Anitta Maria George, I have excpected better article, but I think u have not

taken seriously.
I have rewriten your article pls add good photos and arrange it in format

INTEGRATED DISEASE MANAGEMENT

IN SAFFLOWER
Anitta Maria George
1B.Sc. (Agri), College of Agriculture, Vijayapura, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad

Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.), an ancient oilseed crop of the Asteraceae family, thrives in
semi-arid regions and holds significant economic and cultural value. Originating in the Middle
East, it is cultivated globally, with major producers including India, Mexico, the USA,
Argentina, Canada, and China. In India, Maharashtra is a key hub, but diseases like Alternaria
leaf spot, Fusarium wilt, and Botrytis head rot pose severe threats, causing yield losses of 25–
80% and reducing seed quality and oil content. Safflower’s seeds yield edible oil for cooking,
cosmetics, and biofuels, while its flowers provide natural dyes and pigments for textiles and
food. The crop supports rural livelihoods, enhances soil health through crop rotation, and
contributes to export earnings. Integrated Disease Management (IDM) offers a sustainable
approach, combining cultural, resistant variety, biological, and chemical strategies to control
diseases while minimizing environmental impact. This article explores major safflower diseases,
their symptoms, epidemiology, and tailored IDM strategies to ensure sustainable production.

Safflower: A Versatile Economic Asset

Safflower is a vital crop in semi-arid agriculture, supporting millions of livelihoods through its
diverse applications. Its high-quality oil, rich in linoleic acid, is used in cooking, cosmetics,
pharmaceuticals, and biofuels, meeting global demand for healthy and sustainable products.
Roasted seeds serve as snacks or livestock feed, while flowers yield carthamin, a natural dye for
textiles and food coloring. Traditional medicine employs safflower for treating fever,
rheumatism, and skin ailments. As an export crop, it generates significant foreign exchange for
countries like India, the USA, and Australia. Safflower’s deep roots improve soil structure,
making it ideal for crop rotation to enhance soil fertility and reduce pest pressure. However,
diseases, particularly Alternaria leaf spot, cause substantial losses, necessitating robust
management to sustain its economic and ecological benefits.

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The Need for Integrated Disease Management in Safflower
Effective disease management is critical for safflower cultivation to prevent yield losses,
maintain seed and oil quality, and reduce production costs. Unmanaged diseases, such as
Alternaria leaf spot, can devastate crops, impacting farmers’ incomes and regional economies.
Overreliance on fungicides risks environmental pollution, pathogen resistance, and residue
accumulation, threatening ecosystem health. IDM integrates cultural, biological, and chemical
controls to minimize chemical use, enhance crop resilience, and ensure sustainable production.
By preventing disease outbreaks and promoting eco-friendly practices, IDM supports food
security, increases farmer incomes, and aligns with global demand for sustainable agriculture.

Major Safflower Diseases and Their Management

This section details the major diseases affecting safflower, including their introduction,
symptoms, etiology, epidemiology, primary infection, secondary spread, survival, and integrated
disease management strategies, with clear separation of cultural practices, resistant varieties,
biological control, and chemical control.

1. Alternaria Leaf Spot (Blight)

Introduction: Alternaria leaf spot, caused by Alternaria carthami, is the most widespread and
destructive safflower disease, causing 25–60% yield losses in India and up to 80% in
Maharashtra, reducing seed size, weight, and oil content.

Symptoms: Dark, necrotic lesions appear on leaves, stems, and seeds, often starting on seedling
cotyledons and hypocotyls. Lesions are irregular, brown to black, and may coalesce, leading to
defoliation and reduced photosynthesis.

Etiology: Alternaria carthami, a necrotrophic fungus in the Pleosporaceae family, produces

conidia that infect through wounds or natural openings.

Epidemiology: The fungus thrives at 20–30°C and 60–80% humidity, spreading via wind, rain
splash, and insects. Infected seeds, plant debris, and soil serve as primary inoculum sources.
Frequent rainfall or irrigation exacerbates disease spread.

Primary Infection: Conidia infect leaves, stems, or seeds during wet conditions, forming
necrotic lesions.

Secondary Spread: Wind, rain, and insects disperse conidia to healthy tissues, with rapid spread
in humid weather.

