INDEX

Chapters Pages

HISTORY
1. Forest Society and Colonialism 02 – 10
2. Pastoralists in the Modern World 11 – 18
3. Peasants and Farmers 19 – 27
4. History and Sports – The Story of Cricket 28 – 35
5. Clothing : A Social History 36 – 44

DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

1. Electoral Politics 46 – 54
2. Working of Institutions 55 – 69
3. Democratic Rights 70 – 76

GEOGRAPHY

1. Climate 78 – 85
2. Natural Vegetation and Wildlife 86 – 93
3. Population 94 – 100

ECONOMICS

1. Poverty as a Challenge 102 – 109

2. Food Security in India 110 – 120

C All Rights Reserved with C SQUARE Revised Edition

C SQUARE COACHING INSTITUTE PH : 1800 103 0015

HISTORY
 FOREST SOCIETY AND COLONIALISM
1
CHAPTER

CONTENTS
 Deforestation in India
 Economic and Social Conditions Leading to Deforestation
 Plantations
 Development of Forestry in India
 Effects of Forestry on Villagers
 Affect of Forest Policy on Cultivation
 Emergence of New Opportunities and Benefits
 Forest Community of India
 Forest Policy of the Dutch in Indonesia.

 DEFORESTATION IN INDIA
 Deforestation is the elimination of trees on a large scale from a forest so much so that it causes damage to
plant and animal life (flora and fauna) of that forest. With a change in or tampering with an area’s
biodiversity, the protective and regenerative properties of land are lost. This leads to slow onset of disaster
and triggers a chain of calamities. It is a major problem concerning environmentalists today. Its main cause
has been the indiscriminate nature of tree felling with a view to satisfy immediate needs not being aware of
the long term effects of their actions. There is a clear cut connection between deforestation and vulnerability
to famine. Forests served as the buffer for peasant population, providing some sustenance in the event of crop
failure. When forest land became cropland, this buffer vanished, and crop failure meant deadly famine.

 ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS LEADING TO DEFORESTATION

While the causes of deforestation can be many and varied like the spread of agriculture, unregulated timber
harvesting and indiscriminate firewood collection, the Indian reality is quite different because of its colonial
past. Due to its exploitative nature the process of cutting of trees become aggressive under British rule. The
main reason for expansion of cultivation and increasing deforestation was :
 The growing demand for raw material by the English industries especially in the 19th century. This raw
material was supplied by Indian farmers who not only started placing more and more land under commercial
crops like sugar, cotton, indigo and jute but also started reclaiming more forest land.

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  Another reason was the prevailing misconception about forests as being wasteland which was of no use.
Therefore it should be cleared and used for growing crops thus its utility would be enhanced. Increasing
building activity by the British both at home and in India also increased the demand for Indian timber
causing greater logging.
Usually, uncontrolled deforestation is a symptom of a society’s inability to get a grip on other fundamental
development problems : agricultural stagnation, grossly unequal land tenure, rising unemployment, rapid
population growth, and the incapacity to regulate private enterprise to protect the public interest.
The colonial requirements of ship building and expanding railway network not only at home but in the
colonies too led to further denuding of forests in India. In order to meet the demands of ever expanding
Royal Navy of England and railway tracks to carry raw material to harbour more and more trees were being
felled.

 PLANTATIONS
Mainly tea, coffee and rubber plantations were grown during the colonial period. The choice of what is to be
grown and what not was based on European preference and not according to the suitability of Indian
conditions. The cultivation of large areas for one commercial crop was bad for the soil and affected foodgrain
production of the area. But the worst effect of this was on the forests. Large forest areas were converted into
plantations by claring them and then selling them off to Europeans. A few remarkable examples may be cited
here, some of which are still functional.
In 1850 there had been only large tea plantation in British India producing 2,00,000 pounds of tea annually,
but by 1871 the number of tea estates was 295. As India got more tightly linked to British industrial needs
and markets more plantations and plantation based industries in tea and coffee developed. The plantation area
was also extended considerably in 1920 and the government aimed at afforestation of ravine lands.
These plantations not only become a major source of revenue but also ‘a way of life’ for the Europeans. Even
after independence the legacy they left became and asset for the indigenous trade. The extent of impact of
plantations on Indian lifestyle and culture is not to be belittled.

 DEVELOPMENT OF FORESTRY IN INDIA

The increasing British demand for wood and other forest products had to be fulfilled urgently. To meet this
requirement the imperialist rulers of India devised a system by which it not only became easy but also legal
to take away as much wood as possible from India. For this purpose they worked out a plan for streamlining
the various activities linked with the forests and to conserve forest wealth which was under threat from the
timber merchants and local inhabitants. By the end of the 19th century a small group of dedicated British and
German forest officers recognized the value of the forests as indispensable assets. They were led by Sir
Dietrich Brandis who also became the first Inspector General of Forests in India. An organization was set up
in 1864 to look after all the above stated objectives and much more. This service is known as Indian forest
services and is still functional. It took up the task of streamlining forestry in India which came to be known
as ‘scientific forestry’. It involved planting of tree saplings along with cutting them down. This type of tree
plantation involved a lot of planning and management. A lot of calculation went into the assessment of how
many, what type and how much of the area was to be used for planting trees. There is a lot of dispute as to
whether this type of forestry was at all scientific or not.

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 Another major achievement of the new system created by the British imperialists was the imposition of legal
framework over the forests so that its use and misuse both became difficult. While the former was not in
good taste and made life difficult for forest dwellers, the latter feat helped in a big way in forest protection.
The Indian Forest Act was devised in 1865 and was subsequently amended in 1878 and 1927 to meet the
changing needs of colonial demand. The main accomplishment of the Act of 1878 was to classify the forests
into 3 groups according to their utility. These were, namely, reserved, protected and village forests.
The position now is that not even a single tree could be felled without prior approval by the concerned
authorities, whether in rural or urban areas. The main reason being ecological and environmental rather than
the utility of forest products as in the case of rural or village societies.
The Imperial Forest Research Institute was founded in 1906 at Dehradun. Its aim was to spread the
notion of scientific forestry with a view to provide better communication between man and forest.

  What are the features of scientific forestry :
In scientific forestry, natural forests which had lots of different types of trees were cut down. In their place,
one type of tree was planted in straight rows. This is called a plantation. Forest officials surveyed the forests,
estimated the area under different types of trees, and made working plans for forest management. They
planned how much of the plantation area to cut every year. The area cut was then to be replanted so that it
was ready to be cut again in some years.

 EFFECTS OF FORESTRY ON VILLAGERS

Since people live in different circumstances and have different needs so their expectations from the forests
are also different. The changes in the system of forestry also affected them differently.
1. It brought about alternations in the vocations related to the forests like cultivation, hunting, logging, firewood
gathering etc. The areas closely situated to the forests were the most affected. These included the nearby
villages.
2. The areas closely situated to the forests were the most affected. These included the nearby villages, pastoral
groups and the tribal areas.
3. The rural areas close to the forests were the main consumers of forest product. But with increase in the means
of more efficient and quicker transports even the perishable forest products could find their way to the far off
cities.
4. Forest yields like fruits and edible roots (tubers), tendu leaves, semur and mahua etc. for making different
utility items like bidis, oil for cooking and lighting. herbs and wooden tools all can be had from the forests.
These formed the mainstay of villages and settlements around them who literally subsisted on them.
5. The daily life of several groups of people mostly tribals was totally dependent on the forest produce. But
with the enactment of laws protecting the forests, these people were the worst sufferers.
6. Now firewood collection, cattle grazing, hunting and other routine activities were declared illegal. This made
the forest inhabitants thieves in their own land as they were bound to undertake activities which were
perfectly natural for them.
7. It was common for policeman & forest guards to harass people by demanding bribes.

 AFFECT OF FOREST POLICY ON CULTIVATION

The major type of cultivation practice used in forest areas of the world is known as slash and burn, shifting or
swidden agriculture. It has been practiced by the forest societies of almost all the regions and climates of the
world.

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 1. Under this system the plots to be burned are identified and all the plants and foliage in it are left to dry after
cutting them down. The dry vegetation is then burnt after a month or so. Burning removes the vegetation and
releases nutrients which fertilise the soil. The most interesting aspect is that this plot of land is then used for
cultivation for upto 5 years, after which. it is again left fellow for the purpose of regaining declined fertility
or for forest to regrow. This method is also more effective when two or more crops that complement each
other are grown. Slash and burn requires a low population density, as the recovery of forest may take
decades.
2. On the other hand increase in population causes ecological problems and may lead to increased pressure on
land. This method has been in use in different parts of the world from. Northern Europe to Southeast Asia
and South America. But it has been replaced by other methods almost every where. It is still practiced in
some isolated parts of Mexico, Colombia, India, Indo-china and Madagascar. Indonesia, Thailand, and the
Philippines aim to identify alternatives to slash-and-burn by providing viable policy, institutional, and
technological land use options that can improve local livelihoods and preserve the region’s remaining forests.
3. European foresters regarded this practice as harmful for the forests. They felt that land which was used for
cultivation every few years could not grow trees for railway timber. When a forest was burnt, there was the
added danger of the flames spreading and burning valuable timber. Shifting cultivation also made it harder
for the government to calculate taxes. Therefore, the government decided to ban shifting cultivation. As a
result, many communities were forcibly displaced from their homes in the forests. Some had to change
occupations, while some resisted through large and small rebellions.

 HUNTING

  Who could hunt ?
Hunting was considered as their natural forest right by the forest communities. So it was naturally resented
when laws were made that imposed a ban on the birthright of the foresters. Hunting also included fishing and
a variety of indigenous contraptions, like the bamboo trap and rabbit trap were devised to facilitate the event
which involved a lot of fanfare. Most of the forest communities like the Baiga, Maria, Munda of Central and
East India were so dependent on forests that they were on the verge of starvation when the new forest rules
came into practice. The large scale hunting of big forest animals was a more recent phenomenon of the
colonial period. Even during the medieval period hunting was a royal pastime for the Mughals and other
ruling dynasties. But hunting became almost an obsession in the British period so much so that some of the
species like the tiger and leopard almost became extinct. It was later that the laws against large scale killing
and poaching of animals from the forests were made.
 The main reasons for this behaviour of the colonists were :
 They had the notion of the wild animals as being dangerous for human survival and not otherwise as was the
belief of the tribals according to whom such animals were a part of nature.
 Attached to this were the notions of a civilized society versus a savage society. This belief was an extension
of their motion of ‘white man’s burden’ which legitimized all the wrong doings of the British in the name of
religion and charity.
 Hunting soon became a pastime and hobby with the Europeans who at times had nothing much to do except
kill.

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 EMERGENCE OF NEW OPPORTUNITIES AND BENEFITS
The process of adjustment and the necessity to evolve in changing circumstances brought out the best
amongst the foresters. New trade in forest products by the colonisers in collaboration with the locals created
new opportunities and generated employment in forest areas. This was a worldwide phenomenon and had its
negative aspect too. Now the simple forest people were at the mercy of their foreign employers who used all
means to exploit them. They even used force and torture to extract the maximum out of them. The rubber
plantations of Brazil and Putumayo in the Amazon area involving the Munduru and Huitoto Indians,
respectively, during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries are instances of how growing demand for
rubber was changing the lifestyle of a primitive traditional society.
The adivasis or forest tribes of India, as they are called, were equally badly affected although the use of
jungle products like animal hides and horns, spices, herbs, wood and its products etc., for trade was nothing
new for them. But the element of foreignes as traders and officials was a new development for them too and
so were the trading regulations introduced by the British on forest products. Many of the tribes and pastoral
communities lost their occupation because of changing economic pattern due to their previous vocations like
hunting, gathering and grazing. Even the Banjaras, the nomadic salesmen lost their job as their product were
either not in demand or due to restrictions they were unable to procure them. The criminalisation of certain
tribes, a feature of colonial India, was a natural corollary of the changing economic conditions during the
British period of Indian history. The plantation industry discussed earlier too played havoc with the lives of
the people as many of them were displaced from their homes to work in far off areas. The tea gardens of
Assam attracted migrant lobour from Jharkhand and Chattisgarh as tribals provided cheap labour to the
planters and with nothing at all to do in their native places they at least could earn their bread albeit in bad
working conditions.

 FOREST COMMUNITIES OF INDIA

The history of Indian tribes is replete with instances of protests and rebellions due to the imposition of such
rules and regulations that not only changed their lives but also increased their hardships. Some of the more
famous tribal revolts were the Munda rebellion led by Birsa Munda of Chotanagpur, the Santhal rebellion led
by Sidhu and Kanu, revolts in Southern states like that led by Alluri Sitarama Raju. All these raised their
voice against the curbs imposed on their natural rights to forests by an alien authority. Through a case study
of the tribal revolt of Bastar in 1910 an attempt has been made to explain the diverse factors involved in
causing unrest amongst the forest societies. Situated in the heart of India, surrounded by the states of Orissa,
Maharashtra, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh, Bastar is presently located in the state of
Chattisgarh. Home to several tribes like the Gonds, Murias, Bhatras and Dhurwas, its chief river is Indravati
while Godavari runs through the southern border.

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 THE BASTAR REBELLION OF 1910
The 150 years history of protests and rebellion in Bastar culminated in the Bhumkal rebellion of 1910
meaning the great people’s upsurge.
Several other policies of the state at that time proved extremely oppressive for the tribals of the region and
became focal points of the Bhumkal rebellion. Extensive forest areas were declared reserved forests;
resulting in the tribals feeling that their inalienable right over forests has been subverted. A 1905 proposal by
the government to reserve two third of the forests and ban tribal activities in the reserved area led bitterness
amongst them. The situation grew worse with the famines of 1899–1900 and again in 1907–08. Due to the
excessive revenue demands of the colonial rule, several tribal villages were given on lease to thekedars who
adopted extremely oppressive means to collect revenues from the tribals. The monopoly on liquor brewing
was also a cause for unrest. The tribals considered liquor as prasad of Gods, and the order banning liquor
brewing amounted to interference in their religious affairs to them.

People began to gather and discuss these issues in their village councils, in bazaars and at festivals or
wherever the headmen and priests of several villages were assembled. The initiative was taken by the
Dhurwas of the Kanger forest, where reservation first took place. Although there was no single leader, many
people speak of Gunda Dhur, from village Nethanar, as an important figure in the movement. In 1910,
mango boughs, a lump of earth, chilies and arrows, began circulating between villages. These were actually
messages inviting villagers to rebel against the British. Every village contributed something to the rebellion
expenses. Bazaars were looted, the houses of officials and traders, schools and police stations were burnt and
robbed, and grain redistributed. Most of those who were attacked were in some way associated with the
colonial state and its oppressive laws.

The British sent troops to suppress the rebellion. The advise leaders tried to negotiate, but the British
surrounded their camps and fired upon them. After that they marched through the villages flogging and
punishing those who had taken part in the rebellion. Most villages were deserted as people fled into the
jungles. It took three months (February - May) for the British to regain control. However, they never
managed to capture Gunda Dhur. In a major victory for the rebels, work on reservation was temporarily
suspended, and the area to be reserved was reduced to roughly half of that planned before 1910.

 FOREST POLICY OF THE DUTCH IN INDONESIA

The Indonesian experience in the nineteenth century was quite similar to the Indian episode in terms of
forestry and forest management. So much so that the increasing involvement with the East Indies, as
Indonesian islands are known, both commercial and territorial led to the formation of the forest service in
Indonesia.
1. Firstly, the Dutch were propelled by the need to get more timber for the railways and maritime activities for
their even expanding network in the colony.
2. Secondly, territorial expansion led to the enactment of forest laws where by the access of natives to the forest
wealth, which was their birthright, was reduced to a bare minimum.
3. Even their daily activities like taking wood for construction purposes or for fuel and cattle grazing were
confined to specific areas and that too under strict supervision.

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 4. Another similarity with the Indian experience was the imposition of taxes and fines to the use of forest land.
5. Lastly, those who provided free labour and transport facilities to the Dutch rulers were exempted from such
dues. This practice came to be known as the blandongdiensten system.
6. Such a restrictive and oppressive policy was bound to have its repercussions. Unrest soon spread far and
wide. A major example of such a disturbance was the movement of the Saminists led by SurontikoSamin of a
village with abundance of teak woods, which soon went out of reach of the villagers.
7. Tax boycott was followed by open protests which began in the last decade of the nineteenth century and
continued into the twentieth century till the colonial rule came to an end in 1938.

