◆ Irregular bones: have any
irregular or mixed shape,
e.g., vertebrae, pneumatic
bones
◆ Sesamoid bones: develop
within tendon
 Bone markings
Structure Description and Example

Articulating Surfaces
condyle A large, rounded articulating knob (the ccipital condyle of
the occipital bone)
facet A flattened or shallow articulating surface (the costal facet
of a thoracic vertebra)
head A prominent, rounded articulating end of a bone (the head of
the femur)
Depressions and Openings
alveolus A deep pit or socket (the dental alveoli [tooth sockets] in the
maxilla and mandible)
fissure A narrow, slit like opening (the superior orbital fissure of the
sphenoid bone)
foramen A rounded opening through a bone (the foramen magnum of
the occipital bone)
fossa A flattened or shallow surface (the mandibular fossa of the
temporal bone)
sinus A cavity or hollow space in a bone (the frontal sinus of the
frontal bone)
sulcus A groove that accommodates a vessel, nerve, or tendon
(the intertubercular sulcus of the humerus)
 Bone markings (continued)
Structure Description and Example

Nonarticulating Prominences
crest A narrow, ridge like projection (the iliac crest of the
os coxae)
epicondyle A projection adjacent to a condyle (the medial
epicondyle of the femur)
process Any marked bony prominence (the mastoid
process of the temporal bone)
ramus A flattened angular part of a bone (the ramus of
the mandible)
spine A sharp, slender process (the spine of the scapula)
trochanter A massive process found only on the femur (the
greater trochanter of the femur)
tubercle A small, rounded process (the greater tubercle of
the humerus)
tuberosity A large, roughened process (the radial tuberosity
of the radius)
 tuberosity

line
crest
eminence

sulcus
notch

spine fossa

foramen tubercle

process sinus
 head
neck
epicondyle
condyle

trochanter

impression

cavity
sinus

cellula canal
 Structure of bone ★

compact bone ⑴
Bone substance
spongy bone ⑵

Periosteum ⑶
bone
red bone marrow ⑶
Bone marrow ⑷
yellow bone marrow
⑵
Blood vessels and nerves supply of
bones ⑴
Bone cells ⑷
1. Bony substance
Compact bone
Spongy bone
• Trabecullae

※In the flat bones of the skull,

the layers of compact bone
are called the outer plate
and inner plate, while the
layer of spongy bone is
called the diploë
2. Periosteum :
Outer or fibrous layer
Inner layer is vascular and provides
the underlying bone with nutrition. It
also contains osteoblasts.
3. Endosteum:
A single-cellular osteogenic layer
lining the inner surface of bone.
4. Bone marrow:
Red marrow: haematopoietic
Yellow marrow: fatty
5. Bone cells:
Osteoprogenitors (osteogenic cells)
osteoblasts
Osteocytes
Osteoclasts
Bone lining cells
Chemical composition and physical properties of bones

◆ The organic component: collagen, protein,

polysaccharides.
◆ The inorganic component: hardness and rigidity, most
important ionic constituents are calcium, magneisium,
phosphate, hydroxyl, etc.

Organic Inorganic
material salts

Children 1 1

Adult 3 7

Old 1 4 Deadburn bone Decalcification

bone
 Bone growth
◆ Endochondral ossification
◆ Intramembranous ossification

The growth process of a long bone, beginning with (a)

the cartilaginous model as it occurs in an embryo at 6
weeks. The bone develops (b–e) through intermediate
stages to (f) adult bone.
Average age of completion of bone ossification
Bones of a child’s hand Bones of an adult hand
Functions of the skeletal system

◆ Support
◆ Protection
◆ Body movement
◆ Hemopoiesis
◆ Fat storage
◆ Mineral storage
§2 Axial Skeleton
 1. Bones of trunk

◆Vertebrae 24
◆Sacrum 1
◆Coccyx 1
◆Sternum 1
◆Ribs 12 pairs
 Learning objectives
To Master:
◆ General features of the vertebrae and main characteristics
of the vertebrae in each region.
◆ Intervertebral foramen and sacral hiatus.
◆ Shape and parts of the sternum, the concept of sternal
angle and its clinical significance.
To be familiar with:
◆ Shape and structure of ribs, costal arch.
◆ Important bony landmarks of the body (the 7th cervical
spinous process, the carotid tubercle, the sacral cornu, the
jugular notch, the sternal angle and the xiphoid process).
To understand:
◆ The bones of the trunk and skull.
 Vertebral column ★
Vertebrae