Survival: The fungus persists in infected seeds, debris, and soil for multiple seasons.

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Integrated Disease Management:
Cultural Practices: Rotate safflower with non-host crops (e.g., cereals, legumes) for 2–3 years
to reduce soil inoculum. Remove and destroy infected debris and weeds. Sow early to avoid peak
humidity periods. Maintain 30–45 cm spacing and prune dense foliage for air circulation. Use
drip irrigation to minimize leaf wetness.
Resistant Varieties: Plant tolerant varieties like ‘DSH-129’, ‘DSH-185’, ‘NARI-NH-1’, or
‘NARI-H-23’. Use certified, disease-free seeds treated with hot water (50°C for 20 minutes).
Biological Control: Apply Trichoderma harzianum or Trichoderma viride as seed treatments or
soil drenches to suppress Alternaria carthami via mycoparasitism. Use Bacillus subtilis for
antifungal compounds. Incorporate neem cake (1 t/ha) to enhance soil microbial activity.
Chemical Control: Spray mancozeb (0.25%) or chlorothalonil (0.2%) at 10–14-day intervals
starting at disease onset. Rotate with azoxystrobin (0.1%) to prevent resistance. Consult a local
agronomist for approved fungicides.

2. Fusarium Wilt

Introduction: Fusarium wilt, caused by Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. carthami, is a soil-borne

disease causing vascular blockage and plant death, particularly in warm, poorly drained soils.

Symptoms: Yellowing and wilting of lower leaves progress upward, with stunting and vascular
discoloration in stems. Plants may collapse under severe infection.

Etiology: Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. carthami, a soil-inhabiting fungus, produces conidia and
chlamydospores that infect roots.

Epidemiology: The fungus thrives at 25–30°C in sandy or poorly drained soils, spreading
through contaminated soil, water, seeds, and equipment. Nematodes exacerbate infection.

Primary Infection: Conidia or chlamydospores infect roots through wounds, colonizing

vascular tissues and blocking water transport.

Secondary Spread: Contaminated soil, water, and equipment spread the fungus, with irrigation
water facilitating long-distance dispersal.

Survival: Chlamydospores persist in soil and debris for years.

Integrated Disease Management:

Cultural Practices: Rotate with non-host crops (e.g., sorghum, maize) for 3–5 years. Solarize
soil during summer to reduce inoculum. Use well-drained soils and avoid over-irrigation.
Remove and destroy infected plants and debris.
Resistant Varieties: Plant tolerant varieties like ‘NARI-NH-15’ or ‘A-300’. Use certified,
disease-free seeds.
Biological Control: Apply Trichoderma harzianum or Pseudomonas fluorescens to soil to
suppress Fusarium oxysporum. Use mycorrhizal fungi to enhance root health. Add neem cake (1
t/ha) to soil.
Chemical Control: Treat seeds with carbendazim (2 g/kg) or thiophanate-methyl (2 g/kg).

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Drench soil with carbendazim (0.1%) in high-risk areas. Rotate fungicides and consult a local
agronomist.

3. Botrytis Head Rot

Introduction: Botrytis head rot, caused by Botrytis cinerea, affects safflower heads, reducing
seed yield and quality, particularly in cool, wet conditions.

Symptoms: Green to brown discoloration of floral parts, with grey, fuzzy mold covering heads
during cool, wet weather. The fungus invades stems, causing heads to break off easily.

Etiology: Botrytis cinerea (Botryotinia fuckeliana), a fungus, produces conidia that infect floral
tissues.

Epidemiology: The fungus thrives at 15–20°C and high humidity, spreading via wind, rain, and
insects. Infected debris and alternate hosts serve as inoculum sources.

Primary Infection: Conidia infect floral parts during wet conditions, forming moldy growth.

Secondary Spread: Wind and rain disperse conidia to healthy heads, with rapid spread in humid
weather.

Survival: The fungus persists in debris, soil, and sclerotia.