 War and deforestation :

The two World Wars aggravated the process of deforestation. In a war situation the need for timber is more
than doubled due to increased use of timber for the purpose of war. Most of the war time wood is taken from
the colonies and India and Indonesia were no exceptions. This is true of all the colonies that bear the burden
of increased wartime requirements. In India and Indonesia plans for forest management (exploitation) were
dumped and a system of open exploitation of forest wealth threw every caution to the winds. In Java the
situation was a bit different. The ‘scorched earth policy’ that preceded the Japanese occupation everywhere
involved destruction of timber and mills, led to random destruction of forests by the Japanese and
consequently resulted in extension of cultivable land. This was a trend that became difficult to reverse once
the war was over.

GLOSSARY
1. Biodiversity. Variety of plant and animal life in a given environmental setting. e.g., biodiversity of the
Himalayas or the biodiversity of the Amazon refers to all the life that exists there.
2. Tropics. Areas with hot, steamy and humid climate, usually near the equator.
3. Logging. Selective cutting of useful timber wood as different from the wholesale clearance of forests. Usually
involves not clear-cutting but the “creaming” of the forest’s small proportion of commercially valued species.
However, the process of cutting and removing selected trees amid dense foliage and on delicate soils usually
causes far more destruction of vegetation and wildlife than the bare statistics of extracted timber would suggest.
4. Terra Nullius. In its simplest sense it means land belonging to no one. Antarctica is terra nullius.
5. Indispensable. Essential, necessary, crucial, very important.
6. Tropics. Places with hot, humid and sultry climate.
7. Reclaiming. Make wasteland usable again.
8. Poaching. Take game (animals) illegally from protected areas or forests.
9. Pargana. A cluster of villages also an administrative unit.

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 EXERCISE

A. VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS Q.6 How was Bastar Rebellion supressed? What
were the result of the rebellion ?
Q.1 Why are forests useful to us ?
Q.7 What new developments have occured in
Q.2 Who was Dietrich Brandis? What were his
forestry in Asia and Africa in recent times ?
achievements ?
Q.8 Where were Kalangs ? Mention any four
Q.3 What is meant by social forestry ?
features of this community ?
Q.4 What were the provisions of the 1878 forest
Q.9 “The introduction of railways had an adverse
Act ?
impact on the forest”. Justify by giving
Q.5 Where is Bastar located ?
examples.
Q.6 Why did Bastar Rebellion take place ?
Q.10 Explain the impact of Dutch scientific
Q.7 Who started Bastar Rebellion ? forestry on the locals.
Q.8 Who were Kalongs ? Why were they
Important ? C. LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.9 What were the provisions of the forest laws Q.1 Explain the major characteristics of forest
passed by the Dutch ? movement in Indonesia.
Q.10 What was blandongdiensten system ? Q.2 Explain the method used by the Saminits
Q.11 Who was Surontiko Samin ? What did he do ? against the Britishers.

Q.12 What is deforestation? Mention any two Q.3 Explain the major characteristics of forest
factors respossible for this ? movement in India.

Q.13 Explain scientific forestry ? Q.4 Explain the impact of colonalism on the

Q.14 What was the impact of Indian forest Act on forest society.

the people ? Q.5 Why forests were called ‘indispensable

Q.15 Why was scientific forestry introduced by the assets’ by the British ?

Britishers ?
D. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

B. SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1 The disapperance of forests is referred to as -
Q.1 Why are forests affected by wars ? (A) Deforestation (B) Afforestation
(C) Shelterbelts (D) All of these
Q.2 What is the importance of forest ?
Q3 How did Forests Act affect the villagers ? Q.2 Who was the first Inspector General of forest
in India -
Q.4 Describe some of the common customs and (A) George Yule (B) Dietrich Brandis
beliefs of Bastar people ? (C) Samin (D) Gundadhar
Q.5 How was Bastar rebellion organised and Q.3 When was the Indian Forest Service setup ?
financed ? (A) 1860 (B) 1862
(C) 1864 (D) 1866

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Q.4 Which Kingdom of Java spilt into two Q.8 Where did Bastar Rebellion started?
kingdoms ? (A) Kalangas (B) Kanger
(A) Kalongs (B) Mataram (C) Bhatras (D) All of these
(C) Joana (D) All of these
Q.9 Under which forest act, forest was divided
Q.5 Where was the Imperial Forest Research into three categories ?
Institute setup in India ? (A) 1875 (B) 1876 (C) 1877 (D) 1878
(A) Lucknow (B) Bastar
Q.10 Gundadhar was an inhabitant of ....... village -
(C) Delhi (D) Dehradun
(A) Nethanar (B) Munda
Q.6 Where is Bastar located ? (C) Kalanga (D) Matram
(A) Chhattisgarh (B) Uttar Pradesh
(C) Delhi (D) Rajasthan

Q.7 When did Surontiko Samin start a movement

against state outership of forest ?
(A) 1887 (B) 1888
(C) 1889 (D) 1890

ANSWER KEY

Q.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. A B C B D A D B D A
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 PASTORALISTS IN THE MODERN WORLD
2
CHAPTER

CONTENTS
 Pastoral Nomadism
 Different Forms of Pastoralism
 Pastoralism in India
 Pastoral Groups of Africa
 Impact of Colonialism and Modern States on Pastoralism


 PASTORAL NOMADISM
 Pastoral nomadism is a form of subsistence agriculture based on the herding of domesticated animals. The
word pastoral refers to sheep herding. It is adapted to dry climates where planting crops is impossible.
Pastoral nomads live primarily in the large belt of arid and semi-arid land that includes North Africa, the
Middle East, and parts of Central Asia. The Bedouins of Saudi Arabia and North Africa and the Masai of
East Africa are examples of nomadic groups. Only approximately 15 million people are pastoral nomads, but
they sparsely occupy approximately 20 percent of Earth’s land area.
 Origin :
Most of the researchers and historians believe that pastoralism is derived directly from hunting and food
gathering. It is believed that hunters of wild goats and sheep already had knowledge of herd dynamics and
the ecological needs of the herd animals. So they adopted nomadic herding as their occupation. But there are
some researchers who believed that it was pressure of population on land which forced there people to adopt
the occupation.

 DIFFERENT FORMS OF PASTORALISM

1. Nomadic Pastoralism :
(i) Under this people keep on moving along with their animals in search of grazing areas.
(ii) This activity is of subsistence type and is more common in areas of dry climate not suitable for crop farming
such as the Arabian desert and parts of Sahara.
(iii) Because a majority of the members of the group are in some way directly involved with herd management,
the household moves with these seasonal migrations.

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  Herders to Farmers :
Some African tribes such as the Masai, Fulani and Bushmen are, by tradition, herders. The people used to
migrate each season with their herds of cattle across the savannas but many can no longer find enough
grazing land. Some have had to settle down and turn to planting and farming crops, often poor, infertile land.
Many of these tribes people know little about growing crops. As most of them are failing to a living off the
land, they have no choice but to move to the towns where they will almost certainly have to live in slum
conditions and try to survive on the streets. Their age-old way of live is changing quickly.
 Transhumance : Under this members of the group move the herd seasonally form one area to another, often
between higher and lower pastures. The rest of the group are able to stay in the same location, resulting in
longer-standing housing.
Mobility throughout altitudes and the resulting precipitation differences is important. In East Africa, different
animals are taken to different regions throughout the year, to match the seasonal patterns of precipitation.
This type of pattern is also followed in Northern India where Gujjars move from hilly areas to plains during
winter.

 MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS OF PASTORAL NOMADISM

1. In contrast to other subsistence farmers, pastoral nomads depend primarily on animals rather than crops for
survival.
2. The animals provide milk, and their skins and hair are used for clothing and tents.
3. Pastoral nomads consume mostly grain rather and than meat.
4. The animals are commonly not slaughtered, although dead ones may be consumed. The size of herd is both
an important measure of power and prestige and their main security during adverse environmental
conditions.
5. Most of the nomadic people follow barter system though some use money also. They exchange animals for
food or grains.
6. More often, part of nomadic group-perhaps the women and children - may plant crops at a fixed location
while the rest of the group wanders with the herd.
7. Nomads might hire workers to practice sedentary agriculture in return for grain and protection. Other nomads
might sow grain in recently flooded areas and return later in the year to harvest the crop.
8. Nomads select the type and number of animals for the herd according to local cultural and physical
characteristics. The choice depends on the relative prestige of animals and the ability of species to adapt to a
particular climate and vegetation. The camel is most frequently desired in North Africa and the Middle East,
followed by sheep and goats. In Central Asia, the horse is particularly important.

 MOVEMENTS OF PASTORAL NOMADS

A. In the Mountains:
(i) The Gujar Bakarwals : Gujjar Bakarwals migrated to Jammu and Kashmir in the 19th century in search of
pastures for their animals. Gradually, over the decades, they established themselves in the area, and moved
annually between their summer and winter grazing grounds. In winter, when the high mountains were
covered with snow and there was lack of pastures at the high altitude they moved to low hills of the Shiwalik.

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 The dry scrub forests here provided pastures for their herds. By the end of April they began their northern
march for their summer grazing grounds. They crossed the Pir Panjal passes and entered the valley of
Kashmir. With the onset of summer, the snow melted and the mountainsides became lush green. By the end
of September the Bakarwals started their backward journey.
(ii) The Gaddi shepherds : Gaddi shepherds of Himachal Pradesh spent their winter in the low hills of Shiwalik
range, grazing their flocks in scrub forests. By April they moved north and spent the summer in Lahul and
Spiti. When the snow melted and the high passes were clear, many of them moved on to higher mountain
meadows. By September they began their return movement. On the way they stopped once again in the
villages of Lahul and Spiti, reaping their summer harvest and sowing their winter crop. Then they descended
with their flock to their winter grazing ground on the Shiwalik hills. Next April, once again, they began their
march with their goats and sheep, to the summer meadows.
(iii) Movement in Garhwal and Kumaon : The Gujjar cattle herders come down to the dry forests of the babar
in the winter, and went up to the high meadows - the bugyals - in summer. Many of them were originally
from Jammu and came to the UP hills in the nineteenth century in search of good pastures.
(iv) Other Pastoral nomads : Cyclical movement between summer and winter pastures is typical of many
pastoral communities of the Himalayas, including the Bhotiyas, Sherpas and Kinnauris. All of them had to
adjust to seasonal changes and make effective use of available pastures in different places.

B. On the Plateaus, Plains and Deserts:

(i) The Dhangars : The Dhangars were an important pastoral community of Maharashtra. They used to stay in
the semi-arid central plateau of Maharashtra during the monsoon. Due to the low rainfall only dry crops
could be grown there. In the monsoon these regions become a vast grazing ground for the Dhangar flocks. By
October the Dhangars harvested their dry crops. During this season there was shortage of grazing ground so
Dhangars had to move towards west. After about a month, they reached Konkan. In this region the locals
used to welcome them as the flocks of Dhangars provided manure to the field and fed on the stubble. With
the onset of the monsoon the Dhangars, after collecting supplies of rice and other food grains, used to leave
the Konkan and returned to their settlements on the dry plateau.
(ii) The Gollas, Kurumas and Kurubas : In Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh the dry central plateau was covered
with grass, inhabited by cattle, goat and sheep herders. The Gollas herded cattle. The Kurmas and Kurubas
reared sheep and goats and sold woven blankets. They lived near the woods, cultivated small patches of land,
engaged in a variety of petty trades and took care of their herds. The seasonal rhythms of their movement
was decided by the alternation of the monsoon and dry season. In the dry season they moved to the coastal
tracts, and left when the rains came.
(iii) The Raikas : Raikas, were the nomads of Rajasthan. They were divided into two groups. One group of
Raikas-known as the Maru Raikassherded camels and another group reared sheep and goats. Cultivation and
pastoralism were their primary activities. During the monsoon they stayed in their home villages where
pasture was available. By October, when these grazing grounds were dry and exhausted, they moved out in
search of other pastures and water

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 C. "The Pastoral groups had sustained by a careful consideration of a host of factor" :
(i) Climatic Factors: They had to judge the climatic conditions of the regions where they wanted to move. They
had to judge how long the herds could stay in one area and where they could find water and pasture.
(ii) Timing: They needed to calculate the timing of their movements and ensure that they could move through
different territories.
(iii) Relationship: They had to set up a relationship With farmers so that herds could graze in harvested fields and
manure the soil.
(iv) Different activities: They combined a range of different activities - cultivation, trade and herding to make
their living.

 IMPACT OF COLONIALISM AND MODERN STATES ON PASTORALISM

The process of colonalisation started in the 16th century. During the earlier phase of colonialism Spain,
Portugal, England, France and Holland established their colonies in the continents of America, Asia and
Africa. The Second stage of imperialism began with the 8th decade of the 19th century. During this stage a
race started among the European countries to capture more and more colonies outside Europe. Apart from
England and France, some new countries like Germany, Belgium , Russia, Japan and America also became
active contenders in this race of colonization. The spread of colonalism and imperialism had a deep impact
on the pastoralism.
1. After colonalisation their mobility was restricted. Now the people had limited area to move.
2. The new rulers encouraged settlement which had adverse impact on the herds and the people.
3. The colonies were to be used as source of raw material so the new rulers encouraged commercial
agricultural. The pasture were converted into big farms.
4. To exploit the natural resources of their colonies the European countries started building roads and railway
tracks. This resulted in the loss of pastures.
5. With the invention of modern technology pastoral nomadism became non-existent in many parts of the
world.
6. The introduction of state farming system had adverse impact on the pastoral people.
7. Exploitation of oil resources and the difficulties posed to nomads by the multiplicity of political boundaries,
have also reduced the importance of this mode of livelihood.
8. Even in these days most of the governments of the countries like China, Egypt, Israel, Saudi Arabia etc. are
forcing the people to give up pastoral nomadism so that pasture can be used for other purposes.
9. Mining and petroleum industries has also limited their movement as these industries operate in dry lands.
10. Many nomads are being encouraged to try sedentary agriculture or to work for mining or petroleum
industries.
The researcher still believed that the pastoralist way of life is a efficient system; one of the few ways of
supporting a population in a difficult environment and representing a sustainable approach to land use. But
due to modernisation, globalization and privatisation pastoral nomadism will be confined to areas that can
not be irrigated or that lack valuable raw materials.

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 PASTORALISM IN AFRICA
Over 22 million Africans depend on some form of pastoral activity for their livelihood. They include
communities like Bedouins, Berbers, Maasai, Somali, Boran and Turkana. Most of them now live in the
semiarid grasslands or arid deserts where rain fed, agriculture is difficult. They raise cattle, camels, goats,
sheep and donkeys; and they sell milk, meat, animal skin and wool. Some also earn through trade and
transport, others combine pastoral activity with agriculture; still others do a variety of odd jobs to supplement
their meagre and uncertain earnings from pastoralism.

A. Where have the Grazing Lands Gone?

Before arrival of the colonial rulers, the Maasailand spread over a vast area from North Kenya to the steppes
of northern Tanzania. This gradually shrank due to the following reasons:
(i) The colonial powers were hungry for colonial possessions in Africa. Once they reached Africa, they began to
cut it down in different colonies.
(ii) The best grazing lands were gradually taken over for white settlement. Massai were pushed into a small area
in south Kenya and north Tanzania.
(iii) The colonial governments promoted cultivation. Local peasant communities began to take control over the
pastoral lands. Pastoral lands further fell.
(iv) Large areas of land were also turned into game reserves. Pastoralists were not allowed to enter these reserves;
they could neither hunt animals nor graze their herds in these areas. Very often these reserves were in area
that had traditionally been regular grazing grounds for Maasai herds.
(v) The loss of the finest grazing lands and water resources created pressure on the small area of land that the
Maasai were confined within. Continuous grazing within a small area inevitably meant a deterioration. of the
quality of pastures. Fodder was always in short supply. Feeding the cattle became a persistent problem.

B. The borders are closed

(i) From the late nineteenth century, the colonial government began imposing various restrictions on the
mobility of the pastures. Special permits were issued to the people. They were not allowed to move out with
their stock without special permits. And it was difficult to get permits without trouble and harassment.
(ii) Pastoralists were also not allowed to enter the markets in white areas. In many regions, they were prohibited
from participating in any form of trade. So now they were fully dependent on their stock.
(iii) When restrictions were imposed on pastoral movements, grazing lands came to be continuously used and the
quality of pastures declined. This in turn created a further shortage of forage for animals and the deterioration
of animal stock.
(iv) Now most of the nomads were forced to live within a semi-arid tract prone to frequent droughts.

