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EMERGENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY

PSYCHOLOGICAL THOUGHT IN SOME MAJOR EASTERN SYSTEM

It is naturally believed that psychology as a subject originated in Western world. However, a

deep reading of Eastern text like Bhagavad Gita, ideas of Buddhism, Sufism and Integral
yoga gives an insight into importance of psychological thoughts in the Eastern system.

The goal of Indian psychology is self-realization, self is major concept to bring about behavior
change.

INDIAN SCRIPTURES

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The Vedas
The Vedas are Hindu texts written in text script. The name "Veda" is derived from a Sanskrit
word that means "knowledge."
• The Vedas include vital information on the beginnings of existence and how to respond
to it.
• The Vedas were composed between 1200 and 400 BCE.
• Regarded as the most holy of Hindu concepts
Types of Vedas
Rigveda: The earliest of the writings, having ten books (mandalas) and 1028 hymns totaling
10600 lines.
• These statements are about religious attendance and practise, and they are founded on
universal understanding that the sages who first heard them understood.
Sama Veda: The Sama Veda is a collection of liturgical tunes, chants, and texts utilised for
song lyrics.
• Has 1549 verses and is divided into two sections: gana and arcika. The sounds of Sama
Veda stimulate dance, while the lyrics raise the spirit.
Yajur Veda: The Yajur Veda is a compendium of ceremonial worship formulae, mantras, and
chants.
• Yajur Veda is based on the Rigveda; the ritual of religious observances is the major
focus of its 1,875 verses.
• There are two sections: Dark Yajur Veda refers to clear and well-organised verses,
whilst light Yajur Veda refers to unclear and disorganised verses.

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Atharva Veda: concentrates on everyday magic spells used to fend off bad spirits, danger,
chants, hymns, prayers, weddings, and funerals. Atharva is named after the priest ATHARVAN,
who was a religious innovator and healer.

Upanishads
The term "Upanishad" is derived from a Sanskrit phrase that means "sit down near,"
emphasising the importance of pupils sitting close to their instructor and paying close attention
while he recites significant lessons.
This tradition was part of the guru-shishya parampara.

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BHAGAVAD GITA

The Bhagavad Gita, often referred to as the Gita, is a 700 verse Hindu scripture that is part of
the epic Mahabharata (part of Bhishma parva), written by Vyasa (dictated by Vyasa &
written by Lord Ganesha). Bhagavad Gita deals with human day-to-day worries, anxieties and
inhibitions.

It’s a narrative framework of dialogue between Arjun and Lord Krishna, considered as an early
depiction of psychological counselling.

Religion- Sanatana Dharma

Chapters of Bhagavad Gita

Total 18 chapters and each chapter is named as yoga, with 701 slokas

Yoga is science of individual consciousness attaining communion with the ultimate

consciousness. Each chapter is highly specialized revealing the path to attain realization of the
ultimate truth

KARMA YOGA

Visada yoga Arjuna Visada Yoga- Arjuna stuck by grief & pity, he gives up

Sankhya Yoga Distinction between material body and eternal spiritual soul

Karma yoga Role of karma in one's life

Jnana yoga Spiritual knowledge of soul, of god, and their relationship

Karma-Sannyasa Yoga Outwardly performing all actions but inwardly renouncing their fruits.

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Dhyana yoga meditative practice (The power of ashtanga yoga)

BHAKTI YOGA

Paramhansa Vijnana Yoga Knowledge of the absolute.

Akshara parabrahma yoga Remembering Lord Krishna in devotion throughout one's

life and especially at time of death

Raja vidya-guhya yoga power of bhakti and devotional service in attaining the
transcendental self.

Vibhuthi Vistara yoga Everything in material and spiritual world are energy

Viswarupa darsana yoga Krishna grants Arjuna divine vision

Bhakti yoga pure devotional service to Lord Krishna

JNANA YOGA

Kshetra Kshetrajna Vibhaga Individual who understands the difference between the body, the
Yoga soul and supersoul attain liberation from material world

Gunatraya Vibhaga Yoga Three modes or qualities of material nature

i.e., goodness, passion and ignorance

Purushottam Yoga Ultimate purpose of vedic knowledge detach oneself from the
entanglement of the material world

Daivasura Sampad Vibhaga Those who possess demoniac qualities and don’t follow regulation
Yoga of scriptures, attain lower birth and further material bondage

Shraddha Traya Vibhaga Three types of faith and its outcomes.

Yoga

Moksha-upadesa Yoga Krishna explains the meaning of renunciation and the effects of the
modes of nature on human consciousness. Conclusion of Gita

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Importance of Gita in Psychology

Gita can be considered as "Vedic psychological session" of approximately two hours, which
is sufficient for Lord Krishna to raise Arjun, who has sought his guidance, from a state of
suffering to the state of enlightenment. Case study for- lessons in psychotherapy – resolution
of conflict and successful resumption of action from a state of acute anxiety and guilt laden
depression that precipitated inaction.
The Bhagavad-Gita addresses the cause and elimination of suffering, the levels of the
mind, the mechanics of experiencing transcendental consciousness, and the
development of higher states of consciousness, or enlightenment, in which life is lived
at the highest level of bliss, effectiveness, and universality.
Bhagavad Gita is one of the important eastern philosophies which gave importance to
emotional intelligence. Emotionally intelligent person is termed as Sthithapragnya

Gita also gives us a living philosophy for happiness of mind and peace. Detached attachment
is a wonderful formula to avoid shoka (sorrow) in life and to move on.

Emphasis on KARMA (ACTION)

Intelligent action (Gnana Karma) without performance anxiety and without the
greed for the fruits of the work (Nishkama Karma) and never to have the choice
of non-performance of duty (Akarma) emerges as a key point in the teaching of
Bhagavad Gita.

Transcend the clash of all dharmas that the human mind can conceive, and to discover
a new dharma, the law of divine action, Divyam karma

The very first word in Bhagavad Gita is “Dharma” and the last word is “Mama”. “Mama
Dharma” – My duties, responsibilities, rights, ethics, morals, attitude, action, activities and so
on.

6 Main Components

1. THE CHARIOT– The chariot represents our physical body (Tanu).

2. KRISHNA AS THE CHARIOTEER– Lord Krishna represents our higher cognitive
abilities, especially in the face of adversity i.e., the intellect (Buddhi).
3. ARJUNA– Arjuna represents the self.

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4. HORSES– The horses represent our senses and limbs (Indriyagalu) by virtue of which
we perceive and move ahead in our lives. These have no restraint and without a
rein/lagaam can wander off in any direction.
5. THE REIN of the horses- The reins in the hands of Lord Krishna controlling the horses
represents our mind (Manas).
6. THE BATTLEGROUND– the battleground represents our life (Jeevana). Our life is
a continuing and continual process of daily battles fought-won and lost

Purusha & Prakriti: Two Ultimate Principles of Existence

Samkhya philosophy (6 schools of Indian philosophy) considers reality as composed of

two independent, eternal principles-

Purusha (literal meaning man) is the soul, the self, the spirit, pure consciousness, and the only
source of consciousness. It is beyond perception, impossible to describe. The principle of
spiritual energy

Prakriti is that which is created, it is nature or matter, including human mind and emotion.
Prakriti is Energy and its process. Entire universe is created out of it. The human soul evolves
through at least three levels of Prakriti, its three gunas: TAMAS, RAJAS, SATTVA.

• The first level is the tāmasic or the darkened state of inertia and utter resistance to
change (stable)
• the rājasic or the egoic stage of kinesis and dynamic movement (activity)
• there is the third or sāttvic stage wherein the individual learns to subordinate his ego
and take from life only what is rightfully his (lightness)

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CONSCIOUSNESS IN INDIAN TRADITION

Described in Adwaitha Vedanta, believes in monist. Everything is one, made up of

metaphysical energy.

Prakrithi & Purush same

• Jagratavastha- wakeful state- materialistic things, desire

• Swapnavastha- dream state- fluctuation; subconscious thinking of nirvana
• Prajnavastha- transcendal state- pure knowledge, complete focus on spirituality;
• Turiyavastha- higher consciousness- nirvana achieved

Pancha Kosha

In Hinduism, as per Taittiriyopanishad, soul (atma or bliss) is wrapped inside five layers
(pancha kosha) from Arishadvarga (kama, lobha, krodha, mada, moha & matsarya)

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Annamaya kosha food sheath (outermost layer)

Pranamaya kosha vital air sheath or life force

Manomaya kosha mind as distinct from intelligence

Vigyanmaya kosha intellect sheath

Anandmaya kosha Bliss sheath (innermost layer

BUDDHISM

Believed to have started in India by Sidharth Goutham Buddha

• Buddha born into a royal family in Kapilavastu between 566 and 450 BCE (in Nepal)
• Meaning of word Buddha - awakened one referring to enlightment.
• Explains psychology of transformation and theory of cognition
• Buddhism focuses on personal spiritual development and strives for true nature of life.
• Ideal human being- bodhisattva

Different Types of Buddhism

a) Theravada Buddhism/ Hinayana Buddhism/ school of elders

focuses on individual enlightenment, experience as well as monastic life; holds original

teachings and themes of bhuddha

4 steps- sotapanna (stream enterer), Sakadagami (once-returner), Anagami (non-returner),

arahant (return to nothingness called as anata)

b) Mahayana Buddhism/the great vehicle

Focuses on the collective freedom from suffering and teaching enlightment. Zen buddhism,
Tibetan buddhism, tantrik buddhism are formed under Mahayana bhuddhism. Less strict
than Theravada

Sufferings are collective

c) Vajrayana bhuddhism/way of the diamond/thunderbolt vehicle

it’s the quicker path to enlightenment; spiritual and physical factors affect each other. They
encourage rituals chantings and tantra techniques.