There are 33 vertebrae in children,

arranged as follows:

◆ Cervical vertebrae- 7

◆ Thoracic vertebrae -12

◆ Lumbar vertebrae -5

◆ Sacral vertebrae -1 (5)

◆ Coccygeal vertebrae -1(3 or 4 )

 General feature of a vertebra ★

⑴
⑻
◆ Vertebral body ⑴ ⑵
◆ Vertebral arch ⑵ ⑺ ⑸
Pedicle ⑷
Lamina
⑶ ⑵
◆ Processes
A single spinous process ⑶ ⑸
⑴
Paired transverse processes ⑷
⑷
Paired superior ⑸ articular processes
Paired inferior ⑹ articular processes
◆ Vertebral foramen ⑺ → vertebral canal ⑹
◆ Intervertebral foramen ⑻ ⑶
Superior view & lateral view of a typical vertebra.
 Regional differences in vertebrae
Cervical vertebrae
◆ Vertebrae body:
small
uncus of vertebral body
◆ Vertebral foramen: large and
triangular in shape
◆ Spinous processes:
short and bifid in C3 to C5, long
in C6, and longer in C7
◆ Transverse processes:
short and bifid, transverse
foramen
◆ Articular processes: horizontal
➢ Atlas (C1) — looks like an irregular ring
Anterior arch
Posterior arch
Lateral mass
Dental fovea
Groove for vertebral artery
 ➢ Axis (C2) ─ dens (odontoid process)
Distinguished by dens
Which articulates with dental
fovea of anterior arch of atlas
➢ Carotid tubercle: anterior tubercle of transverse
process of C6

➢ Vertebra prominens (C7): contains long and non-bifid

spinous process, it is visible with neck flexed, used as
clinical landmark in counting cervical and thoracic
spinous processes
 Thoracic vertebrae

➢ Vertebrae body:
heart-shape, superior and
inferior costal fovea
➢ Vertebral foramen:
smaller, rounder
➢ Spinous processes:
long, point obliquely
downward
➢ Transverse processes:
transverse costal fovea
➢ Articular processes:
coronal
 Lumbar vertebrae

➢ Vertebrae body:
larger, kidney-shaped
➢ Vertebral foramen:
larger and triangular
➢ Spinous processes:
projects horizontally
➢ Transverse processes: long
➢ Articular processes: sagittal
 Summary: regional variations of vertebrae

Cervical Lumber
Thoracic vertebrae
vertebrae vertebrae
Heart-shape, have
superior and inferior Larger, kidney-
Body Small
costal fovea for rib shape
heads
Vertebral Larger and Larger and
Smaller, rounder
foramen triangular triangular
Short and bifid in
Spinous C3 to C5, long in Long, point obliquely Projects
processes C6,and longer in downward horizontally
C7
Short and bifid, Have transverse
Transverse
transverse costal fovea for rib Long
processes
foramen tubercles
Articular
Horizontal Coronal Sagittal
processes
 Sacrum
◆ Anterior surface:
Promontory
anterior sacral foramina
(four pairs)
◆ Posterior surface:
median sacral crest
posterior sacral foramina
(four pairs)
sacral canal
sacral hiatus
Sacral cornua
◆ Lateral part:
auricular surface
sacral tuberosity

Coccyx
It is composed of 4-5 fused coccygeal vertebrae after the age of
30 years.
Sacrum and coccyx: A. Anterior view; B. Posterior view; C. Lateral view.
 Cornua

Sacral hiatus

Palpation
Caudal anaesthesia
Spinal bifida cystica
 Sternum

◆ Manubrium of sternum

◆ Jugular notch

◆ Clavicular notch

◆ Body of sternum

◆ Xiphoid process
◆Sternal angle : ★
The junction of manubrium
and body, which connects
the 2nd costal cartilage
laterally, and lies opposite
lower border of T4
posteriorly
 Ribs
◆ 12 pairs
◆ General features
Ribs 1~7 called true ribs
Ribs 8~10 called false ribs
Ribs 11~12 called floating ribs
Ribs 8～10 to form costal arch
General features of a typical rib
◆ Posterior end:
costal head
costal neck
costal tubercle