C. When Pastures Dry:

(i) Traditionally pastoralists are nomadic; they move from place to place. This nomadism allows them to survive
bad times and avoid crises.

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 (ii) From the colonial period, the Maasai were bound down to a fixed area, prohibited from moving in search of
pastures. They were cut off from the best grazing lands and forced to live within a semiarid tract prone to
frequent droughts. Since they could not shift their cattle to places where pastures were available, large
numbers of Maasai cattle died of starvation and disease in these years of drought.
(iii) As the area of grazing lands shrank, the adverse effect of the droughts increased in intensity. The frequent
bad years led to a steady decline of the animal stock of the pastoralists.

D. Not All were Equally Affected:

(i) In pre-colonial times Maasai society was divided into two social categories-elders and warriors. The elders
formed the ruling group and met in periodic councils to decide on the affairs of the community and settle
disputes. The warriors consisted of younger people, mainly responsible for the protection of the tribe. They
defended the community and organized cattle raids. Young men came to be recognized as members of the
warrior class when they proved their manliness by raiding the cattle of other pastoral groups and participating
in wars. They, however, were subject to the authority of the elders.
(ii) After the arrival of Britishers there was a change in the political set up of the tribes. The British started
appointing chiefs of different sub-groups and imposed various restrictions on raiding and warfare. With the
passage of time these chiefs started accumulating wealth and became very rich and started lending money to
poor class. Many of these chiefs started living in towns and got themselves involved into other economic
activities. The life of the poor pastoralists was miserable. They did not have resources to tide over bad times.
In times of war and famine, they lost nearly everything. Most of them started working as. labourers.
(iii) The social changes in Massai society occurred at two levels. First, the traditional difference based on age,
between the elders and warriors, was disturbed, though it did not break down entirely. Second, a new
distinction between the wealthy and poor pastoralists developed.

GLOSSARY
1. Nomads : Nomads are those people who do not live in one place but move from one area to another to earn their
living.
2. Bhabar : A dry forested area below the foot hills of garhwal and kumaun.
3. Bugyai : Vast meadows in the high mountains.
4. Kharif : The autumn crop, usually harvested between September and October.
5. Rabi : The spring crop, usually havested after March.
6. Stubble : Lower ends of grain stalks left in the ground after harvesting.
7. Pasture : It is a grass or other plants grown for feeding or grazing animals, as well as land used for grazing.
8. Massai : A postoralist community of Africa.
9. Criminal Tribes Act : In 1871, the colonial government in India passed the Criminal Tribes Act. By this Act
many communities of craftsmen, traders and postoralists were classified as criminal Tribes.
10.Customary Rights : Rights that people are used to by custom and tradition.

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 EXERCISE

A. VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS Q.2 Who were Dhangars ? What were their
occupations ? Why were they continuously on
Q.1 Why did pastoral communities move from
one place to another ? the move ?
Q.2 Name three pastoral communities of Q.3 What factors had to be kept in mind by the
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. What were pastoralists in order to survive ?
their occupations. Q.4 How did various laws passed by the British
Q.3 Who were the Banjaras ? Where are they
affect the Indian Pastoralists ?
found ? What were their occupation ?
Q.5 How did the Pastoralists cope with these
Q.4 Where are the Raikas to be found ? Why are
changes ?
they both cultivators and pastoralists ?
Q.5 How did the life of the pastoalists change Q.6 Name four pastoral communities of Africa.
under colonial rule ? Where are they to be found ? What are their
Q.6 What were the basic provisions of the various occupations ?
Forest Act passed during this time ? Q.7 What restrictions were imposed by the
Q.7 What does the word Massai mean ? Where
colonial government on the African
are they found ?
Pastoralists ?
Q.8 What changes occurred in Massai society
Q.8 Why did the cattle stock of the Massai’s
during colonial rule ?
Q.9 How did the poor Massai pastoralists survive decrease under colonial rule ?
during war and famines ? Q.9 Describe the social organisation of the
Q.10 How have pastoralists adopted to changing Massai’s in the pre-colonial times.
times ? Q.10 How did the Massai’s chiefs appointed by the
Q.11 What is pasture ?
British benefit economically ?
Q.12 What is transhumance ?
Q.11 What was the impact of colonial rule over the
Q.13 Who were nomads ? Name any four animals
elders and warriors of Massai community ?
which are reared by them.
Q.14 What is Kafila ? Q.12 Who were Raikas ? Write any three features
Q.15 Distinguish between ‘Reserved’ and of their life style.
‘Protected’ Forests. Q.13 Explain the impact of Forest Acts on the
Nomads or Pastoralists.
B. SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS Q.14 Explain the movements of Gujjar, Bakarwals
Q.1 What are the similarities between the of Jammu and Kashmir.
lifestyles of Gujar Bakarwals of Jammu & Q.15 Explain the annual cycle of seasonal
Kashmir and Gaddi shepherds of Himachal movement of Gaddis.
Pradesh ?

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 C. LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS Q.6 When was Massailand divided between
Q.1 Explain the major characteristics of pastoral British Kenya & German Tangayika ?
Nomadism. (A) 1883 (B) 1885
Q.2 Explain the impact of droughts on the life of (C) 1887 (D) 1889
pastoralists. Q.7 It is a type of agriculture under which crops
Q.3 How did the pastoralists cope with the are grown and consumed by the farmer’s
changes brought by colonical rule ? Explain. family -
Q.4 Give reason to explain why the Massai (A) Primary agriculture
community lost their grazing lands. (B) Subsistence agriculture
Q.5 Explain the life of bushman of the Kalahari. (C) Secondary agriculture
D. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (D) None of these

Q.1 Where are Gujjar Cattle herders originally from ? Q.8 It is a type of agriculture under which crops
(A) Jammu are grown to satisfy the needs of local
(B) Himachal Pradesh community -
(C) Rajasthan (A) Primary agriculture
(D) Goa (B) Subsistence agriculture
(C) Secondary agriculture
Q.2 Where do Gujjars live in summer ? (D) None of these
(A) Buggals (B) Bhabar
(C) Pasture (D) Meadows Q.9 When did the colonical government in India
pass the criminal Tribes Act ?
Q.3 Where do the Bedounis Communtiy Found ? (A) 1871 (B) 1872
(A) Jammu (B) Indonesia (C) 1873 (D) 1874
(C) Africa (D) Jawa
Q.10 Which of the following pastoralist
Q.4 Which crop is usually harvested after March - community of western India ?
(A) Kharif (B) Rabi (A) Monpas (B) Gollas
(C) Zaid (D) Stubble (C) Raikas (D) Dhangars
Q.5 Where are the Raikas to be found ?
(A) Karnataka
(B) Tamil Nadu
(C) Delhi
(D) Desert of Rajasthan

ANSWER KEY

Q.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. A B C B D B B C A D

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 PEASANTS AND FARMERS
3
CHAPTER

CONTENTS
The Time of open fields and commons New Demands for Grain
  The Age of Enclosures  The Conditions of the Poor
 The Introduction of Threshing Machines  Bread Basket and Dust Bowl
  The Westward Move and Wheat Cultivation  The Wheat Farmers
 The Coming of New Technology  What Happened to the Poor ?
 Dust Bowl  The India Farmer and Opium Production

 THE TIME OF OPEN FIELDS AND COMMONS

(i) Before late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries in large parts of England the countryside was open. It
was not partitioned into enclosed lands privately owned by landlords. Peasants cultivated on strips of land
around the village they lived in. At the beginning of each year, at a public meeting, each villager was
allocated a number of strips to cultivate. Usually, these strips were of varying quality and often located in
different places, not next to each other. The effort was to ensure that everyone had a mix of good and bad
land. Beyond these strips of cultivation lay the common land. All villagers had access to the commons. Here
they pastured their cows and grazed their sheep, collected fuel wood for fire and berries and fruit for food.
They fished in the rivers and ponds, and hunted rabbit in common forests. For the poor, the common land
was essential for survival. It supplemented their meagre income, sustained their cattle, and helped them tide
over bad times when crops failed.
(ii) From about the sixteenth century. When the price of wool went up in the world market in the sixteenth
century, rich farmers wanted to expand wool production to earn profits. They were eager to improve their
sheep breeds and ensure good feed for them. They were keen on controlling large areas of land in compact
blocks to allow improved breeding. So they began dividing and enclosing common land and building hedges
around their holdings to separate their property from that of others. They drove out villagers who had small
cottages on the commons, and they prevented the poor from entering the enclosed fields. Till the middle of
the eighteenth century the enclosure movement proceeded very slowly. The early enclosures were usually
created by individual landlords. They were not supported by the state or the church. After the mid-eighteenth
century, however, the enclosure movement swept through the countryside, changing the English landscape
for ever. Between 1750 and 1850, 6 million acres of land was enclosed. The British Parliament no longer
watched this process from a distance. It passed 4,000 Acts legalising these enclosures.
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 NEW DEMANDS FOR GRAIN

(i) English population between 1750 and 1900, it multiplied over four times, mounting from 7 million in 1750 to
21 million in 1850 and 30 million in 1900. This meant an increased demand for foodgrains to feed the
population. Moreover, Britain at this time was industrialising. More and more people began to live and work
in urban areas. Men from rural areas migrated to towns in search of jobs. To survive they had to buy
foodgrains in the market. As the urban population grew, the market for foodgrains expanded, and when
demand increased rapidly, foodgrain prices rose.
(ii) By the end of the eighteenth century, France was at war with England. This disrupted trade and the import of
foodgrains from Europe. Prices of foodgrains in England sky rocketed, encouraging landowners to enclose
lands and enlarge the area under grain cultivation

 THE AGE OF ENCLOSURES

(i) in the nineteenth century, grain production grew as quickly as population. Even though the population
increased rapidly, in 1868 England was producing about 80 per cent of the food it consumed.
(ii) This increase in food-grain production was made possible not by any radical innovations in agricultural
technology, but by bringing new lands under cultivation. Landlords sliced up pasturelands, carved up open
fields, cut up forest commons, took over marshes, and turned larger and larger areas into agricultural fields


  Importance of turnip and clover for farmers :
In about the 1660s that farmers in many parts of England began growing turnip and clover. They soon
discovered that planting these crops improved the soil and made it more fertile. Turnip was, moreover, a
good fodder crop relished by cattle. So farmers began cultivating turnips and clover regularly. These crops
became part of the cropping system. Later findings showed that these crops had the capacity to increase the
nitrogen content of the soil. Nitrogen was important for crop growth. Cultivation of the same soil over a few
years depleted the nitrogen in the soil and reduced its fertility. By restoring nitrogen, turnip and clover made
the soil fertile once again.

Enclosures were now seen as necessary to make long-term investments on land and plan crop rotations to
improve the soil. Enclosures also allowed the richer landowners to expand the land under their control and
produce more for the market.

 THE CONDITIONS OF THE POOR

When fences came up, the enclosed land became the exclusive property of one landowner. The poor could no
longer collect their firewood from the forests, or graze their cattle on the commons. They could no longer
collect apples and berries, or hunt small animals for meat. Nor could they gather the stalks that lay on the
fields after the crops were cut. Everything belonged to the landlords, everything had a price which the poor
could not afford to pay. In places where enclosures happened on an extensive scale – particularly the
Midlands and the counties around – the poor were displaced from the land. They found their customary rights

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 gradually disappearing. Deprived of their rights and driven off the land, they tramped in search of work.
From the Midlands, they moved to the southern counties of England. This was a region that was most
intensively cultivated, and there was a great demand for agricultural labourers. But nowhere could the poor
find secure jobs. Earlier, it was common for labourers to live with landowners. They ate at the master’s table,
and helped their master through the year, doing a variety of odd jobs. By 1800 this practice was disappearing.
Labourers were being paid wages and employed only during harvest time. As landowners tried to increase
their profits, they cut the amount they had to spend on their workmen. Work became insecure, employment
uncertain, income unstable. For a very large part of the year the poor had no work.

 THE INTRODUCTION OF THRESHING MACHINES

(i) During the Napoleonic Wars, prices of foodgrains were high and farmers expanded production vigorously.
Fearing a shortage of labour, they began buying the new threshing machines that had come into the market.
(ii) They complained of the insolence of labourers, their drinking habits, and the difficulty of making them work.
The machines, they thought, would help them reduce their dependence on labourers. After the Napoleonic
Wars had ended, thousands of soldiers returned to the villages. They needed alternative jobs to survive. But
this was a time when grain from Europe began flowing into England, prices declined, and an Agricultural
Depression set in Anxious, landowners began reducing the area they cultivated and demanded that the
imports of crops be stopped. They tried to cut wages and the number of workmen they employed.
(iii) The Captain Swing riots spread in the countryside at this time. For the poor the threshing machines had
become a sign of bad times.

 BREAD BASKET AND DUST BOWL

(i) At the time that common fields were being enclosed in England at the end of the eighteenth century, settled
agriculture had not developed on any extensive scale in the USA. Forests covered over 800 million acres and
grasslands 600 million acres.
(ii) Most of the landscape was not under the control of white Americans. Till the 1780s, white American
settlements were confined to a small narrow strip of coastal land in the east. If you travelled through the
country at that time you would have met various Native American groups. Several of them were nomadic,
some were settled. Many of them lived only by hunting, gathering and fishing; others cultivated corn, beans,
tobacco and pumpkin.
(iii) By the early twentieth century, this landscape had transformed radically. While Americans had moved
westward and established control up to the west coast, displacing local tribes and carving out the entire
landscape into different agricultural belts. The USA had come to dominate the world market in agricultural
produce.
 THE WESTWARD MOVE AND WHEAT CULTIVATION

(i) After the American War of Independence from 1775 to 1783 and the formation of the United States of
America, the white Americans began to move westward. By the time Thomas Jefferson became President of
the USA in 1800, over 700,000 white settlers had moved on to the Appalachian plateau through the passes.
Seen from the east coast, America seemed to be a land of promise. Its wilderness could be turned into
cultivated fields. Forest timber could be cut for export, animals hunted for skin, mountains mined for gold
and minerals.

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 (ii) In the decades after 1800 the US government committed itself to a policy of driving the American Indians
westward, first beyond the river Mississippi, and then further west. Numerous wars were waged in which
Indians were massacred and many of their villages burnt. The Indians resisted, won many victories in wars,
but were ultimately forced to sign treaties, give up their land and move westward. As the Indians retreated,
the settlers poured in. They came in successive waves. They settled on the Appalachian plateau by the first
decade of the eighteenth century, and then moved into the Mississippi valley between 1820 and 1850. They
slashed and burnt forests, pulled out the stumps, cleared the land for cultivation, and built log cabins in the
forest clearings. Then they cleared larger areas, and erected fences around the fields. They ploughed the land
and sowed corn and wheat. In the early years, the fertile soil produced good crops. When the soil became
impoverished and exhausted in one place, the migrants would move further west, to explore new lands and
raise a new crop. It was, however, only after the 1860s that settlers swept into the Great Plains across the
River Mississippi.

 THE WHEAT FARMERS

(i) From the late nineteenth century, there was a dramatic expansion of wheat production in the USA. The urban
population in the USA was growing and the export market was becoming ever bigger. As the demand
increased, wheat prices rose, encouraging farmers to produce wheat. The spread of the railways made it easy
to transport the grain from the wheat-growing regions to the eastern coast for export. By the early twentieth
century the demand became even higher, and during the First World War the world market boomed.
(ii) In 1910, about 45 million acres of land in the USA was under wheat. Nine years later, the area had expanded
to 74 million acres, an increase of about 65 per cent. Most of the increase was in the Great Plains where new
areas were being ploughed to extend cultivation. In many cases, big farmers – the wheat barons – controlled
as much as 2,000 to 3,000 acres of land individually.

 THE COMING OF NEW TECHNOLOGY

(i) This dramatic expansion was made possible by new technology. Through the nineteenth century, as the
settlers moved into new habitats and new lands, they modified their implements to meet their requirements.
(ii) The prairie was covered with a thick mat of grass with tough roots. To break the sod and turn the soil over, a
variety of new ploughs were devised locally, By the early twentieth century, farmers in the Great Plains were
breaking the ground with tractors and disk ploughs, clearing vast stretches for wheat cultivation.
In 1831, Cyrus McCormick invented the first mechanical reaper which could cut in one day as much as five
men could cut with cradles and 16 men with sickles. By the early twentieth century, most farmers were using
combined harvesters to cut grain. With one of these machines, 500 acres of wheat could be harvested in two
weeks.
(iii) For the big farmers of the Great Plains these machines had many attractions. The prices of wheat were high
and the demand seemed limitless.
(iv) With power-driven machinery, four men could plough, seed and harvest 2,000 to 4,000 acres of wheat in a
season.