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Three Basic Assumption

• Nothing has soul

• Nothing is permanent
• Life is suffering

Four Noble Truths of Bhuddhism

When Siddhartha Gautama achieved his spiritual breakthrough beneath the Bodhi tree, He
realized particular truths about the world, these are called the four noble truths:

1. Duhkha: existence of suffering

2. Duhkha samudaya/tanha: craving and attachment cause of suffering
3. Duhkha- nirodha: cessation of suffering
4. Duhkha - nirodha marga: there is a path to cessation and suffering

The Eight-Fold Paths in Buddhism

The path to cessation of suffering is an eight-fold path, which helps a person to attain
the state of nirvana by freeing him from attachments and delusions
Nirvana, the state to which all Buddhists aspire, is the cessation of desire and hence
the end of suffering.

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Four stages of right concentration

i) Reasoning and investigation
ii) Unruffled meditation free from reasoning
iii) Detachment from joy of tranquility
iv) detachment from the bodily case

Literatures in Buddhism
Tripitaka (triple basket) is traditional term for ancient collection of Buddhist
scriptures. Of all the collections of Buddhist writings, the first and best known is the
Pali Canon
Pali is the dead language related to Sanskrit and perhaps similar to the language the
Buddha spoke.
Three divisions of Tripitaka
a) Sutta (Buddha's words, teachings and doctrines of Buddhism)
b) Vinaya (monastic rules and regulations)
c) Abhidhamma (scholastic works)

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SUFISM
Islam literally means ‘peaceful surrender’ in Arabic. This refers to the process of
yielding of human will to the Divine Will, and ultimately the reconciliation and the
unification of the two.
Sufism is mystical or inward aspect of Islam. Sufism derived from ‘sufi’, means yogi and refers
to someone who has reached the goal. (Some argue that the term is related to the Arabic word
‘saafi’, meaning purity.)
Sustains on the concept of Tawhid (Oneness of God)
The substance of Sufism is the Truth and the meaning of Sufism is the selfless
experiencing and actualization of the Truth.
Sufism practiced in the intention to go towards the Truth, by means of love and devotion.
This is called the Tarigat, the spiritual path or way towards God. They consider love to be the
essence of all religions and the cause of creation and its Continuation.
Ultimate aim: self-knowledge & self-acceptance

Man possesses three natures, viz.

• Sensual, which corresponds to the Indian Tamas.

• Intellectual, somewhat like the Indian Rajas.
• Spiritual or the Indian Satva.

The selection and following of a spiritual guide are the most important duty of a Sufi. A bad or
imperfect guide may lead him to evil or leave him imperfect and bewildered. He must use all
his intellectual ability and human endeavor to find out the true guide and once obtained, he
must obey his direction.

The system has two aspects: (1) Knowledge and (2) Practice.

According to the Sufis, the objective of man's creation is the acquisition of the knowledge of
God. Knowledge of God includes the knowledge of the Creator and the creations. It can be
gained only in intuition. Heart of the man is the mirror to see the God, which is polluted by
desires, therefore it should be cleansed.

The practice is two-fold: Firstly, to practice detachment from the worldliness and secondly
to develop love of God through Muraqaba (Meditation) and Muhasaba (Self-
examination) etc.

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The practice is metaphorically called Safr (Journey) to God and the stages of spiritual
attainment on it are described as Muqamat (gyations/spiral). The Salik (Practicians) realizes
spiritual moods called Hal (States) at some of the stations and at the end.

Four Stages of Sufism

According to Ibn Al-Arabi, the great Andalusian Sufi master, Islam consists of four
dimensions / stages, of practice and understanding in Sufism,

1. Sharia (means road)- exotic religious law. YOURS AND MINE

consists of teachings of Islam, basically the morality and ethics found in all religions. It
provides guidance to us for living properly in this world.
2. Tariqa-the mystical path. MINE IS YOURS AND YOURS IN MINE
When one enters the tariqa, he or she is initiated into a Sufi order with a help of a teacher
(sheikh) who has experience and knowledge of the path. Just as the Shariah refers to the
external dimension of religion, the Tariqah refers to the inner practices of Sufism.
3. Haqiqa-truth. NO MINE AND NO YOURS
the inner meaning of the practices and guidance found in the Shariah and Tariqah. It is
the direct experience of the mystical states of Sufism, direct experience of the presence
of God within.
4. Marifa-gnosis (mystical understanding of God/reality). POSSESS NOTHING
superior wisdom or knowledge of Spiritual Truth. This is a deep level of inner knowing,
beyond Haqiqah. More than momentary Spiritual experience, Marifah refers to an
ongoing state of atonement with God and with Truth. It is the knowledge of Reality,
attained by a very few.

Islam has prescribed certain practices for Muslims for attaining perfection in life. These
practices are Kalimah (basic beliefs), Salat (ritual prayer), Sawm (fasting), Hajj
(pilgrimage) and Zakal (donation). But there is another method which is called Ma'rifat
(knowledge acquired through experience). It is called the path of Sufis. It has seven stages
which are called Maqamat.

• Repentence (Tawbah)- the sins are abandoned and it is resolved never to return to
them. A novice should think of his sins with deep regret. Others should repent for
forgetting God. They should forget their sins because the thought of the sins comes
between them and God.

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• Abstinence (Wisr)- It means one should refrain himself from indulgence.

• Renunciation (Zuhd)- It means that one should give up voluntarily those things which
give physical enjoyment.
• Poverty (Faqr)- It means to be stripped of every wish that can turn one's thought from
God.
• Patience (Sabr)- It means to keep mental equilibrium in adversity in distress and in
trials from God
• Trust (Tawakkul)- It means complete dependence on God in all affairs
• Satisfaction (Ridza)- the Sufi does everything to please God.

The end of the Sufi path is Fana followed by Baqa.

Fana means passing away of the individual self. Fana is a state of losing or
forgetting self- consciousness in a state of ecstasy.
In the highest stage of Fana, even the consciousness of attaining Fana disappears.
This stage is known as Fana al-Fana which makes the beginning of the final stage.
Baqa means passing from the phenomenal self to the real self.

Two advanced states of consciousnss

1. Annihilation (fana)- no barrier between self and God
2. Return (baqa)- rebirth as whole fully integrated human being

Paths Of Sufism

✓ Devotional
✓ Service
✓ Remembrance
✓ Community

Triadic Foundation of Sufi Psychology

1. Nafs (self, ego or psyche),
2. Qalb (heart)
3. Ruh (spirit)

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Spiritual destiny of a human being depends on whether soul or nafs, becomes the
eventual winner of inner battle (jihad) between tendencies exercised by nafs and
higher qualities of the soul.
NAFS
Aspect of the psyche translated as ego or self-lover. Agency of human will and is
product of bio-psycho-social development.
It can be viewed along a continuum, and has the potential of functioning from the
grossest to the highest level. The self at its lowest level refers to our negative traits
and tendencies, controlled by emotions, desires and its gratification.

LEVELS OF NAFS

Nafs-ammarah (the commanding self) encompasses three levels of nafs, these are-
✓ Mineral/inorganic self (nafs-al-jamaadi)- generate inertia
✓ Vegetable/organic self (nafs-al-habaati)- desires for food
✓ Animal self (nafs-al-haywaani)- sexual and distinctive tendencies

QALB
In Sufi psychology the heart refers to the spiritual heart and not the physical organ.
According to Sufi psychology emotions are from the self or nafs, not from the heart.
RUH
The spirit Ruh (innermost dimension called ‘baatin’) is in direct connection with the
Divine, even if one is unconscious of that connection.

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Ruh has seven levels; Each level represents the stages of evolution, and the process that it goes
through in its growth.

Mineral vegetable animal personal human secret

secret of secret soul

INTEGRAL YOGA

A psychological framework for understanding the total human being is called integral
psychology. Four general postulates essential to an integral world view: non-duality,
multidimensionality, holism, and evolution.

Yoga is known as a means of attaining spiritual liberation, mukti or moksha.

Integral yoga or purna yoga sometimes also called the supramental yoga, based on the
philosophy and practice of Sri Aurobindo, who authored various texts in yoga and spirituality.