Integrated Disease Management:

Cultural Practices: Maintain 30–45 cm spacing and prune dense foliage for air circulation. Use
drip irrigation to reduce humidity. Remove and destroy infected heads and debris. Avoid
planting in low-lying, humid areas.
Resistant Varieties: No highly resistant varieties; use vigorous cultivars like ‘MRSA-521’ or
‘NARI-H-23’ and certified seeds.
Biological Control: Apply Trichoderma viride or Bacillus subtilis as foliar sprays to suppress
Botrytis cinerea. Use Coniothyrium minitans to degrade sclerotia in soil.
Chemical Control: Spray iprodione (0.2%) or boscalid (0.2%) at flowering stage, repeating
every 10–14 days during wet conditions. Rotate fungicides and consult a local agronomist.

4. Cercospora Leaf Spot

Introduction: Cercospora leaf spot, caused by Cercospora spp., is a foliar disease reducing
photosynthesis and yield, prevalent in warm, humid conditions.

Symptoms: Small, round to irregular brown spots with yellow margins on leaves, leading to
premature leaf drop and stunting.

Etiology: Cercospora spp., fungi, produce conidia that infect leaves.

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Epidemiology: The fungi thrive at 24–30°C and high humidity, spreading via wind, rain, and
infected debris. Dense plantings and prolonged leaf wetness promote disease.

Primary Infection: Conidia infect leaves during wet conditions, forming brown spots.

Secondary Spread: Wind and rain disperse conidia, with rapid spread in humid weather.

Survival: The fungi persist in infected debris and alternate hosts.

Integrated Disease Management:

Cultural Practices: Remove and destroy infected leaves and debris. Maintain 30–45 cm spacing
and use drip irrigation to reduce leaf wetness. Rotate with non-host crops for 2–3 years. Plow
debris post-harvest.
Resistant Varieties: Use tolerant varieties like ‘DSH-129’ or ‘NARI-NH-1’. Ensure certified,
disease-free seeds.
Biological Control: Apply Trichoderma harzianum or Bacillus subtilis as foliar sprays to
suppress Cercospora spp. Use neem oil to inhibit fungal growth.
Chemical Control: Spray mancozeb (0.25%) or chlorothalonil (0.2%) at 10–15-day intervals.
Rotate with azoxystrobin (0.1%). Consult a local agronomist.

5. Charcoal Rot

Introduction: Charcoal rot, caused by Macrophomina phaseolina, is a soil-borne disease

causing wilting and yield losses, particularly in hot, dry conditions.

Symptoms: Wilting, premature ripening, and dark, dusty lesions on stems and roots, with small,
black microsclerotia visible.

Etiology: Macrophomina phaseolina, a fungus, produces microsclerotia that infect roots and
stems.

Epidemiology: The fungus thrives at 30–35°C in dry soils, spreading through contaminated soil,
seeds, and debris. Stress from drought or nutrient deficiency exacerbates infection.

Primary Infection: Microsclerotia infect roots during warm, dry conditions, colonizing vascular
tissues.

Secondary Spread: Contaminated soil and equipment spread microsclerotia to healthy plants.

Survival: Microsclerotia persist in soil and debris for years.

Integrated Disease Management:

Cultural Practices: Rotate with non-host crops (e.g., cereals) for 3–4 years. Maintain soil
moisture through timely irrigation. Remove and destroy infected debris. Apply organic
amendments (e.g., compost, 5 t/ha) to enhance soil health.
Resistant Varieties: Use tolerant varieties like ‘NARI-H-23’ or ‘A-300’. Ensure certified,

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disease-free seeds.
Biological Control: Apply Trichoderma harzianum or Pseudomonas fluorescens to soil to
suppress Macrophomina phaseolina. Use neem cake (1 t/ha) to reduce microsclerotia.
Chemical Control: Treat seeds with carbendazim (2 g/kg) or thiram (3 g/kg). Drench soil with
carbendazim (0.1%) in high-risk areas. Consult a local agronomist.

6. Damping-Off

Introduction: Damping-off, caused by Pythium spp. and Phytophthora spp., is a nursery disease
killing safflower seedlings, particularly in wet soils.

Symptoms: Seed rot, failure to emerge, wilting, and collapse of seedlings at the soil line,
resulting in poor stand establishment.

Etiology: Pythium spp. and Phytophthora spp., oomycetes, produce zoospores that infect
seedlings.

Epidemiology: The pathogens thrive in waterlogged soils at 20–30°C, spreading via

contaminated soil, water, and equipment. High seedling density promotes disease.

