Paper No.

: 10 Theories and Methods in Social-Cultural Anthropology

Module : 01 Introduction to Theories in Anthropology

Development Team

Principal Investigator
Prof. Anup Kumar Kapoor
Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi

Paper Coordinator Prof. S.M.Patnaik

Department of Anthropology ,University of Delhi

Content Writer Prof. S.M.Patnaik

Department of Anthropology ,University of Delhi

Content Reviewer Prof. Nilika Mehrotra,

Professor Jawaharlal Nehru University, Delhi

Theories and Methods in Social Cultural Anthropology

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Introduction to Theories in Anthropology
 Description of Module

Subject Name Anthropology

Paper Name 10 Theories and Methods in Social Cultural Anthropology

Module Name/Title Introduction to Theories in Anthropology

Module Id 01

Pre-requisites

Objectives

Keywords

Theories and Methods in Social Cultural Anthropology

Anthropology
Introduction to Theories in Anthropology
 Contents of the unit

Introduction
What is theory?
Elements of a theory
Hypothesis
Theory, Facts and Concepts
Anthropology before theory
Major Theoretical Traditions
Theories with in national tradition of India
Evolutionism
Diffusionism
Structure-functionalism
Structuralism
Post-structuralism
Postmodernism

Learning objectives
By the end of this unit, you will be able to

 Concept of theory
 Body of knowledge
 Set of propositions or postulates
 Nature of society, culture and human relationship
 Heuristic scheme or blue print of theories in Anthropology

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 Introducing Anthropological Theory

This module is going to introduce anthropological theories to you the way it developed in different national
traditions. Fredrik Barth et.al (2005) in the book ‘One discipline ,Four ways’ have traced the theoretical
development of the discipline of Anthropology in four different national traditions of Great Britain, Germany,
France and United States. Alan Barnard (2000) also traced the link between anthropological theories and
national traditions especially highlighting the British, American and French traditions. The module is divided in
to four sections. First one deals with the interface between theory and method in the discipline, second one
discusses the relationship between the facts and different logics of drawing inferences and generalizations, the
third section introduces the emergence and nature of various anthropological theories that we are going to
discuss in the remaining modules of the whole course and finally we shall attempt to situate the manner in
which anthropological theories consolidated with in the Indian national tradition.

What is a Theory?

Every discipline is grounded on its own set of theories which develop over a particular point of disciplinary
history. Unfolding of the discipline can be better understood in terms of its (i) theoretical rigor and (ii)
methodological orientation. It’s the theory that provides the broad frame work or orientation for
interpretation of facts and the methodology provides specific rules, the logical guidelines for collection and
analysis of the data in this regard. Theory provides the template of ideas to think, methodology provides the
techniques for collection of ideas so that they can be logically connected to one another in form of a
theoretical frame work. Thus theory and methodology are two important basis for sustaining the edifice of the
discipline.

The most important question remains before us – what is a theory? Theory is a set of propositions or
postulates explaining the nature of ‘society’, ‘culture’, ‘human behavior’ and ‘social relationships’. Theories, in
simpler terms, are statements that use various concepts and ideas as analytical tools or heuristic devices to
explain social phenomena of different scale and magnitude. Theories are generally able to explain a wide range
of phenomena through a limited set of central and significant thought categories. Thus concepts constitute the
basic elements and logics cement them together. The relationships among these concepts are weaved
together in such a manner giving rise to a series of propositions or a grand proposition which is a theoretical
explanation of the phenomena. Theory is thus a body of knowledge that explains a wide range of phenomena
from different cultural back ground.

Elements of a theory

Every theory comprises of certain elements. These elements are interconnected each giving rise to the others
and each shaping the other. Thus a meaningful set of ideas logically interconnected and capable of explaining
other phenomena come up. Anthropological theory, like any other social science theory, comprises of the
following elements: (i) Questions (ii) Assumptions (iii) Methods and (iv) Evidence.

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 Questions are the gaps in the system of knowledge. Many of our understandings are not perfect or complete.
The existing theories may explain the phenomena partly and therefore many questions remain unanswered
and that marks the beginning of the search for the new theories. The new theories are sought through
answering these questions. In other words, search for these questions may give rise to new theories. But the
point remains that how are this search carried out? Is there any specific manner in which it should be done?
What should mark the beginning of this search? What should be the point of departure?