Aim: transformation of the entire being (Physical, Vital, Mental, Psychic, and Spiritual).
Meaning of yoga according to Aurobindo is join eternal consciousness with true self

Can reach eternal bliss/ SATCHIT ANANDA

According to Integral Yoga, outer being is capable of experiencing only a narrow range of
stimuli, while inner being connects the outer being and psychic.

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Process of Sadhana(practice) leads to awakening and activation of inner being and with the
opening of the chakras, outer being get access to universal bands of consciousness.

✓ Inconscience/unconscious- lowest form of consciousness

Gradient of
✓ Subconscient- next higher level of consciousness consciousness
✓ Sadhana (higher mind+ spiritual mental grades)

PLANES OF CONSCIOUSNESS

Illumined mind- operate visually

intuitive mind- knowledge gained by intuition

over mind- cosmic consciousness

super mind- see truth from all side

Integral yoga system includes the practices of asana (yoga postures), pranayama (breathing
exercises), and meditation. Integral Yoga synthesizes the various branches of Yoga into a
comprehensive lifestyle system.

The aim is to promote the harmonious development of every aspect of the individual.

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Triple Transformation

PSYCHIC TRANSFORMATION: You can transform your consciousness by the opening of

the psychic being within the heart.

PSYCHICISATION: Psychicisation is a turn inward, so that one realizes the

psychic being, the psychic personality or Divine Soul, in the core of one's being.
The Divine Soul serves as a spiritual Guide in the yoga, and enables one to transform
the outer being.

SPIRITUAL TRANSFORMATION: This leads to realization of Cosmic Self. The final

result of this recurring ascent descent- assimilation process is known as Liberation of the Soul.

SPIRITUALISATION: As a result of the Psychicisation, light, peace, and power

descend into the body, transforming all of its parts, physical, vital, and mental. This is
the Spiritual transformation, or Spiritualisation. It is equivalent to "enlightenment", as
found in Vedanta and Buddhism.

INTERMEDIATE ZONE: Aurobindo asserted that spiritual aspirants may pass

through an intermediate zone, refers to a dangerous and misleading transitional
spiritual state between ordinary consciousness and true spiritual realization (like astral
plane)

SUPRAMENTALISATION

Supramentalisation is the realization of the Super mind, or Supramental consciousness, and

the resulting transformation of the entire being.

Sapta Chatushtaya/ "Seven Quadrates"

Sri Aurobindo describes several results and different stages depicting the stages of
development in integral yoga, called together the Sapta chatushtaya/ "seven quadrates".

Shanti (peace, calm)

Shakti (power),
Vijnana (knowledge),
Sharira (body)
Karma (divine work),
Brahma (realization of brahman)

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Siddhi (realization)

The Six Branches of Integral Yoga

Hatha Yoga Combines asanas with pranayama, and deep relaxation.

Raja Yoga Path of meditation and self-discipline, the teachings of Raja Yoga are a
golden key to unlock all health, happiness, peace, and joy.

Bhakti Yoga Total love and surrender to God would aid

Karma Yoga the practitioner on the path to enlightenment. selfless service, a form of
meditation in action. Lives without any expectation

Jnana Yoga the path of wisdom, involves study, analysis, and the cultivation of
greater awareness.

Japa Yoga or one utilizes a mantra, that mantra represents and invokes in one's system
mantra a particular aspect of the cosmic vibration.
repetition

ACADEMIC PSYCHOLOGY IN INDIA

Psychology as an academic discipline made a new beginning in the first decade of 20th
century. Initial years were marked by the influence of West-oriented academic psychology on
Indian psychologists. Thus, psychology in India remained discounted from its own vast
storehouse of knowledge inherent in Indian philosophical texts.

Pre-Independence Era

Unfortunately, philosophical roots in the Indian tradition have not influenced the development
of modern psychology in India. The development of the discipline in India continues to be
dominated by western psychology.

Sir Asutosh Mukherjee, the planning head of the University of Calcutta decided to include
“Experimental Psychology” in the PG courses at Calcutta University (Kolkata). Eminent
philosopher Dr. Brojendra Nath Seal, and King George, Professor of the same University

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drafted the syllabus in 1905 and established the first laboratory (Second Experimental
psychology lab in Asia)

Later this laboratory upgraded as the first psychology department.

University was greatly influenced by the Indian psychologist Dr. N.N. Sengupta who was
trained in USA with Hugo Munsterberg, a student of Wundt.

Psychology was included as a separate section in the Indian Science Congress in 1923.

The Indian Psychological Association was founded in 1924 and the Indian Journal of
Psychology, the first psychology journal in India, appeared the very next year.

Professor G. Bose was trained in Freudian psychoanalysis and established Indian

Psychoanalytical Association in 1922 and received his first Ph.D. from Calcutta on the
concept of repression. Established Lumbini Park Mental Hospital in Calcutta in 1940, and in
1947 brought out a journal 'Samiksha'.

The Department started an Applied Psychology Wing in 1938.

In 1924, Mr. M.V.Gopalaswamy was heading the department in Mysore and he was trained
in ‘Psychological Assessments’.

Pre -independence was a phase with emphasis on experimental, psychoanalytic and

psychological testing research

Post Independence Era

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After independence, in 1960s marked a phase of expansion of psychology in India and

identification of Indian contexts.

Post 1960s- psychology in India became relevant for Indian society; phase of problem-
oriented research

Psychology witnessed an explosive growth with departments of psychology opening up in old

universities as well as in continually widening circle of new universities and 11T's, and 11M's.
Separate psychology departments started largely between years 1940 and 1960.

• 1946- Psychology dept. at University of Patna

• 1954- Bureau of Psychology, Allahabad
• 1956- UGC
• 1955- NIMHANS Bangalore
• 1962- CIP Ranchi
• 1968- Indian Association of Clinical Psychologists
• 1968- Indian Council of Social Science Research ICSSR

Pioneers of Indian Psychology

Narendra Nath Sen Gupta: He is considered one of the pioneers of psychology in India.
Gupta's work focused on experimental psychology, perception, and psychophysics. He
established the first psychology laboratory in India at the University of Calcutta in 1915.

G.S. Surya: A prominent Indian psychologist, Surya made significant contributions to the
understanding of cognitive processes, especially memory. He also played a role in the
development of psychological testing in India.

Sir Giridranath Bose: first person to receive a Ph.D. in psychology in India was. He earned
his Ph.D. in psychology from the University of Calcutta in 1920, marking a significant
milestone in the history of psychology in India. Bose's contributions helped pave the way for
the development of psychology as a recognized academic discipline in the country.

K.C. Dutt: was known for his work in the field of clinical psychology. He contributed to the
understanding and assessment of mental health in India.

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D.N. Mukerji: D.N. Mukerji was a psychologist and philosopher who worked on the
intersection of Indian philosophy and psychology. He emphasized the need to develop
indigenous concepts in psychology.

Ajita Chakraborty: Chakraborty was a pioneering psychologist who made significant

contributions to the study of child development and educational psychology in India.

Nalini Kanta Brahma: Brahma was known for his work in the field of industrial and
organizational psychology. He contributed to understanding human behavior in work settings.

Acharya Tulsi: A Jain monk and scholar, Acharya Tulsi made contributions to the field of
psychology by integrating Jain philosophy and psychology in his writings.

The Move of Addressing Social Issues in 1970's

✓ India's Independence from the colonial rule in 1947 did bring changes in the content
and concerns of psychological research.
✓ The National Government recognized the importance of social science teaching and
research in attaining the objectives of national reconstruction and social development.
✓ Psychologists began to realize that they have a responsibility to engage in socially
relevant research (e.g.: partition of india).
✓ Ministry of Education procured the services of Gardner Murphy through UNESCO
in 1950 to develop research to investigate the causes of communal violence. Many
Indian psychologists collaborated on this project which culminated in the book edited
by Murphy in 1953 entitled 'In the Minds of Men'.
✓ Counselling and guidance centres were established-
o Guidance bureau at Patna,
o U.P Psychological bureau (Bhatia, Sohan Lal & S.N. Malhotra),
o Bihar Psychological bureau (Mohsin),
o Parsi Panchayat Vocational Guidance bureau at Bombay for students.
✓ With increasing emphasis on public awareness programs for health, family planning,
agricultural innovations, attitude change became a major topic of research
✓ The Ahmedabad Textile Industries Research Association (ATIRA) was established in
1950, where Kamla Chowdhury conducted large-scale surveys to study motivational
problems in the textile industries.

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✓ Indian armed forces also showed interest in using psychological tests in personnel
selection. For this, the Psychological Research Wing of the Defence Science
Organization was set up in 1949.
✓ 1950s- 1960s, understanding labor-management relationship and job efficiency.
Ganguli’s book (1961), “Industrial Productivity and Motivation”.
✓ Communal and caste conflicts being perennial problems in India, social prejudice,
intergroup relations and socialization of the Indian child emerged as major research
interest.