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 WHAT HAPPENED TO THE POOR ?

For the poorer farmers, machines brought misery. Many of them bought these machines, imagining that
wheat prices would remain high and profits would flow in. If they had no money, the banks offered loans.
Those who borrowed found it difficult to pay back their debts. Many of them deserted their farms and looked
for jobs elsewhere.
Mechanisation reduced the need for labour. After 1920s. most farmers faced trouble. Production had
expanded so rapidly during the war and post-war years that that there was a large surplus. Unsold stocks
piled up, storehouses overflowed with grain, and vast amounts of corn and wheat were turned into animal
feed. Wheat prices fell and export markets collapsed. This created the grounds for the Great Agrarian
Depression of the 1930s that ruined wheat farmers everywhere.

 DUST BOWL

In the 1930s, terrifying dust storms began to blow over the southern plains. Black blizzards rolled in, very
often 7,000 to 8,000 feet high, rising like monstrous waves of muddy water. As the skies darkened, and the
dust swept in, people were blinded and choked. Cattle were suffocated to death, their lungs caked with dust
and mud. Sand buried fences, covered fields, and coated the surfaces of rivers till the fish died. Dead bodies
of birds and animals were strewn all over the landscape. Tractors and machines that had ploughed the earth
and harvested the wheat in the 1920s were now clogged with dust, damaged beyond repair. they came
because the early 1930s were years of persistent drought.. Ordinary dust storms became black blizzards only
because the entire landscape had been ploughed over, stripped of all grass that held it together. When wheat
cultivation had expanded dramatically in the early nineteenth century, zealous farmers had recklessly
uprooted all vegetation, and tractors had turned the soil over, and broken the sod into dust. The whole region
had become a dust bowl.

 THE INDIA FARMER AND OPIUM PRODUCTION

Over the period of colonial rule, the rural landscape was radically transformed. As cultivation expanded, the
area under forests and pastures declined. In the colonial period, rural India also came to produce a range of
crops for the world market. In the early nineteenth century, indigo and opium were two of the major
commercial crops. By the end of the century, peasants were producing sugarcane, cotton, jute, wheat and
several other crops for export, to feed the population of urban. Europe and to supply the mills of Lancashire
and Manchester in England.

 A TASTE FOR TEA : THE TRADE WITH CHINA

(i) In the late eighteenth century, the English East India Company was buying tea and silk from China for sale in
England. As tea became a popular English drink, the tea trade became more and more important. In 1785,
about 15 million pounds of tea was being imported into England. By 1830, the figure had jumped to over 30
million pounds. In fact, the profits of the East India Company came to depend on the tea trade.
(ii) England at this time produced nothing that could be easily sold in China. The Confucian rulers of China, In
such a situation, how could Western merchants finance the tea trade? They could buy tea only by paying in
silver coins or bullion. This meant an outflow of treasure from England, a prospect that created widespread
anxiety. Merchants therefore looked for ways to stop this loss of silver. They searched for a commodity they
could sell in China, something they could persuade the Chinese to buy. Opium was such a commodity.
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 (iii) The Chinese were aware of the dangers of opium addiction, and the Emperor had forbidden its production
and sale except for medicinal purposes. But Western merchants in the mid-eighteenth century began an
illegal trade in opium.
(iv)While the English cultivated a taste for Chinese tea, the Chinese became addicted to opium, People of all
classes took to the drug-shopkeepers and peddlers, officials and army men, aristocrats and paupers.
As China became a country of opium addicts, British trade in tea flourished. The returns from opium sale
financed the tea purchases in China.
 THE OPIUM CAME FROM
When the British conquered Bengal, they made a determined effort to produce opium in the lands under their
control. Before 1767, no more than 500 chests were being exported from India. A hundred years later in
1870, the government was exporting about 50,000 chests annually.
 FARMEZRS WERE UNWILLING TO TURN THEIR FIELDS OVER TO POPPY
First, the crop had to be grown on the best land, on fields that lay near villages and were well manured.
Second, many cultivators owned no land. To cultivate, they had to pay rent and lease land from landlords.
And the rent charged on good lands near villages was very high.
Third, the cultivation of opium was a difficult process.
Finally, the price the government paid to the cultivators for the opium they produced was very low.
 UNWILLING CULTIVATORS WERE MADE TO PRODUCE OPIUM
(i) In the rural areas of Bengal and Bihar, there were large numbers of poor peasants. From the 1780s, such
peasants found their village headmen (mahato) giving them money advances to produce opium.
(ii) By taking the loan, the cultivator was forced to grow opium on a specified area of land and hand over the
produce to the agents once the crop had been harvested.
(iii) The problem could have been partly solved by increasing the price of opium. The prices given to the peasants
were so low that by the early eighteenth century angry peasants began agitating for higher prices and refused
to take advances.

GLOSSARY
1. Shifting Agriculture : Under this farmers cultivate a land for some time and after the land become infertile they
shift to new land.

2. Captain Swing : A mystic name used by poor labourers of England to threaten those who were introducing
machines in agriculture.

3. Shilling : An English currency.

4. Great Agrarian Depression : It was a depression which occurred in USA in the 1930’s. It occurred because of
surplus production in agriculture and ruined farmers everywhere.

5. Swing movement : It was a movement which was launched by the poor workers of England against the
introduction of threshing machines by the rich landlords.

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6. Dust Bowl Tragedy : It was a tragedy which occurred in 1930’s. The extensive use of prairies was responsible
for the tragedy. Under this black blizzards become common in the Prairies.

7. Bushel : A measure of capacity.

8. Sod : Pieces of earth with grass.

9. Mound : A measure of weight.

10. Opium Trade : The smuggling of opium into China on a large scale in order to its trade more profitable.

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 EXERCISE

A. VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS Q.5 What was the impact of enclosures on the
poor farmers ?
Q.1 What is strip cultivation ? Q.6 What was the impact of agriculture revolution
Q.2 How did food production increase in the 19th or enclosures on England ?
century ? Q.7 What was the importance of turnip and cloves
Q.3 Why did rich farmers use the threshing for the England farmers ?
machines ? Q.8 Explain the Dust Bowl Tragedy.
Q.4 What were the occupations of the Native Q.9 What were the causes of westward migrations
Americans ? in 19th century why was it resented by
Q.5 Why and how were the Native Americans peasants ?
driven westwards ? Q.10 What were the draw backs of old system of
Q.6 What problems did expansion of wheat cultivation in England ?
agriculture in the Great Plains cause ?
C. LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
Q.7 Why were threshing machines opposed by the
poor in England ?
Q.1 Explain the major factors responsible for a
Q.8 Who was Captain Swing ? What did the name conflict between the British government,
symbolise or represent ? peasants and local traders.
Q.9 What items did the British merchants buy Q.2 How were unwilling cultivators made to
from China ? Why did they start smuggling produce opium in field ?
opium into China ?
Q.3 Explain the major features of ‘open field’
Q.10 What was enclosure system ? system which was prevailing in England in
Q.11 Mention any four factors which encouraged the 18th and early 19th century.
the enclosure system. Q.4 How were poor affected by the enclosure
Q.12 Mention the factor responsible for Dust Bowl movement ?
Tragedy ? Q.5 What factors led to a dramatic expansion in
Q.13 Which European country introduced opium America wheat production ?
into China ?
D. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
Q.14 What were the difference in the enclosures of
the 16th century from the 18th century in
England ? Q.1 What is shillings ?
Q.15 What was the impact of opium trade on (A) Currency (B) Edible items
China ? (C) Electronic thing (D) Cereals

B. SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS Q.2 Who invented the first mechanical reaper ?
(A) Thomas Jefferson (B) Wilson
Q.1 Why were the Indian farmers reluctant to (C) Cyrus Mccormick (D) Lin-ze-xu
grow opium ?
Q.2 What simple innovations helped to increase Q.3 Who gave the slogan “Plant more wheat,
agricultural production in England ? wheat will win the war” ?
(A) Georg Bush (B) Wilson
Q.3 What changes occurred due to coming of
modern agriculture in England ? (C) Jefferson (D) Lin-Ze-Xu

Q.4 How were the Indian peasants made to

produce opium ?

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Q.4 Which European country introduced opium Q.8 Seed drill was invented by -
into China ? (A) Jethro Tull (B) Wilson
(A) England (B) France (C) Lin-Ze-Xu (D) All of them
(C) Germany (D) Portugal
Q.9 What is sod ?
Q.5 When was opium introduced in China ? (A) A measure of capacity
(A) 16th century (B) 17th century (B) English currency
(C) 18th century (D) 19th century (C) Piece of earth with grass
(D) Measure of weight
Q.6 A type of agriculture which is linked to
market ? Q.10 What is Maund ?
(A) Shifting agriculture (A) Measure of weight
(B) Commercial agriculture (B) Piece of earth with grass
(C) Subsistence farming (C) English currency
(D) None of these (D) Measure of capacity
Q.7 Who invented threshing machine ?
(A) Jethro Tull (B) Jospeh Folyambe’s
(C) Andrew Meikle (D) None of these

ANSWER KEY

Q.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. A C B B A B C A C A

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 CLOTHING : A SOCIAL HISTORY
5
CHAPTER

CONTENTS
 Sumptuary Law's & Social Hierarchy Clothing and Notions of Beauty
 New Times Transformation in Colonial India

 Designing the National Dress

 SUMPTUARY LAWS & SOCIAL HIERARCHY

(i) From about 1294 to the time of the French Revolution in 1789, the people of France were expected to strictly
follow 'sumptuary laws' which tried to control the behaviour of those considered social inferiors, preventing
them from wearing certain clothes, consuming certain foods and beverages and hunting game in certain
areas. According to the 'sumptuary laws', only royalty could wear expensive materials like ermine and fur, or
silk, velvet and brocade. Other classes were debarred from clothing themselves with materials that were
associated with the aristocracy.
(ii) The French Revolution ended these distinctions. From now on, both men and women began wearing clothing
that was loose and comfortable. The colours of France - blue, white and red °became popular as they were
sign of the patriotic citizen. Other political symbols too became a part of dress: the red cap of liberty, long
trousers and the revolutionary cockade pinned on to a hat. The simplicity of clothing was meant to express
the idea of equality.

 CLOTHING AND NOTIONS OF BEAUTY

(i) The end of sumptuary laws did not mean that everyone in European societies could now dress in the same
way, differences between the social strata remained. The poor could not dress like the rich, nor eat the same
food. But laws no longer barred people's right to dress in the way they wished. Differences in earning, rather
than sumptuary laws, now defined what the rich and poor could wear. The notion of what was beautiful or
ugly, proper or improper, decent or vulgar differed.
(ii) Styles of clothing emphasised differences between men and women. Women in Victorian England were
groomed from childhood to be docile and dutiful, submissive and obedient. The ideal women was one who
could bear pain and suffering. While men were expected to be serious, strong, independent and aggressive,
women were seen as frivolous, delicate, passive and docile. Norms of clothing reflected these ideals. From
childhood, girls were tightly laced up and dressed in stays. The effort was to restrict the growth of their
bodies, contain them within small moulds. When slightly older, girls had to wear tight fitting corsets. Tightly
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 laced, small-waisted women were admired as attractive, elegant and graceful. Clothing thus played a part in
creating the image of frail, submissive Victorian women.
A. How Did Women React to These Norms?
(i) Many women believed in the ideals of womanhood. The ideals were in the air they breathed, the literature
they read, the education they had received at school and at home.
(ii) But not everyone accepted these values. By the 1830s, women in England began agitating for democratic
rights. As the suffrage movement developed, many began campaigning for dress reform. Women's
magazines described how tight dresses and corsets caused deformities and illness among young girls.
Doctors reported that many women were regularly complaining of acute weakness, felt languid, and fainted
frequently. Corsets then became necessary to hold up the weakened spine.
(iii) In America, a similar movement developed amongst the white settlers on the east coast. Traditional feminine
clothes were criticised on a variety of grounds. Reform of the dress, it was said, would change the position of
women. If clothes were comfortable and convenient, then women could work, earn their living and become
independent. In the 18705, the National Woman Suffrage Association headed by Mrs. Stanton, and the
American Woman Suffrage Association dominated by Lucy Stone both campaigned for dress reform. The
argument was: simplify dress, shorten skirts, and abandon corsets. On both sides of the Atlantic, there was
now a movement for rational dress reform.
(iv) The reformers did not immediately succeed in changing social-values. They had to face ridicule and hostility.
Conservatives everywhere opposed change. Faced with persistent attacks, many women reformers changed
back into traditional clothes to confirm to conventions.
(v) By the end of the nineteenth century, however, change was clearly in the air. "Ideals of beauty and styles of
clothing were both transformed under a variety of pressures. People began accepting the ideas of reformers
they had earlier ridiculed. With new times came new values .

 NEW TIMES

Many changes were made possible in Britain due to the introduction of new materials and technologies.
Other changes came about because of the two world wars and the new working conditions for women.

(i) after 1600, trade with India brought cheap, beautiful and easy-to-maintain Indian chintzes within the reach of
many Europeans who could now increase the size of their wardrobes.

(ii) During the Industrial Revolution, in the nineteenth century, Britain began the mass manufacture of cotton
textiles which became more accessible to a wider section of people in Europe. By the early twentieth century,
artificial fibers made clothes cheaper still and easier to wash and maintain.

(iii) In the late 1870s, heavy restrictive underclothes, which had created such a storm in the pages of women's
magazines, were gradually discarded. Clothes got lighter, shorter and simpler.

(iv) Yet until 1914, clothes were ankle length, as they had been since the thirteenth century. By 1915, however,
the hemline of the skirt rose dramatically to mid-calf.

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 B. The Wars:

Changes in women's clothing came about as a result of the two World Wars.

(i) Many European women stopped wearing jewellery and luxurious clothes. As upper-class women mixed with
other classes, social barriers were eroded and women began to look similar.

(ii) Number of women workers multiplied fast. At job, they wore a working uniform. Shorter skirts and trousers
became common dresses for women.

(iii) Bright colours faded; only sober colours were worn. Skirts became shorter. Soon trousers became a vital part
of Western women's clothing, women took to cutting .. their hair short for convenience.

(iv) By the twentieth century, a plain and austere style came to reflect seriousness and professionalism. New
schools for children emphasized the importance of plain clothing. As women took to sports, they had to wear
clothes that did not hamper movement. When they went out to work they needed clothes that were
comfortable and convenient.

 TRANSFORMATION IN COLONIAL INDIA

During the colonial period there were significant changes in male and female clothing in India. This was a
consequence of the influence of Western dress forms and missionary activity and due to the effort by Indians
to fashion clothing styles that embodied and indigenous tradition symbols of ;the national movement. When
western-style clothing came into India in the nineteenth century, Indians reacted in three different ways:
(i) There was a section of society to women Western clothes were a sign, of modernity and process. They
adopted these dresses, There was another section of society, who found western style clothing as symbolic of
liberation, Among these the important ones were the dalits who had converted to Christianity,
(ii) Another group of people were convinced that western culture would lead to a loss of traditional cultural
identity, These people kept away from western clothes,
(iii) Another group of people began to wear western clothes without giving up their Indians ones, They would
wear western style clothes when out on work, and would to back to more comfortable Indian clothes when
relaxing at home,
A. Caste Conflict and Dress Change:
(i) India had its own strict social codes of food and dress, The caste system clearly defined what subordinate and
dominant cast Hindus should wear, eat, etc., and these codes had the force of law, Changes in clothing styles
that threatened these norms therefore often created violent social reactions,
(ii) The Shanars (also called Nadars) were a community of toddy tappers who migrated to southern Travancore
to work under Nair landlords, As they were considered a 'subordinate caste', they were prohibited from using
umbrellas and wearing shoes or golden ornaments, Men and women were also expected to follow the local
custom of never covering their upper bodies before the upper castes,
(iii) Under the influence of Christian missions, Shanar women converts began in the 1820s to wear tailored
blouses and cloths to cover themselves like the upper castes, Soon Nairs attacked these women. Complaints
were also filed in court against this dress change.
(iv) At first. the Government of Travancore issued a proclamation in 1829 ordering Shanar women 'to abstain in
future from covering the upper parts of the body'. But this did not prevent Shanar Christian women, and even
Shanar Hindus from adopting the blouse and upper cloth.