The search for finding answer to these inexplicable phenomena often begins with some assumptions. The
anthropologists come up with certain probable or possible explanations. These are mere assumptions and not
the final statements. The assumptions are not accepted from the beginning. They are scrutinized, questioned
and verified before getting accepted. Assumptions if formulated systematically, takes the shape of a
hypothesis.

Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a broad statement pointing out a relationship between two variables under study. Variables are
social or biological phenomena whose value vary or differ from time to time or in different situations. The
variables can be measured with accuracy and precision. Some kind of relationship can be posited between two
seemingly unconnected variables. The relationship can be direct or inverse. If increase in one leads to increase
in other variable, the relationship is directly proportional. Similarly if decrease in one variable leads to decrease
in the other, then the relationship is also of directly proportional type. If increase in one variable leads to
decrease in the other (or the vice versa), then the relationship is of inversely proportional type.

The two variables we are talking of are also different nature. Depending on the phenomena in question one set
of variables may have independent existence and can manifest themselves without any support or help of the
other. Such variables are known as ‘Independent Variables’. While the second set of variables need the inputs
of the previous set of variables for their manifestations. The expressions of these variables are very much
connected to the other variables who determine the magnitude of the former. Thus they do not have any
independent existence; rather their manifestation depends on the magnitude of other variables. Therefore
these set of variables are called ‘Dependent Variables’. A good hypothesis is one which clearly makes a
statement about the relationship between independent variable and dependent variable which can be
measured following certain methods.

This takes us to the third important component of theory i.e. methods. We follow certain methods not only to
collect data but also to analyse them. Anthropology is a field science. Fieldwork is an important method in
anthropological research. There are other methods used in anthropology too. At this juncture it is important to
distinguish between technique and method. A technique is a tool or apparatus, verbal or mechanical, used for
eliciting information in the field .For example, observation, interview, questionnaire, case study, life histories
and genealogy etc. On the other hand method is a combination of various techniques. It is not only a mere
combination various techniques, but it refers to a complete set of rules and procedures for collection and
analysis of data .For example, comparative method, historical method, fieldwork method and survey or census
method.

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 The methods are used for collection and analysis of evidences. These are facts of social life grounded in the
empirical world. These evidences are analysed through certain logical procedure. Inferences are drawn
following two types of logical principles-inductive logic and deductive logic. When one moves from particular
to general i.e. after observing one instance moves to the second and third instance before generalizing about
the phenomena is called inductive method of generalization following inductive logic. In the second case if one
begins with the whole or the broad generalization and moves to verify it from particular instances then it is
called deductive method of generalizations based on deductive logic.

Theory, Facts and Concepts

There is a continuous feedback mechanism between theory and facts in the social world. The empirical world
has several social phenomena which can be regarded as facts. Facts are evidences that are relatively
unproblematic to understand or have more empirical reference in relation to other social phenomena which
may be based on confluence of facts. These may be regarded as building blocks of social theory or the basic
elements of generalizations. Existing theories, sometimes dated and obscure are basis for further questions or
some ethnographic work done earlier, or previously known possibilities or inductions based upon observations
may give rise to theory building. But finding of new facts on the basis of deductive or inductive method may
give rise to discovery of new facts from the empirical world or fresh interpretation of facts leading to
modifications in the existing theory.

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 In addition to facts, the concepts are also regarded as building blocks of theory. If facts are closer to the
empirical world’s concepts are derivations from it. At a very broad level we can say that if facts constitute the
empirical world, the concepts explain them. Concepts take us to the domain of abstraction linking theory and
facts. However, this generalization may appear too simplistic but points towards important analytical
possibilities.

Concepts are analytical tools or categories using which a variety of phenomena can be explained. Concepts get
weaved together in a grand scheme giving rise to a theory. These are mental constructs logically related to one
another giving rise to explanations in form of theories which are either of universal or of middle range nature.
In such cases theories explain a wide range of phenomena from a diversified cultural background. There are
also theories which can explain a phenomena occurring in the context of a given culture and hence they are
called as culture bound or culture specific theories.