1990s: Paradigmatic Concerns, Disciplinary Identity Crisis

Early attempts at formulation of Indian Psychology were rejected by psychologists in India

who were trained in the empirical tradition. The term Indian Psychology acquired a pejorative
connotation. Reasons for such resistance and rejection of psychology grounded in traditional
ideas is primarily due to the negative attitude that we have inherited from our colonial past on
the one hand and the influence of the scientific worldview on the other

In most universities, psychology departments were established by splitting Philosophy

departments. Therefore, faculties of philosophy moved to psychology for opportunities, and to
acquire methodological training and mastery of statistical techniques. In their enthusiasm to
establish a new identity as scientists, these faculty members with a background in philosophy
completely dissociated themselves from their parent discipline.

Sixty years of Western psychology in India had not yielded any significant discoveries. Nandy
(1974) argued, "Indian psychology has become not merely imitative and subservient but
also dull and replicative". K.G. Agrawal (1973) called psychology in India as that of
“adoptology”.

Indian psychologists were increasingly marginalized in the society. A strong need was felt to
return to the cultural roots. D. Sinha (1977) urged that the scientific understanding of Indian
social reality should benefit from its vast treasure of traditional psychological knowledge
accumulated over centuries. He called for the development of an indigenous psychology with
its own paradigms to understands developmental problems of the region. In short, psychology
in India was seeking its own identity.

1980's Indigenisation

Indigenisation - 'making something native'

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The core of indigenization is the belief that all knowledge, including that of psychology, is
rooted in the prevalent world-view of a community and is conditioned by historical and
sociocultural factors.

D. Sinha (1977) urged that the scientific understanding of Indian social reality should benefit
from its vast treasure of traditional psychological knowledge accumulated over centuries.

He refers to two facets of indigenization- endogenous and exogenous indigenization.

✓ The first is purely the product of culture, the concepts and categories which are culture-
bound.
✓ The second is the product of the interaction of cultural variables with concepts, theories
and methods introduced from outside

Canadian psychologist, John Adair, saw indigenization as a gradual process, and in

collaboration with his Indian colleagues, developed a scale to measure the degree of
indigenization. Adair (1989) operationalized indigenization in terms of –
(1) cultural sensitivity of research in designing a study and discussing its findings
(2) citation from one’s own culture

(3) problem orientation,

(4) development of culture-based concepts, theories and methods
(5) culturally anchored tests
(6) cross-cultural comparisons.
Besides rejecting the western framework, Indian psychologists stressed developing an
understanding based on a framework, which was culturally and socially relevant. Psychology
as a poor imitation rather than one make understanding to Indian social reality.

Four factors have contributed to this change of attitudes and perceptions of Indian psychology.

a. One is the failure of Western psychology to deal with their own societal problems.
b. Two, is the growing popularity of Yoga and other spiritual systems of India in the West.
c. Three, is the secular nature of Indian psychology. It is a gradual acknowledgement that
Indian psychology of consciousness has much to offer in terms of self-growth rather
than as religious tradition.

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d. Four, with India emerging as a major economic power in the world, there is a renewed
interest in Indian values, philosophies and practices, as well as in the strength and
resilience of Indian society.

Jadunath Sinha’s (1933) work on Perception and Emotion

Akhilanand’s (1952) work on psycho-spiritual thought and mental health
Aurobindo’s (1986) work on spirituality and nationalism
Radha Krishna’s philosophical work on Synthetic Indian Mindset
Ramachandra Rao’s (1962) development of psychological thought in India
Ragunath Safaya’s (1975) Indian Psychology
Indian psychology endeavors not only to provide an understanding of the nature of a person,
the causes and consequences of his/her conduct, but also to explore the methods and means
of transforming the person in pursuit of perfection in being, certainty in knowing and
happiness in feeling. Indian psychology focuses on the inner-self which is accessible through
subjective methods of self-verification.

Indian Psychology in Academia in 2000s

In the beginning of 2000’s, the academics in India started to change rapidly. The scientific
community became more accepting towards psychology rooted in native wisdom and
philosophical traditions.

However, Indian psychology also suited psychological models and theories appropriate to
address problems of social conflicts, violence and mental health in other societies also

3 sets of arguments put forward to explain retarded growth of academic psychology in India-

1. Lack of supportive intellectual climate

2. Its excessive conformity to empiricist- positivist methodologies and confining to micro-
level -problems have restricted the scope of its psycho-social inquiry.
3. Psychologists in the first half of this Century were a product of the colonial domination
of the Indian society, greatly influenced by Western scholarly traditions. The first-
generation psychologists after India's Independence were predominantly converts from
the philosophy background.

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FEATURES OF INDIAN PSYCHOLOGY

• Universal
• Deals with inner state of a person
• Studied indirectly through various manifestation.
• Buddhism refers to a stream of consciousness as the basis of the subjective feeling of
continuity and identity which affects our all perceptions, thoughts, actions and
emotions. Human consciousness is consider hierarchical, the highest state being of pure
consciousness
• Distortions in consciousness are due to active interference of mind and body which
limits our awareness, obscures our knowledge and feelings and cause suffering.
• The goal of life is to attain this state of pure consciousness where the knowledge is
direct, immediate and intuitive, and not mediated by sensory inputs.
• Yoga and meditation are the tools to attain this transcendental state of pure
consciousness.
• Indian psychology is spiritual in its orientation. Spirituality hereby implies taking into
consideration the whole range of human progression, without making a distinction
between natural and supernatural.

Issues in Indian Psychology

• Followed western theories of psychology

• Replaced the intellectual traditions and indigenous systems existed here
• Rapid but unplanned expansion of academia
• Identity crisis
• Difficulty in conducting researches in university
• Need based specialization not considered
• Psychology developed around personalities/ the department head. When scholars
departed, many centers collapsed

WESTERN PSYCHOLOGY

The roots of Western psychology can be traced to Greek philosophy. Started as a part of
philosophy, did not emerge as a separate discipline until the late 1800s, earliest history can be
traced from Greek history.

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The journey of emergences of Western psychology is divided into three periods

1. Greek heritage
2. Medieval period
3. Modern period

GREEK HERITAGE

The modern ideas about mind and its functioning were derived from Greek Philosophy

Empiricism/ Rationalism

EMPERICISM: The theory that all knowledge is based on experience derived from the senses. Stimulated
by the rise of experimental science, it developed in the 17th and 18th centuries. Pioneers: Locke, George
Berkeley, and David Hume.

RATIONALISM: the view that “regards reason as the chief source and test of knowledge” believe in innate
knowledge. Pioneers: Socrates.

Dualism & Monism

Mind & body same is monism

• Materialistic monism by behaviourists i.e., matter imp than mind

• Idealism by George Berkley i.e., mind imp nothing exists like matter
• Neutral monism

Mind & body distinct entities

• Cartesian duality by Descartes mind & body interacts through pineal gland (conarium)

Monists Dualists
Aristotle, David Hume (neutral Hippocrates, Socrates, Plato, Descartes,
monism), William James (neutral bacon
monism), Ernst Mach (neutral monism),
John Locke, Berkley (idealism), Thomas
Hobbes

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SOCRATES

He was a Rationalist. He questioned every assumption, doubted the obvious and

ridiculed rote belief and pretension.
His method of questioning to arrive at truth is called the “Socratic Method.” He
believed that truth lies hidden in every mind and the role of the teacher is to uncover it
via discovery (led by questions of the teacher).
Morality- black or white

PLATO

Plato (385 BC) was a student of Socrates and recorded much of what we know about
him in his “Socrates’ Dialogues.”
The book Republic
He opposed empiricism, and acknowledged the unreliability of the senses but said
knowledge derives from the processes of reasoning about sensations. The information
we get by relying on sense experience is constantly changing and often unreliable.
He also addressed individual differences and classified people as gold, silver, brass or
iron.
He suggests that the brain is the seat of mental processes.
Plato believed that the mind was separate from the body, that it continued to exist after
death, and that ideas were innate. The body and soul, for Plato existed as two
separate entities.
Important Terms associated with Plato:
▪ - The allegory of the cave
▪ - World of Forms
▪ - Forms

ARISTOTLE

Aristotle (335 BC) was a student of Plato. He complemented deductive reasoning with
an inductive, observational approach.
Instead of brain he proposed Heart as the seat of mental processes.
He was an empiricist- against innate knowledge. Knowledge primary through senses
Book: “de anima”

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Rejected dualism. Monist- soul is not separable from the body and that knowledge
(ideas) grow from experience.
developed the first theory in cognition. He refers to mental images as Phantasmata,
and claims that they are necessary not just for recalling but even for thinking.
He believed that there are different types of intelligence or what he called “practical
wisdom”. He believed that there were different ways to exercise these wisdoms
including understanding (knowing), action (doing), and production (making).
Deductive reasoning/ syllogism

HIPPOCRATES

Father of medicine
The concept of personality has been studied for at least 2,000 years, beginning with
Hippocrates in 370 BCE.
Hippocrates theorized that personality traits and human behaviors are based on four
separate temperaments associated with four fluids (humors) of the body
Humoral theory expanded by Galon (his student)
Dualist

Temperament Humour Personality type

choleric temperament yellow bile (lungs) ambitious, and bold

melancholic temperament black bile (kidneys anxious, and unhappy

sanguine temperament red blood (heart) joyful, and optimistic
phlegmatic temperament white phlegm (lungs) calm, and thoughtful

JUAN HUARTE DE SAN- The Trial of Men’s Wits, is a source of information about
Huarte’s ideas on psychology. Huarte’s writing was the first attempt at connecting

psychology and physiology.