◆ Shaft:
costal angle
costal groove

◆ Anterior end
 Distinct features of upper and lower ribs

◆ First rib:
Tubercle for scalenus anterior
Sulcus for subclavian artery
and vein

◆ 11th and 12th ribs: Lack of

costal necks, tubercles and
angles
 Skull

The skull is composed of

23 bones:
◆ Facial cranium 15
◆ Cerebral cranium 8
 Learning objectives
To Master:
◆ Important structures in the internal surface of the base of
the skull, lateral and anterior view of the skull. Pterion and
zygomatic arch.
◆ Names and location of the paranasal sinuses and their
openings.
To be familiar with:
◆ Important structures in the external aspect of the base of
the skull.
◆ Composition of the orbit and the bony nasal cavity.
◆ Features of the skull at birth and its changes after birth,
cranial fontanelles.
To understand:
◆ Locations of the bones of cerebral cranium and facial
cranium.
 Cerebral cranium (8)
◆ Larger, upper and posterior ⑴
part, contains and protects ⑵
the brain
⑸

◆ Single bones: include

Frontal Bone (1)
Ethmoid Bone (6)
Sphenoid Bone (5)
⑴
Occipital Bone (4)
⑵ ⑸
◆ Paired bones: include
⑹
Temporal Bone (3) ⑶
Parietal Bone (2) ⑷
 Ethmoid bone

Sphenoid bone
Frontal Parietal bone
Frontal bone bone

Temporal
bone Occipital
bone

Temporal
bone

Occipital bone 71
 Frontal bone

Forms the anterior roof of the

cranium, the forehead, the roof
of the nasal cavity and the
superior arches of the orbits
 Parietal bones
◆Form the upper sides and roof of the cranium
◆Sagittal suture
◆Coronal suture
 Ethmoid bone

Cribriform plate

Division Perpendicular plate

Ethmoidal labyrinths

Ethmoid Bone
 Sphenoid bone
◆Body
◆Lesser wing
◆Greater wing
◆Pterygoid process
Temporal bone
◆ Squamous part
◆ Tympanic part
◆ Petrous part
Mastoid process
Styloid process
 Occipital bone

◆ Forms the posterior

and most of the base
of the skull
◆ Foramen magnum
◆ Occipital condyles
◆ External occipital
protuberance
◆ Hypoglossal canal
 Facial cranium （15）
◆The paired bones
◆The unpaired bones
maxillae
vomer
palatine bones
mandible
zygomatic bones
hyoid
nasal bones
lacrimal bones
inferior nasal conchae
Nasal bone

Vomer

Zygomatic
bone

Lacrimal
bone

Maxilla

Inferior nasal
choncha
Mandible

78
Palatine bone
 Mandible

◆ Body of mandible: mental foramen

◆ Ramus of mandible:
Condylar process, coronoid process
Mandibular foramen, mandibular angle
 Maxilla

◆ The body of maxilla (maxillary sinus )

◆ Zygomatic process, frontal process, palatine process,
alveolar process.
 Palatine bone
◆ L-shaped
◆ Horizontal plate
◆ Perpendicular plate
 Hyoid bone
◆Body
◆Two lesser cornua
◆Two greater cornua
 General features of skull
Superior aspect of skull

◆ Bones:
Frontal bone
Paired parietal bone
Occipital bone
◆ Sutures:
Coronal suture
Sagittal suture
Lambdoid suture
◆ Parietal tuber
◆ Parietal foramen
 Posterior aspect of skull
◆External occipital protuberance
◆Superior nuchal line
◆Inferior nuchal line
 Internal surface of the calvaria
◆ Sulcus for superior sagittal sinus

◆ Granular foveola

◆ Arterial grooves
Internal surface of base of skull ★★
Base of skull forms three fossae
◆ Anterior cranial fossa
◆ Meddle cranial fossa
◆ Posterior cranial fossa
 Anterior cranial fossa

◆ Formed by the orbital part of frontal bone, cribriform

plate of ethmoid, and lesser wings of sphenoid
◆ Structures: Crista galli
frontal crest
Frontal crest
Foramen cecum Cribriform foramina
Crista galli
Cribriform plate
Cribriform plate
Cribriform foramina
 Middle cranial fossa
◆ Formed by the body and greater wings of sphenoid,
petrous part of temporal
◆ Structures: Anterior clinoid process
Body of sphenoid bone Optic canal