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 (v) The abolition of slavery in Travancore in 1855 led to even more frustration among the upper castes who felt
they were losing control. In October 1859, riots broke out as Shanar women were attacked in the market
place and stripped of their upper cloths, Houses were looted and chapels burned, Finally, the government
issued another proclamation permitting Shanar women, whether Christian and Hindu, to wear a jacket, or
cover their upper bodies 'in any manner whatever, but not like the women of high caste'.
B. British Rule and Dress Codes:
In different cultures, specific items of clothing often convey contrary meanings. This frequently leads to
misunderstanding and conflict. Styles of clothing in British India changed through such conflicts.
(i) When European traders first began frequenting India, they were distinguished from the Indian 'turban
wearers' as the 'hat wearers'. These two headgears not only looked different, they also signified different
things. The turban in India was not just for protection from the heat but was a sign of respectability, and
could not be removed at will. In the Western tradition, the hat had to be removed before social superiors as a
sign of respect. This cultural difference created misunderstanding. The British were often offended if Indians
did not take off their turban when they met colonial officials. Many Indians on the other hand wore the
turban to consciously assert their regional or national identity.
(ii) Another such conflict related to the wearing of shoes. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, it was
customary for British officials to follow Indian etiquette and remove their footwear in the courts of ruling
kings or chiefs. In 1824-1828, Governor-General Amherst insisted that Indians take their shoes off as a sign
of respect when they appeared before him, but this was not strictly followed. By the mid-nineteenth century,
when Lord Dalhousie was Governor General, 'shoe respect' was made stricter, and Indians were made to take
off their shoes when entering any government institution; only those who wore European clothes were
exempted from this rule. Many Indian government servants were increasingly getting uncomfortable with
these rules.

 "Women in nineteenth century India were obliged to continue wearing traditional Indian dress even
when men switched over to the more convenient Western clothing."

It is doubtful if men changed over to western dresses out of reasons of convenience. They changed over to
western dresses for different reasons. And these reasons were not applicable to women.

(i) Men had to go out to work and interact with their western bosses and native subordinates These men would
wear western clothes to please their western bosses and carry favour with them; and to show off their
borrowed authority to their subordinates. The women had not to go out for work. There was no need for them
to change to new dress .

(ii) Social interactions of women were limited to closed family gatherings. They were more comfortable in their
own traditional dresses.

(iii) Western dresses were not easily available and these were costly. Indian women were stay-at-home type and
were conservative and little responsive to change.

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 DESIGNING THE NATIONAL DRESS

(i) As nationalist feelings swept across India by the late nineteenth century, Indians began devising cultural
symbols that would express the unity of the nation.
(ii) The Tagore family of Bengal experimented, beginning in the 1870s, with designs for a national dress for both
man and women in India. Rabindranath Tagore suggested that instead of combining Indian and European
dress, India's national dress should combine elements of Hindu and Muslim dress. Thus the chapkan (a long
buttoned coat) was considered the most suitable dress for men.
(iii) In the late 1870s, Janandanandini Devi, wife of Satyendranath Tagore, the first Indian member of the ICS,
returned from Bombay to Calcutta. She adopted the Parsi style of wearing the sari pinned to the left shoulder
with a brooch, and worn with a blouse an shoes. This was quickly adopted by Brahmo Samaji women and
came to be known as the Brahmika sari. This style gained acceptance before long among Maharashtrian and
Uttar Pradesh Brahmos, as well as non-Brahmos.
(iv) Women of Gujarat, Kodagu, Kerala and Assam continue to wear different types of sari.

A. The Swadeshi Movement:

(i) India accounted for one-fourth of the world's manufactured goods in the seventeenth century. There were a
million weavers in Bengal alone in the middle of the eighteenth century.
(ii) The Industrial Revolution in Britain, which mechanised spinning and weaving and greatly increased the
demand for raw materials such as cotton and indigo, changed India's status in the world economy.
(iii) Political control of India helped the British in two ways : Indian peasants could be forced to grow crops such
as indigo, and cheap British manufacture easily replaced coarser Indian one. Large numbers of Indian
weavers and spinners were left without work, and important textile weaving centers such as Murshidabad,
Machilipatnam and Surat declined as demand fell.
(iv) In the middle of the 20th century, large numbers of people began boycotting British or mill-made cloth and
adopting Khadi, even though it was coarser, more expensive and difficult to obtain.
(v) The Swadeshi movement developed in reaction to this measure. People were urged to boycott British goods
of all kinds and start their own industries for the manufacture of goods such as matchboxes and cigarettes.
Mass protests followed, with people vowing to cleanse themselves of colonial rule. The use of khadi was
made a patriotic duty.
(vi) The change of dress appealed largely to the upper castes and classes rather than to those who had to make do
with less and could not afford the new products.
(vii)Though many people rallied to the cause of nationalism at this time, it was almost impossible to compete
with cheap British goods that had flooded the market.
(viii)The experiment with Swadeshi gave Mahatma Gandhi important ideas about using cloth as a symbolic
weapon against British rule.

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 B. Mahatma Gandhi's Experiments with clothing :

Mahatma Gandhi made spinning on the charkha and the daily use of khadi, or coarse cloth made from
homespun yarn, very powerful symbols. These were not only symbols of self-reliance but also of resistance
to the use of British mill-made cloth.

(i) As a young boy, Mahatma Gandhi wore a shirt with a dhoti or pajama and sometimes a coat. When he went
to study law in London he dressed in western suits so he would not be laughed at.

(ii) Deciding that dressing 'unsuitably' was a popular political statement; Gandhi appeared in Durban in 1913 clad
in a lungi and Kurta. He also shaved his head as a sign of mourning to protest against the shooting of Indian
coal miners.

(iii) In 1915, he decided to dress like a Kathiawadi peasant. In 1921, he decided to adopt the short dhoti, a form
of dress he wore till his death.

(iv) He consciously rejected the well-known clothes of the Indian ascetic and adopted the dress of the poorest
Indian.

(v) Khadi to him was a sign of purity, simplicity and poverty. Wearing it became a symbol of nationalism and a
rejection of western mill-made cloth.

(vi) He wore the short dhoti without a shirt when he went to England for the Round Table Conference in 1931.
He refused to compromise and wore it even before King George V at Buckingham Palace.

C. Not All Could Wear Khadi

Mahatma Gandhi's dream was to clothe the whole nation in Khadi. Though he succeeded using khadi as a
source to inspire the Indian people but there were many with different opinions.

(i) The British machine made clothes were much cheaper as compared to khadi. Poverty rate was very high in
India, so most of the poor started adopting foreign clothes.

(ii) The wealthy Parsi's of western India were among the first to adapt Western-style clothing because western
clothes were a sign of modernity and progress.

(iii) Though Moti Lal Nehru gave up his expensive Western-style suits and adopted the Indian dhoti and kurta,
but these were not made up of coarse material as suggested by Gandhiji.

(iv) As the caste system in India was very rigid and western dress style was for all. So many people adopted it for
self-respect and equality.

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 GLOSSARY
1. Cockade : Cap usually worn on one side.
2. Ermine : Type of fur
3. Corset : A stiff inner bodice worn by women to give shape and support to the figure.
4. Suffrage : The right to vote.
5. Busk : A strip of material either of wood, whalebone or steel in front of the corset to stiffen and support it.
6. Pabulum : Anything that is essential to maintain life and growth.
7. Chintz : Cotton cloth printed with designs and flowers.
8. Peta : The Mysore turban which was edged with gold lace and part of the Durbar dress of the Mysore court in
the 19th century.

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 EXERCISE

A. VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS Q.9 Explain the impact of world wars on the
clothing pattern of women.
Q.1 Why were the traditional feminine clothes Q.10 Explain the efforts undertaken by different
criticized in the 1830’s in England ? Indians to design a national dress.
Q.2 Why were the traditional feminine clothes C. LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
criticised in America ?
Q.3 What were the demands of the National Q.1 Why did changes take place in women’s
Woman Suffrage Association ? clothing in the 20th century ?
Q.4 Who were the Shanars ? What restrictions
were imposed on them ? Q.2 Why and how did Mahatma Gandhi
Q.5 What was the shoe-respect controversy ? experiment with changes in clothing.

Q.6 Which was the most famous case of define of Q.3 Explain the origin and history of clothing.
the ‘shoe-respect’ rule ? What was its result ?
Q.4 “Swadeshi and Boycott movement converted
Q.7 What was the role of the Tagore family in
the national movement into mass movement”
formulating a national dress ?
Explain.
Q.8 How did the Brahmika sari come into being ?
Q.9 How did political control help the British ? Q.5 Explain how clothes were used by Gandhiji
as a power weapon to protest against the
Q.10 What was the importance of Khadi for British rule.
Mahatma Gandhi ?
Q.11 What do you mean by habits ? D. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
Q.12 How clothes indicates marital status ?
Q.1 Cap usually worn on one side is called -
Q.13 Who are archacologist ?
(A) Cockade (B) Ermine
Q.14 Why was Bengal partitioned.
(C) Corset (D) Busk
Q.15 Explain the meaning of Swadeshi & Boycott.
B. SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS Q.2 What do you mean by suffrage ?
(A) Right to freedom
Q.1 How did changes in clothing after the French (B) Right to vote
Revolution express the idea of equality ?
(C) Cotton cloth
Q.2 How did styles of clothing emphasise
(D) All of them
differences between men and women ?
Q.3 How did Indians react to the introduction of Q.3 What is Pabulum ?
western clothes in the 19th century India ?
(A) Participate in Political activities
Q.4 How did the shanar women earn the right to
(B) Took part in manufacturing
cover their upper bodies ?
Q.5 Why did lord curzon partition Bengal ? What (C) Anything essential to maintain life and
happened as a result ? growth

Q.6 What were the responses to mahatma (D) Type of fur

Gandhi’s call to wear Khadi ?
Q.4 What is Ermine ?
Q.7 Explain how the clothing indicates social
message. (A) Cap wore by soldiers
Q.8 Explain the opinion of Gandhiji on Swadeshi (B) Cotton cloth
and Boycott. (C) Nylon cloth
(D) Type of fur
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Q.5 When was slavery abolished in Travancore ? Q.8 Who was M. Visveswaraya ?
(A) 1855 (B) 1856 (A) Teacher (B) Doctor
(C) 1857 (D) 1858 (C) IAS (D) Engineer

Q.6 When did Gandhiji first wear a lungi and Q.9 Second Round Table Conference was held in
kurta of - ........
(A) 1912 (B) 1913 (A) 1931 (B) 1932
(C) 1914 (D) 1915 (C) 1933 (D) 1934

Q.7 Ganhiji dressed like a .............. peasant - Q.10 Shanars are is related to ........
(A) Bihari (B) Rajasthani (A) Lucy stone
(C) Kathiwadi (D) All of these (B) Community of toddy tappers
(C) Brahmika sari
(D) None of these

ANSWER KEY

Q.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. A B C D A B C D A B

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DEMOCRATIC
POLITICS
 ELECTORAL POLITICS
1
CHAPTER

CONTENTS
 Why Democratic Elections ?  System of Elections in India
 Universal Adult Franchise and Rationale behind it  Educational Qualifications
 Techniques and Methods Adopted in Elections Are the Elections Expensive ?
What makes Indian Elections Democratic ?

 WHY DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS ?

Importance of Elections or why do we need elections ? Elections are exceptionally important in a democracy
because of the following reasons :
1. All the citizens in a modern democracy cannot run the administration. Only their representatives can do it for
them. In order to choose such representatives, the elections are a must.
2. Through elections alone the people can get rid of their cruel and unpopular government and in its place they
can elect a new popular government.
3. It is through elections alone that an effective control can be maintained on the executive.
4. Without the elections a democratic government cannot be set up. It has been rightly said, “No elections no
democracy.”
 Why do Modern Democracies have Representative Governments ?
The modern democracies have representative governments due to the following reasons :
1. Present states are very big in size. They are not limited to one city. They are spread over vast areas which
makes it quite impossible for all the residents to directly take part in the administration of their state.
2. The population of modern states is not confined to a few thousands. Rather it runs into several lakhs and
crores, so the modern democracies are indirect or representative.
 What Makes an Election Democratic ?
There are certain conditions which make an election democratic :
1. No person with dubious record should be allowed to contest the elections.
2. There should be more than one party to contest an election otherwise it will be a mere farce.
3. Elections must be held regularly after every few years.
4. Elections should be concluded in a free and fair manner and people should have full freedom to vote for any
candidate they like.

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  Political Competition : Its Merits and Demerits. There is no denying the fact that political competition is
essential in elections. It is pointed out that if there is no competition, there is no point in having elections.
This competition allows the voters to judge for themselves which party would serve them better. Without this
competition, no candidate shall ever feel himself responsible to his voters because he had not come to ask for
their votes.
But political competition has many defects which must be removed to make political competition a more
viable system.
1. It creates factionalism and creates a sense of disunity.
2. Political parties and candidates often level allegations against each other.
3. They often make false promises and try to deceive the public.
4. Afraid of dirty attacks, many good people do not like to contest elections.
Inspite of all the defects in political competition, the Constitution makers preferred this out of necessity.
Regular electoral competition provides an incentive to political parties and leaders. They fully know they
stand the chance of winning the elections if they serve and satisfy their voters. But if they fail in this task will
not be able to win the next elections. Political competition may cause some ugliness and divisions yet
ultimately it puts pressure on the political parties and their leaders to serve the people for their own survival.

 SYSTEM OF ELECTIONS IN INDIA

 Demarcation of Electoral : In case of any election, Municipal State or Lok Sabha elections, the concerned
area is divided into many constituencies. For Lok Sabha, the whole country is divided into 543
constituencies. The number of Lok Sabha seats/constituencies has been fixed for each state according to its
population. As far as Delhi is concerned, it is divided into seven Lok Sabha constituencies.
Voter’s Lists : After the demarcation of constituencies, the next step is to see that the voters’ list is
prepared. For this, the Electoral Roll is prepared. All residents above the age of 18 are included in this list.
Only insane persons or those who have criminal record are omitted from this list.
Announcement of Election Dates : The election process begins as soon as the dates for the elections are
announced. The election Commission announces the dates for each and every election.
Selection of Candidates : Then different political parties select their candidates keeping in mind their
prospect of winning the elections. Sometimes, political parties also help certain independent candidates
where they have not fielded their own candidates. Generally candidates fielded by political parties stand good
chance of their success as compared to independent candidates.
Filing the Nomination Papers, their Scrutiny, Withdrawal of Nomination by the Candidates and
Publication of Final List : Then different candidates fill their nomination papers in the electron office
before the last date meant for the same. Then after scrutiny, their nomination papers are accepted or rejected.
Then the candidates, whose nomination papers are accepted, are given a chance to withdraw their names.
Then the final list is prepared and ballot papers are printed.
Allotment of Symbols : National parties have their permanent symbols but other parties and independent
candidates are also allotted symbols so that even the ordinary voter can recognize the different parties and
candidates very easily.
Issuing of Election Manifestos : Then the different parties print their election manifestos so that the voters
may easily know their programmes and policies very closely.

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 Campaigning : Then begins the campaigning for different candidates which includes postering, meetings,
speeches, processions and house to house canvassing. This thing goes on for many days and only stops 48
hours before the polling time.
Voting, Counting of Votes and Declaration of Results : Then on the specific day, the voting is held on
the basis of the secret ballot. After the voting is over, the ballot boxes are sealed and taken to the counting
centres. There the votes are counted and soon after the result is declared.
Filling of Election Petition : If any candidate is not satisfied with the election results, he can go to the
court of law to redress his complaint.

 UNIVERSAL ADULT FRANCHISE AND RATIONALE BEHIND IT

Right to express one’s choice by vote is called franchise. When the right to vote or franchise is given to every
adult in a state, it is called the Universal Adult Franchise.
Rational behind the Universal Adult Franchise or Merits of the Universal Adult Franchise. There are strong
grounds or rationale behind the Universal Adult Franchise :
1. It is based on Political Equality : One person-one vote is now the accepted principle in all democratic
countries. This principle is based on political equality. Everybody, whether he is rich or poor, young or old,
black or white, man or woman, learned or illiterate, should have equal voice in a democratic country.
2. It establishes a True Democratic Government : If by democracy, we mean the government of the
people, then every citizen must have the right to vote. Thus this system of the Universal Adult Franchise
establishes a true democratic government.
3. It makes the Government responsible to All : Since Government affects all, it must be responsible to all.
This is only possible if the right to vote is given to all are given a say in choosing the government of the
country.

 EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS
In some countries, educational qualification is quite necessary for the voters and the candidates. They hold
the view that when some kind of qualification is quite necessary for holding any job, it should also be there
for the voters especially the candidates who would hold such an important post of responsibility.
But many people, especially those of the developing countries, do not agree with the above view because of
the following reasons :
1. The imperialistic countries intentionally ignored to impart education to their subject people due to lack of
finances and other administrative reasons. As a result of which a large majority of the people remained
illiterate. As they equally fought for the independence of their country along with other educated people, they
have equal right to participate in the political set-up of their country.
2. Secondly, it is argued that educational qualifications are not relevant to all kinds of jobs. A cricket player
should be judged by his ability to play cricket and not by his qualification.
3. The voters are the best judge to choose the educated candidate or an experienced man who has the ability to
understand people’s concerns, problems etc.
4. It is also argued that if a graduate degree (B.A, B.Sc., B.Com.) is made compulsory for candidates, more than
90 percent of the voters would become ineligible for contesting an election. Would that be democratic ?

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 TECHNIQUES AND METHODS ADOPED IN ELECTION
A party usually adopts the following techniques or methods in elections to the Lok sabha or the Vidhan
Sabha.
1. Postering : A few days before the actual election day, the election campaign begins with postering. These
posters being the photographs of the national leaders of the party concerned appear on the walls of the main
bazars and the streets.
2. Meetings : Then the candidates hold various party meeting and corner meeting to get the support of the
party workers as well as the local social, religious and cultural bodies.
3. Speeches : Then various public meetings are held at different places of the constituency to get support of the
common masses. In these meeting various speeches are delivered by the local as well as national leaders.
Much light is thrown in these meetings on the policies and programmes of the party to which the candidate
belongs.
4. Processions : Often long processions are taken out in the constituency from one corner to the other. In these
processions large number of trucks, cars, tempoes, tongas, rickshaws, motor-cycles, scooters, cycles, etc. are
used to carry the processionists who shout slogans in favour of the their candidate, or sometimes against the
other candidates at their loudest voice.
5. House to House Canvassing : Then house to house canvassing is undertaken by the candidate and his
partymen to get the support and sympathies of the general public. The pamphlets and respective manifestoes
are freely distributed among the people to get their vote.

 ARE THE ELECTIONS EXPENSIVE ?

Some people hold the view that elections are a great burden on the government, political parties and the
candidates which a developing country like Indian cannot afford. There is some truth in this statement.
According to an estimate about Rs. 3,000 crores were spent in the Lok Sabha Elections in 2004 by the
government, political parties and by different candidates.
But such an amount is worth spending on the elections because if there are no elections, there will be no
democracy. One government will continue in the absence of elections which can become dictator and
corrupt.
If we go deep, we come to know that only Rs. 50 were spent on one voter is Rs. 3000 crore are divided by
the total number of voters for all the Lok Sabha seats. This is a small amount as compared to the liberties that
the people enjoy in a democracy.
Seen from another angle, Rs 3000 crore is less than the cost of a single nuclear submarine for which we have
to pay Rs. 3, 166 crores.
 Importance of Secret Ballot :
In modern democracies, a voter casts his vote through secret ballot. Following are the main reasons given for
adopting the system of the secret ballot :
1. In a secret ballot, the voters can express their choice freely and without any fear.
2. The voter is free from pulls and pressures under the secret ballot system.
3. It brings the desired changes but without any ill-feeling and wrongful attitude.
 Election Manifesto and its Use :
The pamphlet that tells us about the programme, policies and aims of a political party is called the Election
Manifesto. It has the following benefits :

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 1. The people know it for certain as to what the party will do if it comes out successful at the polls.
2. Manifestoes bring forth the differences between various political parties.
3. Even when the elections are over, the people can put pressure on the successful party to act according to its
Manifesto.
Symbols and their importance : All the major or national political parties have been allotted well-known
and permanent symbols by the Election Commission. As for example, the political symbol allotted to
Congress is hand (Palm); a wheel or chakra to the Janta Dal; a lotus to the Bharatiya Janta Party; a farmer
digging with a Mamti within a wheel to the Janta Party; the sickle and star to the C.P.I.(M) and the sickle and
the leaf of paddy to the C.P.I. Recently (in 1997) the Bahujan Samaj Party has also been recognized as a
national party and it has been allotted the symbol of an elephant.
 Why symbols are allotted to the political parties :
1. Firstly, even an ordinary and an illiterate man can easily recognize the party by its symbol.
2. The symbols help the political parties to easily arrange their processions and meetings and carry on their
propaganda from street .
3. If there are more than one candidates of the same name in the same constituency, the symbols prove all the
more useful. Only by recognizing the symbols one can easily cast his vote.

 WHAT MAKES INDIAN ELECTIONS DEMOCRATIC ?

There is no denying the fact that some people indulge in unfair practices during election in India. The ruling
party misuses the government facilities. Rich candidates use money and openly distribute clothes and even
wine among the people, especially the poor people to buy their votes. Some unsocial elements try to capture
booths and cast votes on behalf of the illiterate rural people . Some unsocial elements try to capture booths
and cast votes on behalf of the illiterate rural people. Some influential political parties manage to include
false names in the voters list. Many steps have been taken to ensure free and fair elections in India.

 INDEPENDENT ELECTION COMMISSION

Election in a democratic set-up plays a very important role hence there is a great necessity of an independent
body to hold free and fair elections. This body is called the Election Commission.
 Functions of the Election Commission of India : The Election Commission of India has to perform so
many functions in order to hold free and fair elections. Election system in India has the following
characteristics or Election Commission in India does the following important duties or jobs :
1. Preparation of Electoral Rolls : First of all, Electoral Rolls are prepared wherein the name, father’s name,
age and sex of the voters are clearly mentioned.
2. Delimitation of Constituencies : Then the whole area, where elections are to be held, is divided into so
many clear-cut constituencies so that elections are held in an organized way.
3. Fixing the Election Dates : Then the election date is announced so that voters could easily cast their votes
on that particular date.
4. Scrutiny of Nomination Papers : Then the candidates, willing for contesting the elections, have to file
their nominations upto a particular date. Then the Election Commission scrutinizes their papers and accepts
or rejects the nomination papers as the case may be.
5. Allotment of Election Symbols : Then the political parties of national standing are allotted permanent
election symbols. These symbols help even the ordinary man to understand the different parties instantly.

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 6. Printing of Ballot Papers : It is also the duty of the Election Commission to print the ballot-papers well in
time.
7. Holding of free and fair Elections and Declaration of Results : Then on the fixed date, the elections
are conducted. It is the duty of the Election Commission to set up Election Booths, to appoint the Presiding
and the Polling Officers, to count the votes and to declare the results.
8. Checking Undue Interference of the Party-in-Power : Another important duty of the Election
Commission is to see that the party in power does in no way take an advantage over other parties or
individuals.
 Model Code of Conduct :
The different political parties have agreed to follows certain principles during an Election Campaign. Such
principles, as a whole, are known as Model Code of Conduct. Some of the principles of the Model Code of
Conduct are the following :
1. No place of worship shall be used for election propaganda.
2. Criticism of the opponents should be limited to their policies and programmes and in no way stoop down to
personal attacks and counter-attacks.
3. Government should not be used by any Minister and the Ruling Party.
4. No announcement of reforms or favours shall be announced after the elections have been announced.
 Ensuring Popular Participation :
Another way to ensure the quality of election process is to ensure that more and more people take part in the
elections. The following measures have been taken to ensure the larger participation of the people in the
elections.
1. Every step is being taken so that the voters are able to cast their votes according to their preferences.
2. Every effort is being made for the security and safety of the voters at the Election Booths. Sufficient
policemen are posted near the Election Booths so that no illegal person could disrupt the election process.
3. Every attempt is made to see that no inducement is given to voters to cast their votes in a particular way.
4. It is also seen that no coercion is used in any way to force voters to vote for a particular candidate.
5. During the election campaigning, it is to be seen that the Ruling Party does not use the government
machinery in its favour whatsoever.
6. Rigging or using unfair means in elections should not be allowed in any way. Rigging is to elections what
cheating is to examination.
7. All efforts are made to see that nobody tries to use his muscle or money power.
8. Over and above these measures, an institution of Election Commission has been created in India which is
quite independent of the government control. It tries to conduct the elections in a free and fair manner.
 Acceptance of Election Results :
Mostly, it has been seen that the people and the candidates contesting the elections are satisfied with the
election results. If the elections in India would not have been free and fair, ruling parties had never lost the
elections. But alternatively, the ruling parties have been winning and losing elections both at the centre and
in the states. As such, in India, the people and the political parties are satisfied with the results.
 Election Petitions :
Ever, after all the checks and brakes, some candidate is not satisfied with the election result, he can file an
election petition. There is a provision to this effect if a certain candidate is not satisfied about the way the
elections have been held in his constituency or a part of his constituency. The cause can be the use of corrupt
practices or the use of force by a candidate or there can be any other cause. Such a dissatisfied candidate or
candidates can file a petition in the court and question the election of another candidate. Such a petition is
called an election petition. If such a petition is accepted then the by-election is field.

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 GLOSSARY
1. By-election : Means an election held to fill a vacancy caused by either death, resignation or any other reason.
2. Campaigning : Refers to a process by which a candidate tries to persuade the vote to vote for him rather than
for others.
3. Constituency : It refers to an area delimited for the purpose of election.
4. Elcectorate : It refers to the entire body of people who are qualified to vote in the elections for the legislature.
5. Election Commission : A parliamentary body constituted to conduct free and fair election in the country.
6. Election Manifesto : A document published by each political party before election containing the policies and
programme of that party.
7. Franchise : Refers to the right of people to vote and elect their representatives to make laws.
8. Opposition parties : The parties which are defeated in the election do not form the government but form the
opposition and keep the government in check.
9. Public opinion : Opinion of the electorate on all major-social political, economic and other important issues.
10. General Election : When an election is held in all constituencies and people from all parts of the country
participate to choose their representatives for Parliament or state legislative Assembly, it is called a general
election.
11. Secret Ballot : System of casting one’s vote is secrecy so that the choice of the voter remains a secret and is not
known to others.
12. Print Media : Means of public information which consists of News papers, Periodicals and Magazines.
13. Electronic Media : Means of public information system which runs on electronics like Radio, T.V., Computer
etc.
14. Universal Adult Franchise : Every Indian citizen of 18 years and above has the right to vote irrespective of
caste, creed or sex.
15. One Person one vote : Every body has the right to cast one vote and everyone’s vote is of equal importance.
16. Seats : The term refers to number of position in any legislature.
17. Election : A contest of power between different candidate and parties.
18. Electoral Participation : It entails participating in the election procedure through voting, contesting election,
compainging .
19. Electoral Roll : It is the voter’s list prepared by a door to door survey to include only bonafide voter and
minimise role of bogus voters.
20. Rigging : Any unfair practice indulged in during election is called rigging.
21. Turnout : The percentage of eligible voters who cast their votes in an election.
22. Incumbent : The current holder of a political office.
23. Code of conduct : A set of norms and guide lines to be followed by political parties and contesting candidates
during election time.

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 EXERCISE

A. VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS Q.21 What details does a candidate have to declare
Q.1 Explain the principle of one ‘person one vote’ before he stands for election ?
and universal Adult franchise. Q.22 What is meant by election day and ballot
Q.2 Define secret ballot and constituency. paper?
Q.3 What are the compaigning techniques which Q.23 How do voters cast their vote ?
are used by the contestants ? Q.24 What are the advantages of EVM’S ?
Q.4 What is an election manifesto ? What is its Q.25 What is called a 'Party Ticket' ?
use?
B. SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
Q.5 State two main features of the election system
in India. Q.1 What are the functions of the election
Q.6 Why is it important for political parties to commission ?
campaign before election? Q.2 What are the different measures taken to
Q.7 What is the role and importance of mass ensure free and fair elections ?
media in a democracy ? Q.3 What choices do voters make during election
Q.8 What is a political party ? What is its role in a ?
democracy ? Q.4 What are the various forms of political
Q.9 “Elections are the barometers of Democracy’”. competition ?
Explain. Q.5 What are the negative effects of electoral
Q.10 What is the importance of public opinion in a competition ?
representative democracy ? Q.6 What are the conditions which make an
Q.11 What are the advantages of contesting the election democratic ?
election as a party candidate ? Q.7 What is the relationship between seat,
Q.12 Mention any two measures that ensure that constituency and representatives ?
elections are free and fair in India. Q.8 Differentiate between ‘parliamentary
Q.13 How can the chief election commissioner be constituency’ and ‘assembly constituency ?
removed from his office ? Q.9 Why have some constituencies been reserved ?
Q.14 Mention any two stages in the election Q.10 (A) What is a ‘voters list’ ?
process before the election campaign begins. (B) What is the importance of a Photo
Q.15 What is the composition of the election Identity Card ?
commission ? Q.11 Why are there no educational qualifications
Q.16 State two weaknesses of the electoral system level down for contesting elections ?
in India. Q.12 Mention four successful strongs given by
Q.17 Why is the muscle power used in the different political parties in various elections.
elections ? What is it used for ? Q.13 What are the restrictions placed on political
Q.18 Differentiate between by-elections, mid-term parties during elections.
elections and general elections. Q.14 State the features of the Model code of
Q.19 What are reserved constituencies ? conduct which all political parties have
Q.20 When can a person be denied the right to agreed to adhere to during elections.
vote? Q.15 Are elections too expensive for our country ?
Give reason for your answer.

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Q.16 State the major trends regarding voting Q.4 EVM refer for -
pattern in India ? (A) Electronic Photo Machine
(B) Electronic Voting Machine
Q.17 What are the challenges which prevent free
(C) Electronic Voting Module
and fair elections from being held ? (D) All of them

C. LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS Q.5 EPIC refer for –

(A) Electronic public issue
Q.1 What measures have been taken to ensure that (B) Electronic Photo Identity Card
the election commission can conduct (C) Electronic Proposal
elections in a free and fair manner ? (D) None of these
Q.2 Briefly explain the election procedure of
Q.6 Any unfair practice in elections to increase
India. one’s vote is called –
Q.3 Discuss the importance of election in a (A) Booth capturing (B) Rigging
democracy. (C) Robery (D) None of these
Q.4 Mention any five minimum conditions of a Q.7 If any candidate vacates his seat by death,
democratic election. resignation etc. them the election held for
Q.5 What makes elections in India democratic ? filling his seat is called –
(A) By-election (B) Mid-term election
(C) General election (D) All of these
D. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
Q.1 What was voter turn out in India in 1991 ? Q.8 The current holder of a political office is
called–
(A) 50% (B) 56%
(A) Turn out (B)Election Commission
(C) 60% (D) 62%
(C) Incumbent (D) None of these
Q.2 Which class in India has the highest turnout ?
Q.9 An area delimited for the purpose of election
(A) SC (B) OBC is called –
(C) BC (D) ST (A) Electoral (B) Franchisee
Q.3 India is divided into ............... constituencies. (C) Constituencies (D) All of these
(A) 543 (B) 550 Q.10 ........... is the term which refers to number of
(C) 540 (D) 545 positions in any legislature.
(A) Campaigning (B) Seat
(C) Media (D) Election

ANSWER KEY

Q.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. B D A B B B A C C B

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 WORKING OF INSTITUTIONS 2
CHAPTER

CONTENTS
 Parliament
 Central Executive (A) President (B) Vice President (C) Prime Minister
 Powers & Functions of Centeral Executive.
 The Judiciary
 Powers & Functions of Judiciary

 THE LEGISLATURE : PARLIAMENT

The Indian Parliament is an important organ of the Central Government. Let us study its composition and
powers.
Composition The Indian Parliament has two Houses. The Lower House is called the Lok Sabha or the House
of the People and the Upper House is known as the Rajya Sabha or the Council of States. The total
membership of the Lok Sabha is 551. Out of them the President of India can, however, nominate two
members belonging to the Anglo-Indian community, if it is not adequately represented in the House. The
total membership of the Rajya Sabha has been fixed at 250. Out of this number 238 are elected by the
different 28 States and seven Union Territories while 12 are nominated by the President in order to give
representation to eminent people in the field of literature, science, art or social service.
  Essential Qualifications for the Members of the Parliament :
A person must have the following qualifications to become member of the parliament of India :
1. He should be a citizen of India.
2. He should be 25 years old for the Lok Sabha and 30 years old for the Rajya Sabha.
3. He should not hold any office of profit under the Government of India.
4. He should not be either an insolvent or a bankrupt and should not have served a sentence for an offence.
An M.P. gets a salary of Rs. 12000 per month in addition to many allowances [such as Daily Allowance
(Rs. 500), Constituency Allowance (Rs. 10,000 per month) and office expenses (Rs. 14,000 per month)] etc.
 Speaker of the Lok Sabha :
In order to conduct the business of the Lok Sabha at the center and Vidhan Sabha in the states in a proper
manner, the Indian Constitution has made a provision for the office of the Speaker and the Deputy-Speaker.
The Lok Sabha at the Centre and Vidhan Sabhas in the States elect the Speaker in their very first session
from among its own members.