RENE DESCARTES

Father of modern philosophy

“Cogito ergo sum” “I think therefore I exist”
Dualism; Mind and body are two entities and they interact through pineal gland

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His definition of the mind was that is “a thinking, non-extended thing while the body is
an extended, non-thinking thing”.
He compared human beings as machines; can be predicted
Continental rationalism, mainly represented by René Descartes, insisted on the
primacy of so-called innate ideas placed in the human mind at birth by God.

FRANCIS BACON- founders of modern science, especially the experimental method.

JOHN LOCKE

Monist: mental events are simply products of physical events. Therefore, mind and
body are just a single entity.
Every child’s mind is a “tabula rasa”- Blank slate; we can write on to it anything
we want
acquisition of human knowledge is a twofold process. The first is sensory experience,
in which we learn about the world through our five senses. The second is reflection, in
which we use our minds and emotions to build those sensory experiences into more
complex ideas.

CHRISTIAN WOLFF

first popularized the term psychology to designate the study of mind. Wolff divided the
discipline between empirical and rational psychology.
o The data of mind that resulted from observing ourselves and others constituted
empirical psychology
o rational psychology referred to the interpretation of the data of empirical
psychology through the use of reason and logic.

IMMANUAL KANTH

German philosopher
Kant considered psychology to be an empirical inquiry into the laws of mental
operations.
He believed that mental operations lack substance, only a time dimension, and therefore
cannot be assessed. Because of this, he considered it impossible for psychology to be
an experimental science.
Finally, Kant asserted, the method of observing the mind through introspection -
distorts the events observed by observing them.

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HOBBS

Empiricist
Hobbes also considers humans to be naturally vainglorious and so seek to dominate
others and demand their respect.
The natural condition of mankind, is a state of war in which life is “solitary, poor, nasty,
brutish, and short” because individuals are in a “war of all, against all”
Famous for associationism

FRANZ JOSEPH GALL

Phrenology-shape of persons skull reveals mental faculties and traits; a pseudoscience

which involves the measurement of bumps on the skull of predict mental traits
Brain localization: his studies were the basis for further studies

MEDIEVAL PERIOD

Commonly known as the Dark Ages from the 6th to the 13th centuries, this period
began when the Roman Empire fell into a terminal decline.
Period of superstition and fear
St. Augustine, Thomas Aquinas and Roger Bacon
Gradually, psychology moved away from this focus and started to establish itself as a
scientific discipline which deals with the underlying human experience and behaviour

MODERN PERIOD

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Structuralism

1879- the first experimental laboratory in Leipzig, Germany by Wilhelm Wundt (Father
of experimental psychology). He believed that the mind could be studied by breaking it down
into its basic components.

Edward Titchener attempted to identify the basic building blocks of mind and coined the term
structuralism, the analysis of the mind in terms of its basic elements.

Titchener said that these basic elements are sensations and perceptions.
Structuralists used the method of introspection (“looking within”)
it was the first experimental approach. However, it was considered less scientific
because the introspective reports could not be verified by outside observers.

Margaret F. Washburn- Titchener’s students at Cornell University, the first woman to receive
a Ph.D. in psychology. In 1908 she published “The Animal Mind” (Washburn, 1908).

Functionalism

William James (father of American psychology) believed that instead of focusing on the
structure of the mind, the mind should be considered as a whole.

how mind functions in making people deal with their environment

consciousness is an ongoing stream of mental process interacting with the environment
and consciousness is considered as adaptations to environment.
influenced by Darwin’s theory of natural selection.

John Dewey used functionalism to argue that human beings seek to function effectively by
adapting to their environment. The functionalists, then, became the first applied psychologists

Other pioneers- James K Angel and Harvey A Carr

Related modern-day fields: cognitive psychology, and evolutionary psychology

Psychoanalysis/ psychodynamics

The psychodynamic approach was proposed by Sigmund Freud (father of psychoanalytic

Psychology).

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Behavior is driven, or motivated, by powerful inner forces. This view considers human being
as a manifestation of unconscious desires and conflicts and thus, we are motivated by
unconscious desires for gratification of pleasure seeking.

He proposed a system called psychoanalysis, which is originally conceived as a medical

technique for treating mental disorders. It is done by investigating the interaction between the
conscious and unconscious elements in mind and bringing repressed conflicts into conscious
mind. It uses techniques such as dream interpretation and free association method.

Neo-Freudians: Erik Erikson, Karen Horney, Eric Fromm, Alferd Adler and Carl Jung

Stages of psycho sexual development

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Gestalt psychology

In the early 20th century emerged in Germany as a reaction to the structuralism of Wundt. This
view was suggested by Koffka, Kohler, Perls and Wertheimer

Gestalt is the German term for “pattern,” “whole,” or “form.”

Focused on the organization of perceptual experiences. What we experience is more than the
inputs received from our environment, how we organize the separate parts of our perceptual
field into a unified and meaningful whole. e.g., When we see a movie, we actually have a series
of rapidly moving images of still pictures falling on our retina.

Kurt koffka gave the famous phrase “the whole is something else than the sum of its parts”

Wertheimer believed that psychological events such as perceiving and sensing could not be
broken down into any smaller elements and still be properly understood. Wertheimer and others
believed that people naturally seek out patterns (“wholes”) in the sensory information
available to them.

Wolfgang Köhler, a Gestalt psychologist set up a problem for one of the chimpanzees called
Sultan. Köhler called Sultan’s rapid “perception of relationships” as insight and
determined that insight could not be gained through trial-and-error learning alone or aha
moment.

Behaviourism

In 1913, John B. Watson rejected the ideas of mind and consciousness as subject
matters of psychology.
Scientific psychology must focus on what is observable and verifiable.
Book ‘Psychology as Behaviourist views it”.

Basic assumptions of this theory:

All behavior is learned from environment. (Exclude the innate factors)

Psychology should be seen as a science. (Objective, experimental… theoretical goal is
prediction and control)
Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable behaviors. (Excluding internal
events like thinking and emotions)

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Behavior is the result of stimuli-response. (Make prediction possible)

B.F. skinner- argued internal states cannot be studied objectively and hence it should not be a
part of psychology, instead overt (outwardly seen) responses must be the focus. Skinner’s
approach, known as radical behaviorism

Ivan Pavlov was a behaviourist who studied the digestive system in his dogs, made basis of
classical conditioning

Mary Whiton Calkins studied under William James, founded one of the first dozen
psychology laboratories in America at Wellesley College in 1891 and became the first woman
to serve as president of the American Psychological Association in 1905.

Humanistic psychology

Humanists, such as Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow proposed that each of us has the free
will and natural striving to grow and unfold our inner potential i.e., an inborn force toward self-
actualization (the reaching maximum of one’s individual potential).

Humanists emphasized the importance of personal choice and responsibility, personality

growth, and positive feelings of self-worth.

In 1943, Maslow described his hierarchy of needs in 'A theory of Human Motivation',
published in 'Psychological Review'.

Roger’s concept of self is an individual’s awareness of his or her own personal

characteristics and level of functioning. 1951, Carl Rogers published 'Client-Centered
Therapy

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positive regard: warmth, affection, love, and respect that come from significant others
in one’s life.
unconditional positive regard: referring to the warmth, respect, and accepting
atmosphere created by the therapist for the client in person-centered therapy; positive
regard that is given without conditions or strings attached
conditional positive regard: positive regard that is given only when the person is doing
what the providers of positive regard wish.
fully functioning person: a person who is in touch with his deepest, innermost urges,
and feelings and is self-actualized
Real and Ideal Self: Two important components of the self-concept are the real self
(one’s actual perception of characteristics, traits, and abilities that form the basis of the
striving for self-actualization) and the ideal self (the perception of what one should be
or would like to be). The ideal self primarily comes from important, significant others
in a person’s life, especially our parents when we are children. Rogers believed that
when the real self and the ideal self are very close or similar to each other, people feel
competent and capable, but when there is a mismatch between the real self and ideal
self, anxiety and neurotic behaviour can be the result.

Existential Psychology

Branch of psychology that studies how people come to terms with the basic givens of human
existence. Existential psychologists believe that it’s not only important to treat illness
symptoms but addressing how a person defines meaning, purpose, and a life well lived.
Jean Paul Sartre, Albert Camus, Friedrich Nietzsche, and Soren Kierkegaard, who were
earlier philosophers.