Hypophysial fossa Hypophysial fossa

(Sella turcica) Superior orbital
fissure
Optic canal
Anterior clinoid process Foramen
rotundum
Tuberculum sellae
Foramen
Dorsum sellae ovale
Posterior clinoid process
Foramen
spinosum

Foramen lacerum
 Optic canal
Carotid sulcus
Hypophysial fossa
Superior orbital fissure
Superior orbital
Foramen rotundum fissure

Foramen ovale
Foramen rotundum
Foramen spinosum
Foramen ovale
Sulcus for middle meningeal
artery Foramen spinosum
Foramen lacerum
Internal opening of carotid
canal
Trigeminal impression
Arcuate eminence
Tegmen tympani
 Posterior cranial fossa
◆ Formed by the occipital bone and the petrous part of
temporal bone
◆ Structures:
Foramen magnum Internal opening
of hypoglossal
Clivus canal
Internal opening of hypoglossal canal
Internal occipital protuberance Clivus

Internal occipital crest

Sulcus for transverse sinus
Sulcus for sigmoid sinus Internal
acoustic
Jugular foramen meatus
Internal acoustic pore
Internal acoustic meatus
Jugular
foramen
Foramen
magnum
Internal
occipital
protuberance
Sulcus for
sigmoid sinus
 External surface of the base of skull
Alveolar arch
Bony palate
Median palatine suture Foramen ovale
Foramen
Incisive foramina spinosum Incisive foramina

Incisive canal Greater palatine

foramen
Greater palatine foramen
翼点 Posterior nasal
Posterior nasal apertures apertures
Pterygoid process
Foramen
Occipital condyle 颧弓 lacerum

External opening of
External
hypoglossal canal opening of
carotid canal
External opening of
carotid canal
Stylomastoid
Styloid process foramen
Mandibular
Stylomastoid foramen fossa
乳突

Mandibular fossa Jugular External opening of

foramen hypoglossal canal
Articular tubercle
Lateral surface of the skull
External acoustic pore
Pterion
Mastoid process
Zygomatic arch
Temporal fossa
Temporal
Pterion ★ fossa

Superior temporal line

External
Infratemporal fossa acoustic
pore
Pterygomaxillary fissure Mastoid
Pterygopalatine fossa process
Zygomatic
Sphenopalatine foramen arch
 Pterion

Pterion and
Pterion fractures

Epidural bleeding
 Pterygopalatine fossa
➢It is an inverted 'tear-drop'
shaped space between bones
on the lateral side of the skull
immediately posterior to the
maxilla.
➢Walls:
Anterior wall: the posterior
surface of the maxilla;
Medial wall: the lateral surface
of the palatine bone;
Posterior wall and roof: parts of
the sphenoid bone.
➢ Communication of the pterygopalatine fossa

➢ Anterior→inferior orbital fissure

→floor of the orbit
➢ Posterior→foramen rotundum
→middle cranial fossa
➢ Medial→sphenopalatine foramen
→ nasopharynx
➢ Lateral→ infratemporal fossa
➢ Inferior → palatine canal→ the
roof of the oral cavity (hard
palate)
➢ Posterior→ pterygoid canal →the
external base of the skull
Gateways of the pterygopalatine fossa
 Frontal surface of the skull
Includes the forehead, the orbits, the nasal region, the part of the
face between the orbit & the upper jaw, the upper jaw, the lower jaw
 Bony orbit ★

◆ Pyramid-shaped paired cavities

◆ Base: Fossa for
Supraorbital
notch
Supraorbital notch lacrimal gland
Optic canal
Infraorbital foramen
◆ Apex: optic canal
◆ Walls
Superior: fossa for lacrimal
gland
Medial: fossa for lacrimal sac
Inferior: infraorbital groove
infraorbital canal
Lateral: infraorbital fissure
Fossa for
supraorbital fissure Infraorbital
fissure
lacrimal sac

Infraorbital
Supraorbital foramen
fissure
 Bony nasal cavity ★

◆ Roof: cribriform plate of ethmoid

◆ Floor: bony palate
◆ Medial wall: bony septum of nose
◆ Lateral wall
Superior, middle and inferior nasal
conchae
Superior, middle and inferior nasal
meatus (underlying each concha)
Sphenoethmoidal recess above
superior nasal concha
◆ Anterior ―piriform aperture
◆ Posterior ―posterior nasal aperture
communicates with pharynx
 Paranasal sinuses ★
There are four paranasal air sinuses-the ethmoidal cells, and the
sphenoidal, maxillary, and frontal sinuses. Each is named
according to the bone in which it is found.
◆ Frontal sinuses