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 The Speaker is an important, or perhaps the most important member of the Lok Sabha and Vidhan Sabha. He
presides over the meetings of the Lok Sabha and Vidhan Sabha and conducts its business. Resolutions or
bills can be moved only with his permission. It is he who decides whether a bill is a money bill or not. It is he
who adjourns meetings of the Lok Sabha and Vidhan Sabha. All members, including Government members
and ministers, have to obey his authority.

 POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE PARLIAMENT

Although the primary function of the Parliament is law-making, our Parliament has to perform a galaxy of
other functions too.
1. Legislative or Law-making Functions :
(a) It frames new laws and amends or repeals them, if necessary, on the 97 Subjects of the Union List and all the
Residuary Subjects which have not found a place in any of the lists.
(b) In certain cases, it can enact laws on the Subjects of the State List also.
(c) The Parliament along with the State legislature can pass laws regarding the 47 Subject on the Concurrent
List. In case of any clash, the law passed by the Parliament shall prevail.
(d) The Union Parliament has the sole right to amend the Constitution, although in certain cases, these
amendments should be ratifide by a majority of the states. The States. can, in no case, initiate an amendment
to the Constitution.
2. Control on the National Finance or Financial powers :
The Union Parliament is the custodian of the national purse. Neither a penny can be spent on any item nor a
paisa can be collected by way of taxes without the prior approval of the parliament. The Parliament passes
the Budget of the Union Government. It is, however, empowered to vote a cut in the Budget or to reject it
altogether. Thus, the Parliament acts as the controller of the national finance.
3. Control over the Government or the Executive Powers :
The most important function of the Parliament is to exercise control over the Government.
(a) The Government is directly responsible to the Parliament for its acts of Commission and Commission, if the
Government flouts the constitution, it can be voted out of office by passing a vote of no-confidence against
the Prime Minister the Ministry as a whole or any of its members.
(b) The members of the Parliament can move an adjournment motion on any urgent matter requiring an
immediate attention of the Government. If such a motion is admitted, the Minister in charge of such a
department, where any untoward event has happened, is reprimanded for the flaws or failure of his ministry.
(c) Then again, an hour a day in the daily routine of the Parliament, when in session, is reserved for asking
questions from the Government. The members can ask any question relating to the administration of the state
and the Ministers are obliged to answer them. In this way, they can keep a check on the functioning of the
various departments under different ministers.
(d) Not only this, the parliament can hold the strings of the Government tight by voting a cut in the annual
budget. The salaries and allowances of the ministers are decided by the parliament.
4. Judicial Powers or Functions :
The Parliament enjoys certain judicial powers also. It can impeach the president, a judge of the Supreme
Court or the High Court, in case they are found counteracting against the Constitution or misusing their
status or indulging in corruption of any nature.

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 5. Electoral Powers or Functions :
The Parliament plays an important role in the election of the president and the Vice-President. Moreover, the
Lok Sabha elects its own speaker and Deputy Speaker from its own members, the Rajya Sabha elects its
Deputy Chairman.

 HOW IS A BILL PASSED IN THE PARLIAMENT ?

The proposal for a law when introduced in the legislature is called a bill. When a bill is passed by the proper
procedure, it is called a law. Until, it is not passed, bill is not called a law.

  Passing of an Ordinary Bill :
After introduction, a bill is considered several times before its passage. The progress of considering the bill is
known as its reading. In case of Ordinary Bill, three readings are gone through in each House.
In the first stage only the name and the purpose of the bill is given and the same is circulated among all the
members of the House can introduce the bill. If the house is in favour of the introduction of the bill, which is
called its first Reading, then the bill goes to the second stage.
In the second stage clause by discussion of the bill is taken and some changes are made by the approval of
the House. Sometimes, a bill is sent to a small committee for its special recommendations. If these
recommendations are approved by the House they are incorporated in the bill.
Then comes the last stage or the third stage when the bill as a whole is put to vote. If it is passed by a simple
majority, then it is sent to the other House, where the same procedure is followed.
Finally, when the bill is passed by both the Houses of Parliament, It is sent to the President for his assent
after his assent, it becomes a law.

  Difference in the Procedure of passing an Ordinary Bill and a Money Bill :
1. An ordinary Bill can be introduced in any of the two Houses of the Parliament (Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha)
but a Money Bill can only be introduced in the Lok Sabha.
2. An Ordinary Bill can be introduced both by the Government or by any member of the House, but a Money
Bill can only be introduced by the Government.
3. An Ordinary Bill is to be passed by both the House of the Parliament and then it is sent to the President for
his assent. If both the Houses don’t agree, then a joint sitting of the two Houses is called under the
chairmanship of the Speaker of the Lok Sabha and then it is passed or rejected by an majority of the members
present.
As for a Money Bill is concerned, the Rajya Sabha has no powers whatsoever to make a change in the bill
passed by the Lok Sabha. It can only delay the passage of the Money Bill for 14 days only and after that the
Money Bill is deemed to have been passed by both the Houses.
 When can the Parliament legislate on the subject provided in the State list ?
The constitution has established a federation in India but still the Centre has made more powerful. In certain
circumstances the Parliament can legislate on state matters.
1. If the Rajya Sabha or the Council of States by 2/3 majority passes a resolution that a particular subject
mentioned in the state list has assumed a national importance then the Parliament can legislate on that
Subject.
2. If the legislature of two or more states requests the Parliament, then it can make laws on that subject.
3. When a state of emergency is proclaimed in the country.

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  No-Confidence Motion :
In a Parliamentary set-up the Council of Ministers works till it enjoys the confidence of the Legislature. If a
successful motion of no-confidence is passed in the Parliament, the Council of Ministers has to resign and if
on the other hand, the majority votes against the motion, the Government survives. No-confidence motions
are very important. Because when a debate is held on the no-confidence motion members discuss the general
policies of the Government in detail and not the matter of a particular bill. In such a way much light is shed
on different problems and the attitude of different parties towards them.

 THE CENTRAL EXECUTIVE

The Central Executive consists of the President, the Vice-President, the Prime Ministers and the Bureaucracy
of the Civil Services. The president is the head of the state, while the Prime Minister is the head of the
Government. Let us know about them in some details.

 THE PRESIDENT
His Term of office. The President of India holds office for five years. He can be re-elected once after the
expiry of his tenure.
He gets a monthly salary of Rs. 50,000 in addition to a number of allowances, perks and privileges.
 His Qualifications :
(a) He should be a citizen of India.
(b) He should be of thirty-five years of age at the time of election.
(c) He should not be an insolvent of bankrupt.
(d) He should not hold any office of profit under the Central ot State Government. If He holds any office he
should vacate such a post before seeking the election.
(e) He should not be a pronounced offender or a sentenced criminal under the law of the land.
 Election of the President :
The President of India is not directly elected by the people. He is elected indirectly by an electoral college
composed of the elected members of both the Houses of the Parliament as well as the Legislative Assemblies
of the states in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of a single transferable
vote. Under this system, no vote goes waste. The vote is cast by the ballot. The value of the vote of a
member of the State Legislative Assembly is determined by the population of that state. The voting strength
of all the Legislative Assemblies of all the States taken together is equal to the voting strength of the two
Houses of the Parliament.
The Person to be elected as the President of India must get a particular quota. The quota is determined by the
following formula :
Total No. of Votes
1
No. of states  1
The President is elected for five years term If he so desires, he can seek election for another five years. He
used to get a salary of twenty thousand rupees which could not be reduced during his term of office. In
August 1998, the Indian Parliament passed a bill hiking the pay of the President from Rs.20,000 to
Rs. 50,000 in addition to his usual allowance, perks and privileges as detailed in the Second Schedule (Part-
A) of the Constitution. This hike has been necessitated because of the revision of the pay scales of the
Central Government employees as a result of the recommendations of the Fifth Pay Commission.

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  Removal of the President :
There is a special procedure for the removal of the President. He can be removed by impeachment for
violation of the Constitution. This impeachment can be initiated in either House of the Parliament by at least
one-fourth of the total members of that House. The notice for this purpose is sent to the President and after
14 days later, It can be taken up for consideration by the House concerned. Such a resolution must be passed
by two-third majority of the total number of the House. Then the other House investigates the charges. If the
other House approves the charges by two-third majority again, the President is removed. the President has the
full right to defend himself personally or through his authorised counsel. The procedure for the removal of
the President has thus been made difficult because the President holds an important of rather most important
position under the Constitution.
 Powers and Functions of the President :
The President of India enjoys vast powers. He has to perform various functions spread over to executive,
legislative, judicial and financial fields. It must be mentioned here that in actual practice, these powers are
actually exercised by the Prime Minister and his Council of Ministers.
 Executive Powers of the President :
(i) Administration of the whole country is carried on in his name.
(ii) He makes important appointments like those of the Prime Minister of India, Central Ministers, Governors of
the States, Ambassadors and Judges.
(iii) He is the Supreme Commander of the Indian Armed Forces and declares war as well as concludes peace-
treaties.
(iv) He receives the credentials of ambassadors form other countries.
(v) The President has the power of directing, co-ordinating and controlling the state Governments.
(vi) The administration of the Union Territories and the Border Areas is the responsibility of the President.
 Legislative Powers of the President :
The President of India enjoys various legislative powers also.
(i) The first session of the Parliament is addressed by the President in which he lays emphasis on the internal
and external policies of the Government.
(ii) He can summon or prorogue either House of the Parliament.
(iii) He can dissolve the Lok Sabha and order fresh elections.
(iv) He can address a Joint Session of the Parliament of each one of the Houses separately.
(v) He nominates 12 members to the Rajya Sabha from different strata of society and 2 members to the Lok
Sabha to represent the Anglo-Indian community in India if none of their member gets a seat in the Lok
Sabha.
(vi) He can send messages to either House of the Parliament.
(vii)He is an integral part of the Parliament; therefore, no bill passed by both the Houses of the Parliament can
become a law unless he signs it.
(viii) He issues ordinances when the Parliament is not in session.
 Judicial Powers of the President :
The President has been given a number of power in the judicial sphere also :
(i) He appoints the Chief Justice and other Judges of the Supreme Court of India and the State Higt courts.
(ii) He can seek advice of the Supreme Court on any question of law or an important issue.

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 (iii) He has the powers to grant pardon and to remit of suspend a sentence of punishment of any appeal for mercy
He can commute even death sentence to imprisonment for life or otherwise.
(iv) He is not answerable before any Court of law for the discharges of his duties.
(v) No criminal suit can initiated against him during his tenure of office.
 Financial Powers of the President of India :
(i) No money-bill can be presented it the Lok Sabha without the President’s prior permission.
(ii) Budget of the Central Government is presented to Lok Sabha by the Union Finance Minister only with the
permission of the President.
(iii) He appoints Finance Commission after five years or earlier of there arises such a need.
(iv) He distributes the shares of the Income Tax between the union and the States. All these powers of the
President are however, exercised by him only on the advice of the Cabinet.
 Ceremonial Powers of the President of India :
1. Being Supreme Commander of all the three services, Army, Navy, and Air force, he takes salute on 26th
January on the Republic Day.
2. The Diplomats of all foreign countries present the letters of their credentials before the President of India.
3. The President of India receives the Heads of different States whenever they happen to pay a visit to India.
 Emergency Powers of the President :
Of all the powers vested in the President of India, the Emergency Powers are the most important. The
President of India has three types of Emergency Powers which has a direct bearing on that State.
1. Emergency caused by War, Foreign Aggression or/and Internal Disturbances and its effects on that state. If
the president declares a state of emergency then the Parliament can enact laws for the whole country. The
Fundamental Rights of Citizens stand suspended and the administration takes a Unitary Form of
Government.
2. Emergency caused by the Constitutional Breakdown and its Effects on the State. If the Governor of a State
reports to the President that continuation of a Government according to the provisions of the Constitution is
not possible, the President can declare emergency in that state. In such a situation, the Council of Minister
and the legislature are dissolved and the administration is carried on by the Governor as per directive of the
President.
3. Financial Emergency and its Effects on the state. If here is an imminent danger to the financial stability of the
country, the President can proclaim Financial Emergency. Consequent to this proclamation the president can
reduce the pay and allowances of the government servants. He can also exercise control over the finances of
the States.
 Position of the President :
From the above discussion, it becomes quite clear that the President holds an office of great prestige, but if
we go a little deep we see that he enjoys very little power. The president cannot declare emergency all by
himself. It is on the advice of the Prime Minister that the President cannot declare emergency all be himself.
It is on the advice of the Prime Minister that the President can declare a state of emergency. A written request
is sent by the Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister to the President and only then he can
declare a state of emergency. Moreover, such a declaration must be approved by the parliament within one
month.

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 THE VICE-PRESIDENT OF INDIA

 Election of the Vice-President :

The Vice-President of the Indian Union is elected jointly by the Houses of the Parliament. The procedure for
his election consists of a secret ballot, proportion representation and single transferable vote. An absolute
majority of votes polled is also required for the election of the Vice-President. He now gets salary of Rs.
40,000 per month besides various allowances and privileges.
 Functions of the Vice-President of India :
(a) Ex-Officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha : Like the Vice-President of the U.S.A., the Vice-President of
the Indian Union acts as the ex-official Chairman of the Rajya sabha.
(b) Acting as the President of India : If the office of the President falls vacant due to his resignation, death,
Impeachment illness or absence from the country the vice-President of India, like his counter-part in the
U.S.A., takes over as the President. But unlike the Vice-President of the U.S.A., our Vice-President holds
this office only till a new President is elected.

 THE PRIME MINISTER

 Appointment, Position, Powers and Functions of the Prime Minister :
Appointment of the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister is the leader of majority group in the Parliament.
The majority group selects one person as their leader. This very leader, after due confirmation of the
President, comes to be knows as the Prime Minister. So long as he enjoys the confidence of the Parliament he
remains at his post. The moment he loses its confidence he ceases to be the Prime Minister. Thus the real
source of his power is the confidence of the Parliament and the people.
 Constitutional Status on Position of the Prime Minister or why is he more Powerful than the
President ?
The office of the Prime Minister is very important under the Indian Constitution. according to the wording
of the constitution, The Prime Minister is the Prime advisor of the President and holds office till his pleasure.
But in Practice, the Prime Minister exercises all the powers enumerated in the name of the president. The
Prime Minister exercises all the powers enumerated in the name of the President. The Prime Minister is the
real ruler and the leader of the country. He is directly elected by the people while the President is indirectly
elected. This very fact makes his position more powerful than the President sometimes, it is also said that he
is First among Equals’. But to say so is to undermine his position. He can appoint and drop any minister as
and when he desire so. He, Undoubtedly, holds the most important position in the country as he wields many
powers.
 Powers of the Prime Minister :
1. The Prime Minister has the right to form his Council of Ministers and to make distribution of Portfolios
among them. if any Minister disagrees with the Prime Minister. the latter can get him removed from the
Council of the Ministers.
2. He allocates work to the different members of the council of Ministers. He acts as a co-ordinator among the
various Minister so that the whole work of administration is carried on smoothly.

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 3. The Prime Minister and his Council of Ministers formulate the internal as well as the external policies of the
Government. He and his Council of Ministers has the right to get the state of war or peace declared by the
President. He and his Council of Ministers put their policies before the Parliament and get them ratified by it.
4. The President makes important appointments only on the advice of the Prime Minister. Appointments of the
Governors, Ambassadors, Judges etc. are made on the Prime Minister’s advice.
5. The President proclaims emergency on the advice of the Prime Minister.
6. It is on the advice of the Prime Minister that the President summons or prorogues the sessions of both the
Houses of the Parliament and dissolves the Lok Sabha.