Primary Infection: Zoospores infect seeds or seedling roots in wet conditions, causing rot.

Secondary Spread: Water splash and equipment spread zoospores to healthy seedlings.

Survival: Oospores persist in soil and debris for years.

Integrated Disease Management:

Cultural Practices: Use well-drained, sterilized soil in nurseries. Maintain low seedling density
(5–10 cm spacing). Solarize soil before planting. Avoid overwatering and ensure proper
drainage. Remove and destroy infected seedlings.
Resistant Varieties: No specific resistant varieties; use vigorous cultivars like ‘DSH-185’ and
certified seeds.
Biological Control: Apply Trichoderma viride or Bacillus subtilis to soil to suppress oomycetes.
Use compost to enhance microbial activity.
Chemical Control: Treat seeds with metalaxyl (2 g/kg) or captan (3 g/kg). Drench soil with
metalaxyl-mancozeb (0.2%). Consult a local agronomist.

7. Phytophthora Root and Stem Rot

Introduction: Phytophthora root and stem rot, caused by Phytophthora spp., is a severe disease
causing plant death, particularly in waterlogged soils.

Symptoms: Dark brown to black discoloration on stems at the soil line, extending upward, with
root rot, wilting, and premature death.

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Etiology: Phytophthora spp., including P. cactorum, P. cryptogea, P. drechsleri, and P.
nicotianae var. parasitica, produce zoospores that infect roots and stems.

Epidemiology: The pathogens thrive at 25–30°C in wet soils, spreading via water, soil, and
equipment. Poor drainage and dense plantings exacerbate infection.

Primary Infection: Zoospores infect roots or stems in wet conditions, causing rot.

Secondary Spread: Water splash and equipment spread zoospores to healthy plants.

Survival: Oospores persist in soil and debris for years.

Integrated Disease Management:

Cultural Practices: Use raised beds and well-drained soils. Rotate with non-host crops for 3–4
years. Avoid over-irrigation and remove infected debris. Sanitize equipment with 1% bleach.
Resistant Varieties: Use tolerant varieties like ‘NARI-NH-15’ or ‘MRSA-521’. Ensure certified
seeds.
Biological Control: Apply Trichoderma harzianum or Pseudomonas fluorescens to soil to
suppress oomycetes. Use compost to enhance soil health.
Chemical Control: Drench soil with metalaxyl (0.1%) or fosetyl-aluminum (0.2%) at planting.
Rotate fungicides and consult a local agronomist.

8. Powdery Mildew

Introduction: Powdery mildew, caused by Erysiphe cichoracearum, is a foliar disease reducing

photosynthesis, particularly in dry, warm conditions.

Symptoms: White, powdery patches on leaves, stems, and buds, turning grey or brown, with
yellowing, curling, or leaf drop.

Etiology: Erysiphe cichoracearum (Oidium asteris-punicei), a fungus, produces conidia that

infect plant surfaces.

Epidemiology: The fungus thrives at 20–25°C and moderate humidity, spreading via wind and
infected debris. Dense canopies promote disease.

Primary Infection: Conidia infect leaves or stems during dry, warm conditions, forming
powdery patches.

Secondary Spread: Wind disperses conidia to healthy tissues, with rapid spread in dense
plantings.

Survival: The fungus persists in debris and alternate hosts.

Integrated Disease Management:

Cultural Practices: Maintain 30–45 cm spacing and prune dense foliage for air circulation.

7
Remove and destroy infected debris. Avoid excessive nitrogen fertilization. Use drip irrigation to
minimize humidity.
Resistant Varieties: Use tolerant varieties like ‘DSH-129’ or ‘NARI-H-23’. Ensure certified
seeds.
Biological Control: Apply Bacillus subtilis or Ampelomyces quisqualis as foliar sprays to
suppress fungal growth. Use neem oil to inhibit spore germination.
Chemical Control: Spray wettable sulfur (0.5%) or myclobutanil (0.1%) at 7–10-day intervals.
Rotate fungicides and consult a local agronomist.

9. Rust (Foliage and Hypocotyl)

Introduction: Safflower rust, caused by Puccinia carthami, is a foliar disease reducing yield and
quality, particularly in humid conditions.