Anthropology before theory

The early years of anthropology was marked with colonial writings on the non-western other mainly by the
travelers, missionaries and administrators. These writers tried to project a particular image of the non-western
societies which was based on their colonial agenda of establishing their racial linguistic and cultural superiority.
It was highly ethnocentric and reflected the colonial bias towards the ‘orient’. The cultural practices that
appeared to be odd in western standards constituted the subject matter of study. Cultural practices such as
head hunting, polyandry, tribal dormitories, sexual laxity among tribal communities became point of attraction
for colonial administrators, travelers and missionaries. Orient was painted in inferior hues in terms of race
language and culture. Thus the initial years of the discipline was marked with engagement with non-western
other with a specific agenda to show them in poor light. It hardly followed any logical principle for conducting
research. Anthropology as a discipline has also been criticized for playing in to the hands of its colonial masters
going against the interests of poor and marginalized. However, professional anthropologists of orient and
global south are trying hard to come out of colonial hangover by developing anthropology in their own national
tradition with indigenous theory.

Major Theoretical Traditions

There are many anthropological theories within the national traditions of Great Britain and USA. The British
School mainly emphasized on the issues of society, social institutions and relationships. While the American
tradition focused on culture, cultural beliefs, practices and ideologies. The French tradition explored the
intricacies of human mind and its functioning following a universal principle. The anthropological theories we
are going to discuss here are:

Evolutionism

Diffusionism

Historical Particularism

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 Structure-Functionalism

Neo-evolutionism

Structuralism

New-ethnography

Post-structuralism

Post modernism

Theories with in national tradition of India

Needless to mention here that this is not an exhaustive list of anthropological theories that the unfolding of
the discipline has witnessed so far. There are many other theories either independent or subsumed under the
ones mentioned above. However, other modules of this course will outline in detail all the available theories
with in the discipline of anthropology. The theories chosen here because they provide the major shifts in the
theoretical and methodological orientation of the discipline.

Evolutionism

Evolutionism in anthropology was inspired by writings of Hebert Spencer and Charles Darwin. Evolutionists
tried to study evolution or emergence of social institutions in pre-literate society who never had any written
history. Henry Maine, L H Morgan, E B Tylor, James Frazer and Mc Lennan were some of the scholars who
contributed to this school of thought. Henry Maine’s work on evolution of law connected it to various social
practices such as authority of father and ideas associated with patria potesta. These were called legal fictions
which constituted the very basis of study of evolution of law. Tylor studied the manner in which early forms of
religion evolved in to the modern ones. He examined the logic used by the primitive mind to arrive at an
understanding of soul as different from body. Animism, the belief in soul gave rise to ancestor worship and
polytheism and finally to monotheism. Morgan’s scheme of Savagery, Barbarism and Civilization is an
explanation of the evolution of technology and associated socio economic formations. However, all these
efforts were made to arrive at an understanding of the evolution of social phenomena in societies about which
there was no written records. Thus these societies were devoid of authentic history. This was one of the
reasons for which these scholars were criticized. They were critiqued also for being speculative, unscientific
and highly conjectural and imaginary pursuits.

Diffusionism

Parallel to evolutionism came up another theoretical tradition which investigated the culture change through
the process of migration and diffusion. Migration takes place when the carriers of culture move from one place
to another there by bringing out diffusion of culture traits. But diffusion per se implies that culture traits move
either by imitation or borrowing from one culture to another culture. Here the people do not move but the
culture traits and practices get transmitted or get diffused over a larger area. There are different schools of
diffusion (i) British School of diffusion believed that Egypt is the source of all civilizations. On the fertile banks
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 of river Nile the seeds sprouted spontaneously, agriculture came up leading to a well-developed hydraulic
system followed with invention of wheel and alphabets. The people who invented it were worshippers of Sun.
From Egypt civilization spread to different corners of the world. (ii) The German School or Kulturkreise school
explains the process of diffusion by examining its spread in different culture circles. Kulturkreise in Germany
means culture circle. The culture traits get diffused from one region to another in terms of concentric culture
circles. The older the culture trait, larger is the area of its spread. This formula to determine the origin and
spread of culture traits came to be known as age-area hypothesis. (iii) The American School of diffusion came
up with the idea of culture areas, each having a set of culture traits distributed with in a particular geographical
area. A L Kroeber classified the different culture areas in North America on the basis of occurrence of particular
set of culture traits.

Historical Particularism

While the scholars of diffusion came up with grand theories explaining the intricacies of the process of
diffusion, Franz Boas, an American anthropologist severely critiqued the theories propounded by various
schools of diffusion. He believed that theorization should be done only after adequate data has been
generated on the phenomena in question. He argued that for the understanding of human history and
migration we need to understand it in the context of a particular culture by emphasizing on a four fold
approach to study race, language, culture and history. This is what came to be known in anthropology as
historical particularism.