Purpose of Existentialism was to make contact of an individual with the experiences of

being Alive and Aware

Propositions of existential therapy-

All persons have the capacity for self-awareness.

As free beings, everyone must accept the responsibility that comes with freedom.
Each person has a unique identity that can only be known through relationships with
others.
Each person must continually recreate himself.

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The meaning of life and of existence is never fixed; rather, it constantly changes.
Anxiety is part of the human condition.
Death is a basic human condition that gives significance to life.

ROLLO MAY

Introduced existential perspective in US. Inspired from humanistic psychology.

Dasein (being in the world)

An individual’s experiences and interpretation of the world right here.

Modes of Existence

1. UMWELT- interaction with the physical world. Based on instinctual behavior and
physical needs
2. MITWELT- interaction with other human beings. Based on realistic expectations and
boundaries
3. EIGENWELT- interaction with oneself. Need to cultivate self-awareness

Freedom

Believed that people lack the courage to face their destiny and while in the process of feeling
from it they give up much of their freedom.

• Freedom means that people can choose their own life path
• With free will, human develop anxiety over the unknown (uncertainty in life and death)
• Learning to overcome this anxiety could lead to maturity and a feeling of fulfillment

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Anxiety

May distinguished between Normal Anxiety & Neurotic Anxiety.

1. Normal anxiety- proportionate to situation; can be used creatively

2. Neurotic anxiety- disproportionate to situation; tends to be repressed; paralyses the
individual. It’s the attempt to escape normal anxiety

Guilt

Guilt- guilt arises when people deny their responsibilities and fail to accurately perceive other’s
need

1. Normal Guilt
2. Neurotic Guilt- deliberately fail to fulfill our responsibilities; due to neurotic anxiety
• Separation guilt, Alienation from others, Alienation from self

Love

Taking delight in the presence of other person and affirming the persons value as much as ones
own

• Sex/Lust: physiological need that can be satisfied through sexual intercourse or release of
sexual tension
• Eros: psychological desire of a lasting union with a loved one, based on care and tenderness
• Philia: intimate non-sexual friendship between two people
• Agape: altruistic love; love devoted to the welfare of others
• Authentic love- incorporates all other types of love

Stages of development according to Rollo May

Innocence: stage of infant, pre-egoic, pre-self-conscious, lack free will or control over life

Rebellion: Person wants freedom, but does not have understanding of the responsibilities attached to
it (adolescence)

Ordinary: The normal adult has learnt his responsibility, but finds it too demanding and so seeks
refuge in conformity and traditional values

Creative: the authentic adult, the existential stage, self-actualizing state

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VIKTOR FRANKL

influential Existential therapist; developed what is called Logo therapy.

Based on three philosophical and psychological concepts.

1. Freedom of will
2. Will to meaning
3. Meaning of life

He believed that a person has a control over the choices they make in their lives and thus have
some control over their fate

Paradoxical intention- individuals are encouraged to deliberately engage in the very behaviors
or thoughts they fear, often with exaggerated or humorous intent

Important books- 'Man's Search for Meaning' & 'The Will to Meaning

Transpersonal Psychology

This subfield focuses on exploration of spiritual and transcendent aspects of human experience.
During 1960's, emerged as cross-culturally valid psychology had to include observations from
the areas like Psychedelic experiences, trance phenomena, creativity, religious, artistic and
scientific inspirations.

New psychology that would honor the entire spectrum of human experience. Transpersonal
psychotherapy values wholeness of being and self-realization on all levels of the spectrum of
identity (i.e., egoic, existential, transpersonal).

This field has a holistic approach to human nature. Term was coined by Abraham Maslow
and Antony Sutich.

In 1975, Robert Frager founded the 'Institute of Transpersonal Psychology' in Palo Alto.

Important concepts discussed- self-development, transcendence, beyond ego experiences,

peak experiences, mystical experiences, spiritual crises, altered states of consciousness,
spiritual practices.

Integrating insights and practices in everyday life is the goal of every therapy. Bringing the
transpersonal dimension to the forefront may involve the following:

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Exploration of "inner voices" including those of a higher self that provides guidance for growth
of the individual (Rowan, 1993)

Refinement of intuition or nonrational knowing

Practice of creativity in "formal" (art) or informal (personal relationships)
encounters
Meditation
Loving service
Cultivation of mindfulness
Use of dreams and imagery

Transpersonal therapy recognizes the need for basic psychological development to be

integrated with spiritual growth

Cognitive psychology

The cognitive revolution in psychology emerged as another challenge to the limits of

behaviourism- which said the mediating processes cannot be studied.

Cognitive behaviourism proposes that learning experiences and the environment influence our
expectations and other thoughts, and in turn our thoughts influence how we behave.

Modern cognitive psychology views human beings as actively constructing their minds through
their exploration into the physical and the social world. This view is sometimes called
constructivism.

Herman Ebbhigaus, Jean Piaget and Sir Fredreric Brertlet

Basic Assumptions:

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Human minds are like computers and can be studied scientifically.

Humans are not passive respondents to stimuli and hence;
the mediative process between stimuli and response is important.

Jean Piaget (father of developmental psychology) used a series of mental tasks to demonstrate
qualitative changes over the course of cognitive development. He gave a clear picture on child
development on the notion of cognitivism.

Tolman suggested that learning was based on forming relations between stimuli and response;
he called these cognitive maps.

Ulric Neisser is credited as founder of cognitive psychology.

Multiculturalism

An approach that recognizes and values the diversity of cultural backgrounds, experiences and
perspectives among individuals and communities. Focus on aspects of culture

Multiculturalism refers to situations in which people who hold ‘different’ habits, customs,
traditions, languages and/or religions live alongside each other in the same social space,
willing to maintain relevant aspects of their own difference and to have it publicly recognized.

Systematic investigation, analysis and assessment of human behaviour as they are experienced
in surroundings where people of different cultural background interact (American
Psychological Association, 2003)

Horace Kallen suggested the concept of cultural pluralism aligning with the idea that
individuals have multiple cultural identities which may have influence on their self-concept
and behaviour.

Other pioneers: Ruth Benedict, John Berry etc.

It is considered to be the fourth force in psychology

Merged as a prominent area of interest during the Civil Rights Movement that started
in 1964 in USA.
In 2002, the APA's 'Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct' were
revised to include the diverse cultural issues.

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FOUNDING PATHS OF ACADEMIC PSYCHOLOGY

Academic psychology assists the children with psychological needs and relates directly to their
learning style, academic challenges, family environments, learning disabilities and social
interactions

The four founding pillar or famous scholars of academic psychology are Wilhelm Wundt,
Sigmund Freud, William James, Wilhelm Dilthey.

Wilhelm Wundt

Set up first laboratory of experimental psychology

Used the scientific method to study the structure of sensation and perception
Introspection could be used to study mental states in replicable laboratory experiments

Sigmund Freud

In 1897, he began an intensive analysis of himself

1990, his major work ‘The Interpretation of Dreams’ was published
1902, Freud was appointed as the professor of Neuro pathology at the University of
Vienna
1910, the International Psychoanalytic Association was founded by Freud in
collaboration with Carl Jung
In 1923, he published 'The Ego and The Id', which suggested a new structural model of
the mind, divided into the 'id', the 'ego' and the 'super ego'.

William James

First text book of psychology – principles of psychology

Four main concepts-

stream of consciousness- consciousness as flowing and moving forward

emotion- emotion as a result of bodily experience (James-Lange theory)
habit- ability to form habits shows the power of mind to focus and achieve
will- free will is an ability to hold on principles even when facing opposition and lack
of support.

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The Principles of Psychology

comprehensive work covering the entire field of psychology
provided text for teaching and for learning
also discussed theories and hypotheses about centers of brain receiving specific input from
the physical senses.
The concept of instinct and the evolution of brain function, particularly the cerebrum is also
discussed.
topic of experimental psychology is covered in the book

Wilhelm Dilthey

German psychologist, whose research was around the questions of scientific methodology,
historical evidence and history’s status as science.

“Human sciences help to define what Dilthey calls the Historical world”

1883- "Introduction to Human Sciences" (first volume of books)

He devoted a great deal of attention to the question of the relationship between epistemology
and psychology.

Dilthey encouraged a broad pluralism of approaches to the study of psychic life.