Symptoms: Small, raised, reddish-brown pustules on leaves, stems, and pods, leading to
premature leaf drop and reduced seed production.

Etiology: Puccinia carthami (P. calcitrapae var. centaureae, P. verruca), a fungus, produces
urediniospores that infect plant tissues.

Epidemiology: The fungus thrives at 20–25°C and high humidity, spreading via wind and rain
splash. Infected debris and alternate hosts serve as inoculum sources.

Primary Infection: Urediniospores infect leaves or stems during wet conditions, forming
pustules.

Secondary Spread: Wind and rain disperse urediniospores, with rapid spread in humid weather.

Survival: The fungus persists in debris and alternate hosts as teliospores.

Integrated Disease Management:

Cultural Practices: Remove and destroy infected debris. Maintain 30–45 cm spacing and use
drip irrigation to reduce leaf wetness. Rotate with non-host crops for 2–3 years. Plow debris
post-harvest.
Resistant Varieties: Use tolerant varieties like ‘NARI-NH-1’ or ‘A-300’. Ensure certified seeds.
Biological Control: Apply Trichoderma harzianum or Bacillus subtilis as foliar sprays to
suppress fungal growth. Use neem oil to inhibit spore germination.
Chemical Control: Spray mancozeb (0.25%) or propiconazole (0.1%) at 10–14-day intervals.
Rotate fungicides and consult a local agronomist.

10. Sclerotinia Stem Rot and Head Blight

Introduction: Sclerotinia stem rot and head blight, caused by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, is a
destructive disease affecting safflower stems and heads, particularly in cool, wet conditions.

8
Symptoms: Soft, watery lesions on stems and heads, leading to bleaching, tissue shredding, and
black sclerotia formation.

Etiology: Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, a fungus, produces apothecia and ascospores that infect plant
tissues.

Epidemiology: The fungus thrives at 15–20°C and high humidity, spreading via wind and rain.
Infected debris and sclerotia serve as inoculum sources.

Primary Infection: Ascospores infect stems or heads during wet conditions, forming lesions.

Secondary Spread: Wind disperses ascospores, with rapid spread in humid weather.

Survival: Sclerotia persist in soil and debris for 5–7 years.

Integrated Disease Management:

Cultural Practices: Rotate with non-host crops (e.g., cereals) for 4–5 years. Maintain 30–45 cm
spacing and prune foliage for air circulation. Use drip irrigation to reduce humidity. Remove and
destroy infected debris.
Resistant Varieties: No highly resistant varieties; use vigorous cultivars like ‘MRSA-521’ or
‘NARI-H-23’. Ensure certified seeds.
Biological Control: Apply Coniothyrium minitans or Trichoderma harzianum to soil to degrade
sclerotia. Use Bacillus subtilis for suppression.
Chemical Control: Spray boscalid (0.2%) or thiophanate-methyl (0.2%) during flowering in
high-risk areas. Rotate fungicides and consult a local agronomist.

Conclusion
Integrated Disease Management is a cornerstone of sustainable safflower cultivation, effectively
controlling diseases like Alternaria leaf spot, Fusarium wilt, Botrytis head rot, Cercospora leaf
spot, charcoal rot, damping-off, Phytophthora root rot, powdery mildew, rust, and Sclerotinia
stem rot. By integrating cultural practices, resistant varieties (e.g., ‘DSH-129’, ‘NARI-NH-1’),
biological agents like Trichoderma and Bacillus subtilis, and targeted chemical applications,
IDM ensures high yields, superior seed and oil quality, and environmental sustainability. Regular
monitoring, early detection, and region-specific strategies, supported by farmer-researcher
collaboration, are critical to minimizing disease outbreaks. As global demand for safflower’s oil,
dyes, and medicinal products grows, empowering farmers with IDM knowledge will secure its
role as a vital economic and ecological asset worldwide.