Lie in frontal bone, deep to superciliary arch

Drain to anterior part of the middle meatus

Frontal
sinuses
◆ Maxillary sinuses:
Largest paired sinuses, lie in the body of maxilla;
Opening in the center of hiatus semilunaris and
draining into middle nasal meatus

Maxillary sinus
◆ Ethmoidal cellules
Lie in ethmoidal bone, contains large number of air cells,
divided into anterior, middle and posterior groups
The anterior and middle groups drain into middle nasal
meatus, while the posterior group drain into superior
nasal meatus

Ethmoidal
cells
◆ Sphenoidal sinuses
Lie in body of sphenoid bone
Drain into sphenoethmoidal recess
 Characteristics of skull at birth

➢ The ratio of the facial portion

and cranial cranium is 1/8 ,
whereas in adult it is 1/4
➢ Many bones consist of more
than one pieces
➢ Paranasal sinuses are not
developed
➢ Cranial fontanels :
Unossified membrane that cover the
gaps between the developing bones.
Anterior (frontal) fontanel: closes
during middle of 2nd year
Posterior (occipital) fontanel: closes
by the end of 2nd month after birth
Posterolateral (mastoid) fontanel
Anterolateral (sphenoidal ) fontanel
 Summary1 Internal foramina of the skull
Foramen Structures passing through foramen
Anterior cranial fossa
Foramen caecum Emissary veins to nasal cavity
Olfactory foramina in cribriform plate Olfactory nerves [I]
Optic canal Optic nerve [II]; ophthalmic artery
Middle cranial fossa
Oculomotor nerve [III]; trochlear nerve [IV];
Superior orbital fissure ophthalmic division of the trigeminal nerve [V1];
abducent nerve [VI]; ophthalmic veins
Foramen rotundum Maxillary division of the trigeminal nerve [V2]
Mandibular division of the trigeminal nerve [V3];
Foramen ovale
lesser petrosal nerve
Foramen spinosum Middle meningeal artery
Hiatus for the greater petrosal nerve Greater petrosal nerve
Hiatus for the lesser petrosal nerve Lesser petrosal nerve
Posterior cranial fossa
End of brainstem/beginning of spinal cord;
Foramen magnum vertebral arteries; spinal roots of the accessory
nerve; meninges
Facial nerve [VII]; vestibulocochlear nerve [VIII];
Internal acoustic meatus
labyrinthine artery
Glossopharyngeal nerve [IX]; vagus nerve [X];
Jugular foramen accessory nerve [XI]; inferior petrosal sinus,
sigmoid sinus (forming internal jugular vein)
Hypoglossal nerve [XII]; meningeal branch of
Hypoglossal canal
the ascending pharyngeal artery
Condylar canal Emissary vein
 Summary2 External foramina of the skull
Foramen Structures passing through foramen
Anterior view
Supra-orbital foramen Supra-orbital nerve and vessels
Infra-orbital foramen Infra-orbital nerve and vessels
Mental foramen Mental nerve and vessels
Lateral view
Zygomaticofacial foramen Zygomaticofacial nerve
Superior view
Parietal foramen Emissary veins
Inferior view
Incisive foramina Nasopalatine nerve; sphenopalatine vessels
Greater palatine foramen Greater palatine nerve and vessels
Lesser palatine foramina Lesser palatine nerves and vessels
Pterygoid canal Pterygoid nerve and vessels
Foramen ovale Mandibular nerve [V3]
Foramen spinosum Middle meningeal artery
Foramen lacerum Filled with cartilage
Carotid canal Internal carotid artery and nerve plexus
Foramen magnum Continuation of brain and spinal cord; vertebral arteries
and nerve plexuses; anterior spinal artery; posterior
spinal arteries; roots of accessory nerve [XI]; meninges
Condylar canal Emissary veins
Hypoglossal canal Hypoglossal nerve [XII] and vessels
Jugular foramen Internal jugular vein; inferior petrosal sinus
Stylomastoid foramen Facial nerve [VII]
§3 Appendicular Skeleton
 Learning objectives
To Master:
◆ Morphology and main structures of the scapula and hip
bone.
To be familiar with:
◆ Location and shape of the clavicle.
◆ Main structures of humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia and
fibula. The sulcus for radial nerve.
◆ Location and arrangement of the carpal and tarsal bones.
To understand:
◆ Grouping of the bones of hand and foot, the shape and
structure of each bone.
 1. Bones of upper limb