Introspection, observation of others, comparative procedures, experimentation,

the study of abnormal phenomena, and the interpretation of objective products of
psychic life, considered as partial and mutually supplementing ways of gaining
psychological knowledge.
Method should be grounded in descriptive and analytical science

Major contribution in field of psychology

✓ Hermeneutics which is the theory and methodology of interpretation, especially

interpretation of biblical texts, wisdom literature and philosophical texts
✓ Typology of three basic Weltanschauung- world view (naturalism, idealism of
freedom and objective idealism)
✓ Distinction between explanatory psychology and descriptive psychology.
o Explanatory psychology- study of psychological phenomenon from point of
view of third person

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o Descriptive psychology attempts to explicate how different mental processes

converge in the structural nexus of consciousness

ISSUES IN PSYCHOLOGY: CRISIS IN PSYCHOLOGY DUE TO STRICT

ADHERENCE IN EXPERIMENTAL ANALYTIC PARADIGM

Psychology emphasizes on a strict adherence to experimental method (logical

empiricism), logical positivism, operationism and use of inferential statistics. This
adherence has given genesis to replication crisis in psychology
Logical Empiricism (LE) is a term that was coined by the Austrian sociologist and
economist Otto Neurath (1880-1945)
Verificationism: theory of knowledge which asserted that only statements verifiable
through empirical observation are meaningful
The strict adherence to experimental-analytical paradigm has created replication crisis
in psychology
The notion of verificationism also created a lot of crisis in the field as according to this
doctrine a proposition is 'Cognitively meaningful,' only if there is a finite procedure for
conclusively determining whether it is true or false.
logical empiricism sought to reduce all experience to sensory experience and to reduce
every sensory experience to a conclusive or exact statement. This has proved to be an
unattainable goal.

INDIC INFLUENCES ON MODERN PSYCHOLOGY

It is in the area of Transpersonal theory that the Indic traditions have had the most direct
influence on modern psychologists which are as follow

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Various Influencer of Modern Psychology

KNOWLEDGE PARADIGM

It is our way of understanding the reality of the world and studying it

The term paradigm originated from the Greek word 'Paradeigma' which means 'pattern' and
was first used by Thomas Kuhn to denote a conceptual framework of 'research culture with a
set of beliefs, values and assumptions that a community of researchers has in common
regarding the nature and conduct of research"

Ontology, Epistemology and Methodology are important components of knowledge

paradigm in research

Axiology- values, ethics

Realism
Ontology- how many realities we have
Relativism
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Epistemology- subjective and objective

Methodology- quantitative, qualitative and mixed

Methods- specific methods like ANOVA, Thematic analysis

Sources

ONTOLOGY

Nature of our belief about reality/existence

It is ontological question that leads the researcher to inquire what kind of reality exists-

Realism- a singular verifiable reality; observable

Relativism- truth or socially constructed multiple realities; unique realities to individuals; from
environment
"Is there reality out there in the social world or is it a construction, created by one's own
mind"
" What is the nature of reality”
“Is reality objective in nature, or is the result of individual cognition?"
EPISTEMOLOGY

Greek word; 'episteme', means 'knowledge

Study of Nature of knowledge

Epistemology is used to describe how the knowledge is acquired or how the truth or reality is
known. Concerned about the very basis of knowledge, its nature, form and also how it can
be communicated to others.

Is knowledge something which can be acquired on one hand or is it something which

has to be personally experienced?
What is the nature of knowledge and the relationship between the knower and that
would be known?

The four sources of knowledge that aids researcher to articulate the above questions are

1. Intuitive Knowledge: It is the form of knowledge which has sources such as beliefs,
faith and intuition.
2. Authoritative Knowledge: It is the form of knowledge which is based on the data
gathered from known people, books and leaders in organizations.

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3. Logical Knowledge: It is the knowledge which is acquired by putting emphasis on

reason in order to achieve a new knowledge.
4. Empirical knowledge: It is based on demonstrable, objective facts which are
determined through observation and/or experimentation.

METHODOLOGY

Refer to the research, design, methods, approaches and procedures used in a well-planned
investigation to find out something

✓ Data gathering, participants, instruments used and data analysis are all part of the
broad field of methodology. concerned with the plan that lies behind the choice and use
of particular methods
✓ what, why, when, where and how data is collected and analyzed.
✓ a strategy or action plan that justifies the use and choice of certain techniques

PARADIGMS OF WESTERN PSYCHOLOGY

POSITIVISM

✓ First proposed by the French Philosopher Auguste Comte.

✓ basic idea- understanding of phenomena in reality must be measured and supported by
evidence (more realistic)
✓ process of studying a phenomenon in positivism is done by finding out the relationship
between an independent variable and one or more dependent variable (objective)
✓ Focuses on understanding the objects by empirical tests and methods such as sampling,
measurement, questionnaire, group discussion etc.
✓ True knowledge is based on experience of senses and can be obtained by observation
and experiment
✓ A more comprehensive version of positivism for 20th century social science was,
Logical Positivism’ or ‘Logical Empiricism’, followed by Watson & Pavlov.
(materialistic positivism followed by Skinner) This became a prime or only model for
inquiry and knowledge. Hence, the basic belief system of logical positivism is-
Ontology: NAÏVE REALISM (pure)
Epistemology: DUALIST & OBJECTIVIST

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Methodology: EXPERIMENTAL, QUANTITATIVE

ADVANTAGES- Reliable, replicable, DISADVANTAGES- impossible to
statistical analysis, intensive answers measure some phenomenon; difficulty in
generalization; lack of authentic
responses
POST-POSITIVISM

✓ Proposed by Karl Popper

✓ Post-Positivists accept that theories, background, knowledge and values of the
researcher can influence what is observed (subjective). However, Post-positivists
pursue objectivity by recognizing the possible effects of the biases.
✓ Post positivists also believe in the existence of single reality (realism). Reality can
never be fully known and efforts to understand reality are limited owing to human
beings sensory and intellectual limitations.
✓ Post-positivism recognizes that all observation is fallible and has error and that all
theory is revisable
✓ Do not rely on single method. They believed that each method can have errors and these
errors can only be avoided by using multiple methods this is called Triangulation.

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CRITICAL PERSPECTIVE

Originated on the basis of critical theory by Georg Hegel (18th century) and Karl Marx (19th
century) and critical pedagogy, a key figure being Paulo Freire (20th century)

Critical theory challenges the status quo and strives for a balanced and democratic society, not
just eliminating injustices. It is particularly concerned with the issue of power relations within
the society and interaction of race, class, gender, education, economy, religion and other social
institutions that contribute to social systems.

Horkheimer (one of the founders) suggest their criteria for adequate critical theory-

1. It must be explanatory about what is wrong with current social reality.

2. It must identify the action to change it.
3. It must provide both clear norms for criticism and transformation.

The aim of ‘critical’ paradigm is to smash myth & empower people to change society and thus
Advocacy and Activism becomes its key concepts. The aim of the inquiry is to transform the
world by raising the consciousness of participants so that they are energized and facilitated
towards transformation. This is achieved by taking a DIALOGIC approach that seeks to
eliminate false consciousness. (The dialogue between the researcher and the participant must
be dialectical in nature to transform ignorance.)

Ontology: HISTORICAL REALISM

Epistemology: TRANSACTIONAL & SUBJECTIVIST
Methodology: DIALOGIC & DIALECTICAL

Tools of Critical Perspective

Critical research is more inclined towards qualitative research designs. The three typical tools
of critical research are-

1. Ideology Critique-It is a way of critiquing the ideology of the powerful group who use
particular values and practices to exercise their power and get control over the
suppressed classes. An ideology is an organized collection of ideas.
2. Critical Action Research- tool to uncover the unjust and unfair ideologies prevalent
in society and achieve the target of a balanced and just society. Action research is about
research that focus on practice in education

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3. Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)- primarily studies the way social power abuse,
dominance and inequality are enacted, reproduced and resisted by text and talk in the
social and political context

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONISM

Constructivism is based on the belief that human behaviors and their actions are based on the
relative experiences they have and the society and how they perceive it (relativism- believe
that human beings construct their reality from their surroundings).

Cognitive constructionism (Piaget) Knowledge is constructed, when we interact with environment

Social Constructionism (Vygotsky) Knowledge is constructed, when we interact with others

Regards individuals as integral of cultural, political and historical evolution in specific times
and places and thus re-situate psychological processes cross culturally, in social and temporal
contexts.

✓ Concentrate on investigating the social influences on communal and individual life

(subjective)
✓ Theoretical perspective – interpretivism/critical inquiry (phenomenology,
hermeneutics, symbolic interactionism)
✓ more inclined towards qualitative research designs
✓ Important Figures- Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann (1966)

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EXISTENTIAL PHENOMENOLOGY

Inspired by the philosophical tradition developed by thinkers such as Buber, Kierkegaard,

Nietzsche, Heidegger, Gadamer, De Beauvoir, Sartre, Marcel, Merleau-Ponty and
Levinas.