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INTRODUCTION

Safflower, (Carthamus tinctorius L.), is one of the world’s oldest important oilseed
crop of the semi-arid regions belonging to the family Asteraceae (Compositae).
The major safflower producing countries of the world are: India, Mexico, USA,
Argentina, Canada and China. Safflower is also affected by many biotic and
abiotic stresses. Of the biotic agents, fungi cause major diseases, followed by
bacteria, viruses and nematodes (Bhale et al., 1998) .Among these diseases, at
present leaf spot/blight caused by Alternaria carthami is widespread and have
continued to be the major constraints in the production and productivity of
safflower all over the country in general as well as in the state of Maharashtra
particularly. The disease (A. carthami) has been reported to cause 25 to 60 per
cent yield losses all over India and 20 to 80 per cent in Maharashtra state along
with drastic reduction in seed size, seed volume, seed test weight as well as per
cent oil content.Safflower cultivars/varieties presently under cultivation do not
posses proven field resistance or tolerance and majority of them are more or less
prone to the leaf spot/blight disease (A. carthami), under such circumstances
fungicides provide the most reliable means of controlling foliage diseases.

10
Present day public perceptions and environmental hazards are compelling to
search for alternative eco-friendly disease management strategies, for which
integration of various cultural, biological and chemical methods might be the
solution (Jagan et al., 2013).

Safflower is an important crop with significant economic value. Here are some of
its key economic importance:
1. Oil Production
Safflower seeds are a rich source of edible oil, which is used in cooking,
cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals. The oil is also used in the production of
biofuels.
2. Food and Feed
Safflower seeds are used as a nutritious feed for poultry and livestock. The
seeds are also roasted and used as a snack food.
3. Dye and Pigment
Safflower flowers are a source of a natural dye, which is used in the textile
industry. The flowers are also used to produce a yellow pigment used in food and
cosmetics.
4. Medicinal Uses
Safflower has been used in traditional medicine for centuries. The seeds and
flowers are used to treat various ailments, including fever, rheumatism, and skin
conditions.
5. Export Earnings
Safflower is an important export crop for many countries, including India, the
United States, and Australia. The crop generates significant foreign exchange
earnings for these countries.
6. Rural Employment

11
Safflower cultivation provides employment opportunities for rural communities,
particularly during the sowing, harvesting, and processing stages.
7. Crop Rotation and Soil Health
Safflower is a valuable crop for maintaining soil health and fertility. It is often
used as a rotation crop to improve soil structure and reduce pests and diseases.
Overall, safflower is a versatile crop with significant economic importance,
providing income and employment opportunities for millions of people worldwide.
Managing diseases in safflower crops is crucial for sustainable agriculture. Here
are some significant reasons:
1. Yield Loss Prevention
2. Improved Crop Quality
3. Reduced Chemical Use
4. Environmental Protection
5. Enhanced Food Security
6. Increased Farmer Income

Safflower field

12
 Safflower seeds

DISEASES AND ITS CAUSATIVE AGENTS IN

SAFFLOWER

BACTERIAL DISEASE

Bacterial leaf spot and stem blight

Pseudomonas syringae van Hall
Symptoms:-dark,water soaked lesions,stems and petioles which can
become red-brown and necrotic

FUNGAL DISEASES

Alternaria leaf spot

Alternaria carthami Chowdhury
Symptoms:-dark, necrotic lesions on leaves, stems, and even seeds, with
spots often appearing first on seedling cotyledons and hypocotyls.
Botrytis head rot
Botrytis cinerea Pers.:Fr.
(teleomorph: Botryotinia fuckeliana (de Bary) Whetzel)
Symptoms:-green to brown discoloration. During cool, wet weather
diseased floral parts are covered with a gray, fuzzy mold. As

13
 disease progresses, the fungus grows throughout the head and
into the stem. Infected heads are easily broken off of stems.
Cercospora leaf spot
Cercospora spp.
Symptoms:- small, round to irregular, brown spots with a yellow margin,
which can lead to premature leaf drop and stunting.