Include:
◆ Shoulder girdle
Clavicle
Scapula
◆ Bones of free upper limb
Arm: humerus
Forearm: Radius & Ulna
Bones of hand:
Carpal bones
Metacarpal bones
Phalanges of fingers
 Clavicle ★

◆ S-shaped, medial 2/3 convex forward and lateral 1/3

convex backward
◆ Sternal end medially and acromial end laterally
 Scapula ★
➢ Three borders
Superior: coracoid process
scapular notch
Lateral (axillary) border
Medial (vertebral) border
➢ Three angles
Superior angle is opposite to the 2nd rib
Inferior angle is opposite to the 7th rib or 7th
intercostal space
Lateral angle bears the glenoid cavity,
supraglenoid and infraglenoid tubercles
➢ Two surfaces
Anterior surface concave: subscapular fossa
Posterior surface:
spine of scapula
acromion
supraspinous and infraspinous fossae
 Humerus ★
◆ Upper end:
Head of humerus
Anatomical neck
Greater tubercle Anatomical
neck
Lesser tubercle
Crest of greater tubercle
Crest of lesser tubercle
Groove for
Intertubercular groove radial nerve
Surgical neck
◆ Shaft:
Deltoid tuberosity (on lateral
surface)
Groove for radial nerve (on
posterior surface) Sulcus for
ulnar nerve
◆ Lower end:
Lateral epicondyle
Medial epicondyle
Capitulum
Trochlea
Coronoid fossa (anteriorly)
Radial fossa (anteriorly)
Olecranon fossa (posteriorly)
Sulcus for ulnar nerve
 Radius

➢ Upper end:
Head of radius
Neck of radius
Radial tuberosity
Articular circumference
➢ Shaft：
Interosseous border
➢ Lower end:
Styloid process (laterally)
Ulnar notch (medially)
Carpal articular surface (inferiorly)
 Ulna

◆ Upper end:
Olecranon
Coronoid process
Trochlear notch
Radial notch
Ulnar tuberosity
◆ Lower end
Styloid process
Head of ulna
 Colle’s fracture
➢ Normally, the radial styloid process projects further distally
than the ulnar styloid process.
➢ When fracture within the distal 2 cm of the radius (Colle’s
fracture) occurs, the distal fragment of the radius is
displaced posterior and the radial and ulna styloid processes
being at approximately the same horizontal level .
 Carpal bones
◆ Proximal row ― (lateral to medial)
Scaphoid
Lunate
Triquetrum
Pisiform
◆ Distal row ― (lateral to medial)
Trapezium
Trapezoid
Capitate
Hamate

So Long To Pinky, Here Comes The Thumb

 Metacarpal bones

◆ Numbered one to five from

thumb to little finger
◆ Structure of each
Base (proximally)
Shaft
Head (distally)
 Phalanges of fingers

◆ 14 in total: two for first digit

(thumb) and three for each of
other four digits
◆ Structures of each
Base (proximally)
Shaft
Trochlea of phalanx (distally)
Bones of the right hand.
 2. Bones of lower limb
Composition:
◆ Pelvic girdle: hip bone
◆ Bones of free lower limb:
➢ Thigh
Femur
Patella
➢ Leg
Tibia
Fibula
➢ Foot
Tarsal bones
Metatarsal bones
Phalanges of toes
 Hip bone ★
➢ Consisting of three fused bones: ilium, ischium, pubis
➢ Acetabulum
Formed by bodies of ilium,
ischium and pubis
Lunate surface
Acetabular fossa
Acetabular notch
➢ Obturator foramen
Formed by superior pubic ramus
above, the pubic body and its
inferior ramus medially, the ischial
ramus below, and the anterior
border of the ischial body laterally.
Large and oval in males, smaller
and nearly triangular in females
 Ilium Tubercle of iliac crest

Iliac
crest
➢ Body of ilium
➢ Ala of ilium Anterior
Iliac crest superior
iliac spine
Anterior superior iliac spine
Anterior inferior iliac spine
Tubercle of iliac crest Acetabulum