Existential phenomenology is Martus Heidegger brand of phenomenology

Kierkegaard' existentialism + Husserl's phenomenology = Existential phenomenology

• Phenomenology is the philosophical study of structures of experience and consciousness

• Existential phenomena seek to develop an in-depth understanding of human existence
• Criticizes reductionist view point of psychology regarding human behaviour
• Emphasizes the unfolding nature of human experience and brings out the fact that world is not only
the correlate of consciousness but that without world there will be no consciousness
• The core belief of existentialism- Dasein' i.e., being-in the-world
• man is only man as a result of his actions which are worked out in the world

The basic framework through which the existential-phenomenological approach aims to

understand and clarify clients’ difficulties is through reference to the four realms of existence.
These are as follows:
The Umwelt – the physical, biological dimension, our embodied existence;
The Mitwelt – the social/public dimension involving relating and interacting with others;
The Eigenwelt – the personal/psychological dimension, comprising our sense of identity;
The Uberwelt – the spiritual dimension referring to our sense of values,ideal and purpose
(Deurzen- Smith, 1988).
EXISTENTIAL-PHENOMENOLOGICAL METHOD
1. Epoch – refers to a ‘bracketing (or setting aside) of our initial assumptions, biases and
prejudices within the therapeutic encounter in order to fully engage with the client and
their material in a spirit of relative naivete.
2. Description – to facilitate a detailed description of the client’s events, experiences and
beliefs so that meanings within meanings may be identified and the implicit made
explicit;

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3. Horizontalization – each descriptive element of an event or experience is regarded as

having equal value/significance so that an initial hierarchy of assumptions is avoided
as the client’s story unfolds (Spinelli, 1989).

COOPERATIVE INQUIRY

Proposed by John heron (1971)

Cooperative inquiry is a way of working with other people who have similar concerns and
interest as researcher, in order to

1. understand the world and make sense of life of the researcher and develop new and
creative ways of looking at things.
2. learn how to act to change things as the researcher wants and finds out to do things in
a better way.

Research is always considered to be the work done at universities and research institutes. The
researcher asks questions, do interviews and gather data applicable for his studies by studying
other people there exist a little connection between the researcher and the other people
involved. But this approach research is conducted with people rather than on people.

Phases of Cooperative Inquiry

1. Bring a group of people together who have common interest; discuss their interest area
and concerns, agree on the focus of their inquiry
2. They initiate the actions, observe and record the outcomes of their own and each other’s
behaviour
3. Coresearchers become fully immersed in their experience. They may become more
open to what is going on and may begin to see their experience in new ways
4. Co-researchers re-assemble to consider their original questions in the light of their
experience and change their question in some way

4 TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE

1. Experiential knowing is through direct face-to-face encounter with person, place or

thing; it is knowing through empathy and resonance, that kind of in-depth knowing
which is almost impossible to put into words.

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2. Presentational knowing grows out of experiential knowing, and provides the first form
of expression through story, drawing, sculpture, movement, dance, drawing on aesthetic
imagery.
3. Propositional knowing draws on concepts and ideas
4. Practical knowing consummates the other forms of knowing in action in the world.

INDIAN PARADIGMS ON PSYCHOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE

INDIAN TRADITION: ONTOLOGY

Two major planes (satta) of reality:

1. TRANSCENDENTAL REALITY (PARMARTHIKA)- is considered to be non-

changing and universal. it can be experienced in this life under certain conditions like
samadhi. It can be approximately termed as the spiritual realm.
2. EMPIRICAL REALITY (VYAVHARIKA)- is that which is apprehended through
the sense modalities. It can be approximately understood as the material realm (which
includes all physio-psychosocial aspects of mundane existence).

INDIAN TRADITION EPISTEMOLOGY:

1. PARMARTHIKA – Knower and known are one and the same (ahm brahma asmi).
2. VYAVAHARIKA – Subject and object dichotomy is upheld (knowledge of object is
within the reach of knower).

INDIAN TRADITION METHODOLOGY:

(A) EXPERIENTIAL; (B) EMPIRICAL

(a) PARMARTHIKA– This involves sadhana (spiritual praxis) in the supervision of

a rsi or drsta (seer).

Sadhana implicates transformation of self. It involves- detached truth seeking

(jijnasa), sensitiveness (aksipartrakalpata), earnestness (samvega), maturity
and wisdom (viveka), and realization of the constraints and limitations
emanating from egoism and acquisitiveness.

In general, three ways (marga) of spiritual realization are in practice;

knowledge, action and devotion (jnana, karma and bhakti).

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(b) VYAVAHARIKA– The major means of knowledge include the following:

1. Pratyaksa (Perception)
2. Anuman (Inference)
3. Upaman (Comparison)
4. Sabda (Verbal Testimony)
5. Arthapatti (Postulation)
6. Anupalabdhi (Non-Cognition)

YOGA

Means to join or unite

Principals of Yoga

Trigunas, the three qualities of nature which we aim to bring into balance

Paths of Yoga

1. Bhakthi yoga- yoga of devotion

2. Manthra yoga- yoga of sacred chanting
3. Kundalini yoga- yoga of subtle energy
4. Raja yoga-yoga of Patanjali
5. Karma yoga- yoga of action

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6. Hatha yoga- yoga of body

7. Jnana yoga –yoga of knowledge

Patanjali Yoga

Eight limbs of Patanjali Yoga-sutras provide ways of readying and purifying the body,
emotions and mind.

Samyama is the intensive and conjoint practice of last 3 limbs- dharana, dhyana, samadhi

Philosophy of Yoga

• Dukkha- The Sanskrit word ‘dukha’, meaning suffering, is said to be a process of

life according to the yoga philosophy
• Klesha- Any sort of suffering can be seen as what is known as a klesha – an obstacle
on the path to freedom and enlightenment.
• Vrittis- The fluctuations of the mind cause people to experience momentary joy or
sorrow. Fluctuations are called ‘vrittis’

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• Chitta- the fluctuations cause mental disease or ‘citta’, also known as the chatter of
the mind, what is more popularly known as self-talk or egocentric thoughts have to be
managed and controlled in order to help the mental suffering to be eased.
• Leaking out- When the mind is chattering, it fluctuates from happiness to sadness,
from attachment to hatred, from self-doubt to delusion. When such fluctuations
happen, all our mental energy is said to be ‘leaking out.’

When the mind’s energy leaks out, it has an impact on the way we physically act. The breath
becomes shallow and short, the muscles become more tensed than usual.
These physiological changes cause the mind to become more wary and stressed and nervous.
If the cycle continues goes on, without interrupting this fluctuating cycle, we may find
ourselves locked in a state of dukkha or suffering

Layers of Mind/Intelligence

Yogic cognition is called Antahkarna/inner being

● Manas- the lower mind, or the sensory processing mind. Basic cognitive processing
● Ahankara- the ‘I-maker’. Self, desires, jealousy, superiority feeling
● Buddhi- the ‘awakened’, intellect-logic & reasoning
● Citta- ‘thoughts or the place we store the impressions and memories. Higher state of
consciousness

SCIENCE AND SPIRITUALITY (AVIDYA AND VIDYA)

The pursuits in the realm of knowledge were classified into two broad categories, which are as
follows

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1. Spiritual knowledge: i.e., spirituality (para vidya) spiritual knowledge is concerned

with the experience of universal reality. It deals with the name (nama) and form (rupa)
of ultimate reality in its diverse manifestations. The knowledge of supreme reality was
supposed to lead to liberation (moksa).
2. Empirical knowledge: i.e., science (apara vidya) Empirical knowledge is bound to
specific objects. Empirical or scientific knowledge is pragmatic and deals with the
ordinary world.

VIDYA

The term Vidya is used for science as well as philosophy. Vidyas are of 4 major categories-

1. Anvishiki- search
2. Trayi- intellect
3. Vartta-communication
4. Dandaniti- law

The Indian attitude towards knowing is grounded in a set of premises as stated below-

• Suffering is the result of ignorance.

• Knowledge is considered to be inseparable from the human goals and values.
• The quest for being itself (ontological being), which encompasses both being and
becoming is central to the process of knowing.
• Knowledge changes the person engaged in the pursuit of knowledge
• Western view emphasises a conflict between man and nature, whereas Indian
system assumes that universe is lawful

AVIDYA

In the yogic sense, avidya means something that goes far beyond ordinary ignorance. It’s not
the lack of information, but the inability to experience your deep connection to others, the
source of being and to your true self.

PRIMACY OF SELF KNOWLEDGE IN INDIAN PSYCHOLOGY

Self -knowledge is a component of the self. It is the knowledge of oneself and one's properties.
It is the desire to seek the knowledge that guide the development of self-concept.

The self-knowledge is governed by three aspects

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1. Cognitive self
2. Affective self
3. Executive self

Indian Psychology is built on self-knowledge. It considers mind (manas) and self (atman) to be
different, self being the knower. Mind is considered to be the substance and an instrument of
knowledge

Knowledge constitutes the nature or quality of self-acting through mind.

The yoga system delineates five modes or states of mental activity consisting of

• Ksipta (wandering),
• Mudha (forgetful),
• Viksipta (distracted),
• Ekagra (one-pointed)
• Niruddha (restrained).

Realization of self is blocked by Klesa (misconceptions)-

• Avidya- ignorance
• Asmita- egoism
• Raga- attachment or passion
• Dvesa- aversion
• Abhinivesa- clinging to life
• Vikalpa- predicate relation

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