Charcoal rot
Macrophomina phaseolina (Tassi) Goidanich
Symptoms:-wilting, premature ripening, and dark, dusty-looking lesions on
the stems and roots, often with small, black microsclerotia visible.
Damping-off
Pythium spp.
Phytophthora spp.
Symptoms:- seed rot, failure of seedlings to emerge, wilting, and collapse
of young seedlings at or near the soil line, often resulting in poor stand
establishment.
Fusarium wilt
Fusarium oxysporum Schlechtend.:Fr. f. sp. carthami Klisiewicz & Houston

14
 Symptoms:- yellowing and wilting of leaves, starting from the lower parts
and progressing upwards, along with stunting and vascular discoloration
in the stem.
Phytophthora root and stem rot
Phytophthora spp.
P. cactorum (Lebert & Cohn) J. Schröt.
P. cryptogea Pethybr. & Lafferty
P. drechsleri Tucker
P. nicotianae Breda de Hann var. parasitica (Dastur) G.M. Waterhouse = P.
parasitica Dastur
Symptoms:-s a dark brown to black discoloration on the stem, starting at
the soil line and extending upwards, along with root rot, wilting, and
premature plant death.
Pythium root rot
Pythium spp.
Symptoms:- seedling collapse, wilting, stunting, and discoloration of roots
and lower stems, which can range from reddish to dark brown or black.
Powdery mildew
Erysiphe cichoracearum DC.
(anamorph: Oidium asteris-punicei Peck)
Symptoms:-white, powdery spots or patches on leaves, stems, and buds,
which can later turn gray or brown, and infected leaves may yellow, curl,
or fall off.

15
Ramularia leaf spot
Ramularia spp.
Symptoms:- circular to irregular, brown, sunken spots (3-10mm) on
leaves, sometimes with yellow halos, and can also affect stems, nodes,
and flower bracts, leading to stunted plants and reduced seed production.

Rhizoctonia blight, stem canker

Rhizoctonia solani Kühn
(teleomorph: Thanatephorus cucumeris (A.B. Frank) Donk)
Symptoms:- sunken, reddish-brown to tan lesions on stems and roots,
potentially leading to seedling death and stunted growth.
Rust (foliage and hypocotyl)
Puccinia calcitrapae DC. var. centaureae (DC.) Cummins
= P. carthami Corda
P. verruca Thuem.

Symptoms:-
Safflower rust, caused by the fungus Puccinia carthami, manifests
assmall, raised, reddish-brown or rust-colored pustules on leaves, stems,
and sometimes pods, which can lead to premature leaf drop and yield
loss.
Sclerotinia stem rot and head blight

16
 Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) de Bary
Symptoms:-soft, watery lesions on stems and heads, eventually leading to
bleaching, tissue shredding, and the formation of black sclerotia.

Septoria leaf spot

Septoria spp.
Symptoms:- small, dark brown spots on leaves, often with a yellow halo,
that can enlarge and coalesce, leading to defoliation and potential yield
loss.

Verticillium wilt
Verticillium dahliae Kleb
Symptoms:-Verticillium wilt in safflower manifests as lower leaf yellowing
and shriveling, sudden wilting (especially during heat waves), and partial
plant wilting that may recover at night or in cooler conditions.

NEMATODES, PARASITIC

Root-knot
Meloidogyne spp.
Symptoms:-stunted growth, yellowing leaves, and wilting, with
characteristic galls or knots on the roots.

PARASITIC HIGHER PLANTS

Dodder -Cuscuta spp.

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Symptoms:-thin, bright yellow or orange, thread-like vines wrapping around the
stems and leaves, leading to weakened plants, reduced vigor, poor seed/fruit
development, and potentially death of infected plants.

Among these diseases, at present leaf spot/blight caused by Alternaria carthami

(Chowdhury) is widespread and have continued to be the major constraints in the
production and productivity of safflower all over the country in general as well as
in the state of Maharashtra particularly. The disease (A. carthami) has been
reported to cause 25 to 60 percent yield losses all over India and 20 to 80 per
cent in Maharashtra state along with drastic reduction in seed size, seed

volume, seed test weight as well as percent oil content.

Alternaria carthami is a necrotrophic plant pathogen. The fungus is in the order

Pleosporales and family Pleosporaceae. It was first isolated in India, has spread
globally and can have devastating effects on safflower yield, and resultant
oilseed production.[1] A. carthami is known to be seed-borne and appears as

irregular brown lesions on safflower leaves and stems.

Etiology:

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- Alternaria carthami is a fungal pathogen that belongs to the genus Alternaria.
- The fungus produces conidia (spores) that are dispersed by wind, water, or
insects. The conidia infect safflower plants through wounds or natural openings,
causing disease symptoms.