Posterior superior iliac spine

Posterior inferior iliac spine
Greater sciatic notch Iliac tuberosity

Gluteal surface
Iliac fossa
Iliac fossa
Auricular
Arcuate line surface
Auricular surface
Greater sciatic notch
Iliac tuberosity

Arcuate line
An imaginary line joining
the highest point on the
iliac crests over the
fourth lumbar spine.
 Ischium

➢ Body of ischium Ischial tuberosity

➢ Ischial spine
➢ Lesser sciatic notch
Ramus of ischium
➢ Ramus of ischium
➢ Ischial tuberosity

Ischial spine

Lesser sciatic notch

Ischial tuberosity
 Pubis
➢ Body of pubis: Iliopubic eminence
➢ Superior ramus of pubis Superior
ramus of
Pecten of pubis pubis

Pubic
Pubic tubercle tubercle
Pubic crest
Inferior
Symphysial surface ramus of
Obturator pubis
➢ Inferior ramus of pubis foramen

Obturator foramen

Pecten of pubis

Pubic crest

Symphysial surface
 Femur

The femur
(“thighbone”)
is the longest,
heaviest,
strongest
bone in the
body
➢ Upper end
Femoral head
Fovea of femoral head
Neck of femur
Greater trochanter
Lesser trochanter
Intertrochanteric line
Intertrochanteric crest
Fracture of the
femoral neck
➢ Shaft:
Linea aspera
Gluteal tuberosity
Pectineal line
Popliteal surface
➢ Lower end:
Medial condyle
Lateral condyle
Medial epicondyle
Lateral epicondyle
Adductor tubercle
Intercondylar fossa
Patellar surface
 Tibia

➢ Upper end:
Medial and lateral condyles
Intercondylar eminence
Fibular articular surface
Tuberosity of tibia
➢ Shaft
Interosseous border
Soleal line
➢ Lower end:
Fibular notch
Medial malleolus
 Fibula
➢ Upper end:
Fibular head
Neck of fibula

➢ Shaft:
Interosseous border

➢ Lower end:
Lateral malleolus
 Patella
Triangular sesamoid bone
 Tarsal bones
➢ Consist of seven short bones
arranged in three row
➢ Posterior row
Talus
Calcaneus
➢ Intermediate row
Navicular bone
➢ Anterior row
Medial cuneiform
Intermediate cuneiform
Lateral cuneiform
Cuboid bone

“Traverse City (is) Noted (for)

Michigan's Lovely Cherries”
Superior view Inferior view
 Metatarsal bones

➢ Consist of five elongated bones,

numbered one to five medial to
lateral

➢ Structure of each ― base

(proximally), shaft, and head
(distally) in each
 Phalanges of toes

➢ Consist of 14―two for first toe (hallux) and

three for each of other four toes
※Surface landmarks:
Trochlea of talus
Calcaneal tuberosity
Tuberosity of navicular bone
Tuberosity of the fifth metatarsal bone
 Knowledge Check
1. Describe the classification and structure of bones.
2. Describe the functions of bone marrow and periosteum.
3. Describe the general features of a typical vertebra.
4. Briefly describe the shape and structures of cervical,
thoracic, and lumber vertebrae and sacrum.
5. List the names of the foramina that can be seen in vertebra.
6. Describe the location and significance of the sacral cornua
and sacral promontory.
7. Briefly describe the shape and structures of sternum.
8. Briefly describe the classification of ribs; describe the shape
and structure of a typical rib.
9. Write out the important foramina, canals, fissures and
meatus that are located in the anterior, middle and posterior
cranial fossae.
9. Describe the names of paranasal sinuses and where they
open into.
10. Describe the shape and structures of bony orbit and bony
nasal cavity.
11. Describe the names of the fossae & foramina that can be
found in the lateral and inferior aspects of skull.
12. Describe the structures and bone markings of scapula and
hip bone.
13. Describe the articular surfaces that can be found on
humerus, ulna, radius, femur, tibia and fibula.
14. Define the following terminologies:
★ Pterion ★ Cranial fontanelle
★ Paranasal sinus ★ Zygomatic arch
★ Pterygopalatine fossa ★ Sulcus for radial nerve
★ Sulcus for ulnar nerve ★ Acetabulum
★ Intervertebral foramina ★Sacral hiatus
★ Sternal angle