Structure-functionalism

As histories of these preliterate communities were not available some anthropologists felt that there is no
need to run after something which does not exist. At the same time these anthropologists were trying to make
anthropology more and more scientific. Structure-functionalism brought out a scientific orientation to the
discipline. The pioneers of this theory argued that anthropology is a science of humanity and therefore it
should move away from being conjectural and speculative. As a science it needs to come up with laws
governing human societies and laws can be deciphered through comparison and generalization. In a humanity
which is characterized by highly variable culture, comparison becomes problematic. Therefore, Radcliffe-Brown
came up with concept of ‘social structure’ which, he claimed, facilitates comparison. Social structure is
understood as a particular mode of arrangements of parts. The parts can be interpersonal or dyadic
relationship between person and person (Radcliffe-Brown) or relationship between enduring groups such as
lineages and clans (Evans-Pritchard) or critical/cardinal relationship (Firth). It is only through comparison and
generalization that we arrive at generation of law. The idea of function was intricately connected to the idea of
structure. Every structure carries out its activities in such a manner that it fulfills certain needs of the individual
or the social system. This is the function of the social institutions. Malinowski identified seven basic needs that
culture fulfills in all known human societies. Culture is a vast apparatus or instrument which satisfies the basic
human needs. Ideas of structure and function have given rise to an empirical understanding of culture and
society known as structure-functionalism.
Neo- evolutionism

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 While the classical evolutionism was severely criticized for being speculative, a renewed interest in the idea of
evolution was witnessed in the writings of few American anthropologists such as Gordon Childe, Julian Steward
and Leslie White. These scholars felt that there is nothing wrong in examining the evolutionary process in case
of preliterate societies where there is no written history. But it is important to select the appropriate units for
study. The classical evolutionists selected units like religion, family, marriage study of which became
problematic. Instead they selected units such as time, energy, technology, environment and the associated
social variables. Thus several schemes of evolution, unilinear and multilinear, were propounded explaining how
harnessing of natural resources and energy has given rise to a particular form of social adaptation which is an
evolved form from the earlier ones.

Structuralism

Structuralism investigates how human mind perceives things through the principle of ‘binary opposition’. This
was influenced by the theoretical tradition of structural linguistics. The principles of binary contrast such as
raw - cooked, left – right and man-woman are important in providing a structure to the phenomena.
Structuralism is often regarded as a method which is neither scientific nor humanities. Structuralism was
deeply inspired by the intellectual revolution in the field of structural linguistic which wanted understand the
unconscious linguistic infrastructure and not the surface structure of the linguistic phenomena. Likewise the
structuralists are interested in the deeper structure of the social phenomena which can be deciphered by using
a structural method which is a middle path between science and humanities.

New ethnography

In early 1960s, an intellectual current in America started studying the mental processes of actors belonging to
different cultures. Every culture has its own mechanism of perceiving, classifying and understanding
phenomena around itself. They started to collect folk classifications of color, animals, seasons, plants, soils and
human relationship. All these classifications have a logical underpinning in accordance with the cultural
grammar. They believed that every culture has its own logic and reason. To unravel this cultural logic is the task
of new ethnographer. They are called new ethnographers because they did not remain confined to the study of
behavior but explored human cognition and are also known as cognitive anthropologists. Therefore, If
structuralism focusses on one cultural rule of binary opposition to understand how human mind functions ,
new ethnography tries to arrive at multiple rules for unraveling the cultural grammar of different cultures
.David Schneider and victor Turner are the pioneers in the field.

Post-structuralism

Post-structuralists attempt to synthesize the binarity between objective and subjective phenomena. Theory of
Practice by Pierre Bourdieu is one of the examples of post structuralist theory along with that of Michael
Foucault .These scholars explore body, mind and culture interface. Bourdieu’s ideas of habitus, doxa and the
field are important concepts of theory of practice.

Postmodernism

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 Postmodernist scholars believe that truth is not singular. Most of the social science theories came up during a
particular period of human history and in a particular world region. Singularity of social voice is critiqued.
Multiple voices and contested versions find legitimate place in post modernism.

In India these theories find different manifestations. Concepts and theories given by Indian scholars such as
sanskritizations, westernization, dominant caste, sacred complex and nature man sprit complex are in
connection with the major theoretical developments of world anthropology. Indian anthropology has also
developed the innovative way of combining Indological sources with the Empirical insights for building up an
ingenious theory with in the national tradition of India.

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