Epidemiology:
- Host range: Alternaria carthami primarily infects safflower, but it can also infect
other plants in the Asteraceae family.
- Geographic distribution: The disease is reported in various safflower-growing
regions worldwide, including India, the United States, Australia, and Canada.
- Environmental factors: The disease is favored by:
- High temperatures (20-30°C)
- High humidity (60-80%)
- Rainfall or irrigation
- Wind dispersal of conidia
- Disease cycle: The disease cycle involves:
1. Conidial production and dispersal
2. Infection of safflower plants
3. Colonization and symptom development
4. Production of new conidia and dispersal
- Infection sources: Primary infection sources include:
- Infected plant debris
- Contaminated soil
- Infected seeds.

MANAGEMENT
Integrated management of diseases in safflower involves a combination of
cultural, mechanical, biological, chemical, and resistant varieties practices.
Here's a comprehensive overview:

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Cultural Practices:
1. Crop rotation: Rotate safflower with non-host crops to break disease cycles.
2. Sanitation: Remove infected plant debris and weeds to reduce inoculum
sources.
3. Soil preparation: Improve soil structure and fertility to promote healthy plant
growth.
4. Irrigation management: Avoid excessive moisture, which can exacerbate
disease development.
5. Pruning: Prune plants to improve air circulation and reduce humidity.
Mechanical Controls:
1. Remove infected plants: Physically remove infected plants to prevent disease
spread.
2. Use physical barriers: Employ physical barriers, such as fine-mesh screens, to
prevent insect vectors from transmitting diseases.

Chemical and Biological Treatment and Its Requirements

Eco-friendly disease management in safflower is crucial for sustainable

agriculture, minimizing environmental impact, and ensuring long-term crop health

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and yield, especially in regions like Hegadihal, Karnataka, where safflower is a
significant crop. Disease resistant varieties like DSH-129,DSH-185,NARI-NH-
1,NARI-NH-15,MRSA-521,NARI-H-23,A-300 can be used as cultivars.

CONCLUSION
Integrated Disease Management (IDM) is crucial for ensuring crop health and
productivity in safflower.The disease occurs in plants by biotic and abiotic means
and causes a significant loss in the agriculture system. The success and
sustainability of IDM strategy, especially with resource poor farmers greatly
depends on their involvement in helping to generate locally specific techniques
and solutions suitable for their particular farming systems and
integrating control components that are ecologically sound and readily available
to the training and awareness raising of farmers, disease survey teams,
agricultural development officers, extension agents and policy makers remains to
be an important factor for the successful implementation of IDM strategies. IDM
is a disease control approach that uses all available management strategies to
maintain disease pressures below an economic injury threshold.
Importance of IDM:- IDM practices minimize disease outbreaks, reducing yield
losses.It ensures stable food production, meeting the demands of a growing
population and promotes eco-friendly practices, reducing chemical usage and
maintaining ecosystem balance. IDM practices increase farmers' income, reduce
production costs, and boost the agricultural economy
Role of farmers and Researchers.
Farmers, as practitioners, implement IDM strategies on their farms, while
researchers develop and validate IDM techniques, ensuring sustainable and
effective disease control.Farmers role includes observation and
feedback ,knowledge experience and adoption whereas for researchers it
includes development and validation,training and extension,monitoring and
evaluation,collaboration,research and innovation.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

www.icar.iior.org.in
www.agritech.tnau.ac.in

Kalpana Sastry, R., Ramachandram, M. and Prasad, M.V.R.(1993). Current

status of wilt disease of safflower in India.Proc. 3rdInternational Safflower Conf.,
(Li Dajue and HanYuanzhou, Eds.), June 9-13, 1993, Beijing, China, abst.pp.
635.

Murumkar DR, Indi DV, Gud MA, Shinde SK, Deshpande AN. Fungicidal
management of leaf spot of safflower caused by Alternaria carthami. J Maha.
Agric. Univ. 2009; 34(1):54-56.

Pawar SV, Zote AK, Navgire KD, Mehetre SP, Patil CB.Management of
Alternaria leaf spot in safflower using fungicides. J. Oilseeds Res. 2012; 29(Spl.
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Singh V, Prasad RD. Integrated management of pests and diseases in

safflower. Directorate of Oilseeds Research, Hyderabad, India, 2005, 49p.

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