 Union Council of Ministers :

There is a Union Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister. The Council of Ministers has three
categories of Ministers besides the Prime Minister. They are :
(i) Cabinet Ministers
(ii) Ministers of State, and
(iii) Deputy Ministers.
(i) Cabinet Ministers : They are the most important members of the Council of Ministers. They are the full-
fledged Ministers who hold important portfolios.
(ii) Minister of State : They are the second category of Ministers. They may or may not hold an independent
charge of any portfolios. The Prime Minister may or may not consult them.
(iii) Deputy Ministers : They are the third category of Ministers who assist the Cabinet Ministers and the
Council of Ministers.
 Differences between the Cabinet and the Council of Ministers :
There are certain differences between the Cabinet and the Council of Ministers which should be clearly
understood. Firstly, the Council of Minister is a wider body while the Cabinet is only its one part. It is the
innermost part of the Council of Minister. There are about 60 ministers in the Council of Ministers but in the
Cabinet there are about 12 ministers. Secondly, the Cabinet Ministers are full-fledged Ministers who hold
important portfolios like Defense, Finance, Home, etc. They are the most trusted collegues of the Prime
Minister. The Prime Minister always consults them. He may or may not consult the other ministers. But the
decisions of the Cabinet are binding on all the members whether they are a party to the decisions or not.
 Bureaucracy or the Civil Service :
The President, the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers form the Political Executive in the center
while the body of the Civil Servants is called the Administrative or the Permanent Executive. The Cabinet (or
the Council of Minister) only formulates the policies while the real execution is left to the Civil or Public
Servants. These civil servants at the center are selected by the union Public Service Commission and they are
called I.A.S office. Similarly, The different State Public Service Commissions hold the competitive
examinations and select the officers of the Provincial Civil Service (P.C.S). These officers, whether at the
central level or at the State level, hold key positions in their respective spheres. Formerly, under British rule
they had only limited duties to perform such as maintaining law and order and to collect revenue. But with
the independence of India, their duties have been multiplied manifold. In addition to the above duties, they
have to perform various general welfare duties as well, such as education, health, construction of rail and
roads, maintenance of the means of transport and communication etc. As such, a great many qualities are
expected in a public servant. First of all, he should be intelligent so that he can understand his work well.
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 Secondly, he should be honest in his dealings and hard-working in his profession. Thirdly, he should be
regular and punctual and should be fully devoted to his job Fourthly, he should be polite, cooperative and
always prepared to serve the people. It is also the duty of the people to cooperate with these Civil servants so
that they are able to perform their jobs smoothly and efficiently.

 THE JUDICIARY

In a federal state like India, U.S.A., etc. many a time conflicts can arise between the Central and the State
Government or between two or more states. As for example, there are certain conflicts between Haryana and
the Punjab over the question of the distribution of river waters or certain Part of Hindi speaking or Punjabi
speaking areas. In such a case who shall settle or decide the different disputes arising between the Central
and state Government or between two or more states. So the Supreme Court or Judiciary is a must for the
smooth running of every federation.
How does the Judicial set up function ? At head of the Judicial system there is the Supreme Court followed
by the High Courts.
The Supreme Court is the highest judicial tribunal of India and as such it wields very extensive powers. It
enjoys vartous Original, Appellate and Advisory Powers.
1. Its Original jurisdiction extends to disputes arising between the Union Government and the states, between
one state and the other and the citizen and the State. the Supreme Court is the guardian of the Fundamental
Rights of the citizens.
2. The Appellate Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court extends to both the criminal and the civil cases. It can hear
appeals both in criminal and civil cases against the decision of the High Courts of different States.
3. The Supreme Court also acts as the Guardian of the Indian Constitution. It can declare the laws passed by the
Parliament and State Legislatures ultra vires (or voids) if such laws infringe any Article of the Constitution.
4. In its Advisory, capacity the Supreme Court can guide the President on matters which he refers to it from
time to time.
5. The Supreme Court, as head of all the Courts of the country, also supervises and controls their working.
Then the High Courts, like the Supreme Court, also interpret the Constitution of the country and can declare
any law of the state legislature as invalid if they find such a law of action against the Constitution. They can
determine the constitutional validity of any legislation or the execution of the state, when it is challenged
before them. This power is knows as the judicial review. Sometimes, this action of the High Courts striking
down the laws of the executive led to the tension between the State Legislative Assemblies on the one hand
and the State judiciary on the other.
The High Court also acts as the Guardian of the fundamental rights of the citizens. Moreover, High Courts
have been given powers to give judgements and directives to protect public interest and human rights. If
public interest of any citizen of affected by the action of the government, he can approach the courts. This is
called the public interest litigation. They also check malpractices like corruption and bribery on the part of
any public officer. They interfere to prevent misuse of government powers.
Appeals against the District Courts and other Subordinate Courts can also be heard by the High Courts.
At the lowest level of judiciary come the District courts and other Subordinate Courts. They decide both the
criminal and the civil cases in their own areas. Appeals against their decisions are heard by the High Courts
of their respective states.
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 Of all the political institutions in the country, legislature executive, judiciary etc., the judiciary enjoys high
confidence of the people.
 Independence of Judiciary :
For a successful federal democracy, it is most essential that the court of law should be independent to
administer justice and to interpret the Constitution and the different laws passed by various legislatures from
time to time. Independence of judiciary implies that neither the executive nor the legislature nor any
government or private agency should be able to influence the judges. in the course of their discharge of
duties as a judge Such an independence of judiciary has been ensured in India by means of the following
provisions :
1. Security of Service : The judges have sometimes to give decisions against the Government, which can
be embarrassing. As such they have been given full security of service. It has been provided in the
constitution that the judges shall be appointed by the president but cannot be removed from office by him.
Only in the event of a gross misbehaviour, acting against the provisions of the Constitution, Corruption or
misuse of office can a judge be removed from service by means of an impeachment by the Parliament.
2. Security of Pay and Allowances : In order to make a judge desist form accepting bribes or falling prey to
any financial implications, they have been given handsome salaries, besides many allowances and other
facilities. The Judges of the Supreme Court formerly used to get a monthly salary of Rupees 10,000 in the
case of the Chief Justice and Rs. 9,000 in case of other Judges. However, as a result of the recommendations
of the Fifth pay Commission their pay has been further hiked. The Judges of the Supreme Court will get
Rs. 30,000 per month while the Chief Justice will get above Rs. 30,000 level.
3. Independent Procedure of the Court : The Supreme Court and the High Courts are free to decide their
own procedure of work and their establishment. They are not likely to be influenced by any outside agency.
4. No Practice after Retirement : In order to make the Judges impartial, they have not been allowed to
practice after retirement.
5. Free Decisions and Decrees : The judges are free to announce their decisions and decrees in their Conuts
without any danger to their courts without any danger to their person, property and fame. Their decisions
cannot be criticised by the public or the press. Their personal safety is the duty of the State and is ensured at
all costs.

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 GLOSSARY
1. Bureaucracy : Large number of government officials who help the ministers to run the machinery of
administration.
2. Council of Ministers : A body of minister collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha.
3. Cabinet : A body of senior minister who control important ministries.
4. Collective Responsibility : For any decision or action of the Cabinet, the Council of Ministers are collectively
responsible. If any of the cabinet decisions are not approved by the Parliament the centire Council of Ministers
has to resign.
5. Emergency : Extraordinary or abnormal situation in a country.
6. Ex-officio : By virtue of the position held.
7. Electoral College : A specially constituted elected body to elect the President and vice president of India.
8. Emergency Powers : Powers given to deal with an unexpected and critical situation.
9. First among Equals : Ranking equal to other yet holding a position of pre-eminence.
10. Impeachment. : A special parliamentary procedure to prosecute or to remove the President and Judges etc. for
violation of the constitution.
11. Money Bills. : Bills dealing with money matters like taxes, income, expenditure and grants.
12. No Confidence Motion : A motion moved by the opposition to prove that it has no confidence in the Council of
Ministers. If such a motion is passed by the majority of members of the Lok Sabha the ministry has resign.
13. Ordinace. A : direction issued by the president when Parliament is not session. It has the form of law for six
months.
14. Parliamentary form of Government : A system of government where parliament is supreme and the Council
of Minister are collectively responsible to Parliament.
15. Planning Commission : An autonomous body headed by the Prime Minister and concerned with matters
related to five-year plans or economic planning.
16. President Rule : If the President gets a report from the Governor or any other source that the government of the
state cannot be carried on in accordance with the Constitution, he can imporse president’s rule. Government then
becomes unitary in nature
17. Prorogue : To discontinue a meeting of Parliament for a time without dissolving it.
18. Starred Question : A question marked with a star for oral answer by a minister in parliament.
19. Question Hour : During a parliamentary session, a time is fixed for asking questions and answer them orally.
20. Lok Sabha : The Indian Parliament is bicameral in nature. The Lok Sabha also known as the lower House is
composed of the elected representatives of the people.
21. Rajya Sabha : The Rajya Sabja or Upper House represents the interests of the states and Union Territories.
22. Speaker : He is the presiding officer of the Lok Sabha and is responsible for the efficient conduct of business in
the Lok Sabha.
23. Executive : It is an organ of government which implements the laws passed by the legislature.
24. Legislative : It is the organ of government which makes laws and keeps a check on the executive.
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25. Judiciary : It is the organ of government which ensures that justice is meted out impartially and settles disputes
between the individuals and the state.
26. Apellate Jurisdiction : The power of a Superior Court to hear and decide appeals against the judgment of lower
courts.
27. Civil Cases : Cases relating to property, taxes contracts etc.
28. Criminal Cases : Cases involving violation of penal laws such as murder, theft, assault etc.
29. Court of Record : The Supreme Court and the High Courts of Record. All their decisions and proceeding are
recorded which can be used or cited in similar cases in future.
30. Independence of the Judiciary : The Constitution has made provisions to keep the judiciary independent of
the control of the executive so that the judiciary is not biased in favour of the government.
31. Jurisdiction : Refers to the territorial limits within which the court’s authority can be exercised. Area of
authority is called jurisdiction.
32. Original Jurisdiction : Type of cases which come directly before the supreme Court.
33. Lok Adalats : The People’s courts set up for the purpose of speedy settlement of certain disputes. They are like
family courts.
34. Subordinate Courts : The courts which function under the supervision and order of the High court.
35. Unified judiciary : India has a single judicial system for the entire country connected by a number of courts
with the Supreme Court at the apex of the entire judicial system.
36. High Court : The highest court at the State level.
37. Advisory Jurisdiction : The Supreme Court can advice the President on any question of law or any matter of
Public importance.
38. Supreme Court : The last court of appeal. It lies at the apex of the entire judicial system.
39. Office Memorandum : A communication issued by an appropriate authority stating the policy or decision of
the government.
40. State : Political association occupying a definite territory having an organised government and having the power
to make domestic and foreign policies.
41. Reservations : A policy that declares some position in government offices and educational institutions
‘reserved’ for people and communities who have been discriminated against and are backward.
42. Political Institutions : A set of procedures for regulating the conduct of government and political life in the
country.
43. Government : A set of institutions that have the power to make, implement and interpret laws so as to ensure on
orderly life.
44. Coalition Government : A government formed by an alliance of two or more political parties usually when no
single party enjoys majority support of the members in a legislature.

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 EXERCISE

A. VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS Q.15 How is the chief justice of India appointed ?

Q.1 What are the qualifications required to be a Q.16 Mention any two writs that Supreme Court
member of Lok Sabha ? can issue ?

Q.2 Mention two ways in which the Lok Sabha Q.17 Describe the composition of the Supreme
has been made more powerful than the Rajya Court of India ?
Sabha.
Q.18 What is meants by Judicial Review ?
Q.3 Mention two important functions of the
Q.19 What is the advisory function of the supreme
Speaker of the Lok Sabha.
court ?
Q.4 When does the President address the joint
Q.20 How does the Supreme Court work as a court
sitting of both Houses of Parliament ? Who is
of Record ?
the official who decides whether a bill is a
money bill or not. Q.21 Why is it necessary to keep the judiciary
independent of the government ?
Q.5 State two provisions of the Constitution
which prove the supremacy of the Lok Sabha Q.22 What is the judicial privilege of a citizen with
over the Rajya Sabha with regard to money regard of Fundamental Rights ?
bill ? Q.23 What kind of jurisdiction does the Supreme
Q.6 What are the qualifications required for court exercise in cases relating to central and
contesting the election for the post of the state government ?
President. Q.24 What were the provision of the Mandal
Q.7 Mention any two judicial powers of the Commission ?
Indian President. Q.25 What was the effect of the recommendations
Q.8 How and on what grounds can the President of the Mandal Commission ?
be removed form office ? Q.26 What role did parliament play in the passing
Q.9 Mention any two functions of the Indian Vice of the office Memorandum ?
president. under which two circumstances can Q.27 Name the two House's of Indian Parliament
the vice President act as the President ? what is the main difference in their roles ?
Q.10 How is the Prime Minister of India appointed ? Q.28 What is the difference between the political
Q.11 What is meant by the term collective executive and the permanent executive ?
responsibility of a Minister ? Q.29 What are the main constraints on the Prime
Q.12 What is meant by the individual responsibility Minister ?

Q.13 What are the qualifications for the Q.30 When can the President exercise his
appointment of a judge of the Supreme court discretion ?
of India ? Q.31 What is known as a PIL (Public Interest
Q.14 How can a Supreme Court judge be removed Litigation) ?
from office ?
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Q.32 List the main functions of the Executive ? Q.14 Why there is need for political institutions ?

Q.33 State the main functions of the Judiciary ? Q.15 Distinguish between Political executive and
Permanent executive.
Q.34 What are the essential functions of the
Government ? Q.16 Who appoints the Prime Minister ? How is he
Q.35 State two main social functions that a modern appointed ?
government performs for the people. Q.17 How can the judge of the Supreme Court
removed ?
B. SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
C. LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
Q.1 How is the President of India elected ?
Q.1 Explain the emergency power of the President ?
Q.2 Distinguish between the cabinet and the
Council of Ministers ? Q.2 Examine the powers of the Indian Prime
Minister?
Q.3 Distinguish between a money bill and an
ordinary bill. Q.3 Explain a money bill. How is it passed in
Parliament ?
Q.4 Mention two legislative and two non-
legislative functions of Parliament ? Q.4 How does the Indian Parliament control the
executive ?
Q.5 How has the Indian constitution ensured the
independence of the judiciary ? Q.5 How does the Legislative procedure for
passing a money bill in the parliament differ
Q.6 How is the judicial system organised ?
from an ordinary bill ?
Explain its importance in Indian democracy ?
Q.6 What are the legislative and executive power
Q.7 What is appellate jurisdiction ? Explain the
of the President ?
three types of appeals that can be made to the
Supreme Court. Q.7 Differentiate between the Presidential and
Parliamentary forms of Government.
Q.8 What are the functions of the Supreme Court
? State any four functions.
D. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
Q.9 What are the functions of a modern
Q.1 What is the total strength of the Rajya Sabha ?
government?
(A) 240 (B) 250 (C) 255 (D) 260
Q.10 What are the merits of a presidential system
of Government ? Q.2 What is the total membership of the Lok
Sabha?
Q.11 What are the disadvantages of the Presidential (A) 535 (B) 540 (C) 550 (D) 551
System of Government ?
Q.3 Who is the real executive of the Indian union
Q.12 What are the merits of a Parliamentary (A) The Prime Minister
system of Government ? (B) The President
Q.13 What are the disadvantages of the (C) The Union Cabinet
(D) The President & the prime minister
parliamentary System of Government ?
together

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Q.4 How many member are nominated by the Q.8 Money bill can be introduced in the .....
president in Rajya Sabha ? (A) Lok Sabha (B) Rajya Sabha
(A) 12 (B) 14 (C) 16 (D) 18
(C) State Assembly (D) All of these

Q.5 What is the maximum period allowed to lapse Q.9 Who decide whether a bill is a money bill or
between the two sessions of Parliament ? not
(A) 4 Months (B) 6 Months (A) Prime Minister (B) President
(C) 8 Months (D) 10 Months (C) Home Minister (D) Speaker

Q.6 Who can dissolved the House of people ?

Q.10 Who appoints the Prime Minister of India ?
(A) Prime minister (B) Speaker
(A) Speaker
(C) President (D) None of these
(B) President

Q.7 What is duration of term of the members of (C) Vice president

the Rajya Sabha ? (D) Supreme Court Judge

(A) 4 yrs (B) 5 yrs

(C) 6 yrs (D) 7 yrs

ANSWER KEY

Q.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. B D A A B C C A D B

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 DEMOCRATIC RIGHTS
3
CHAPTER

CONTENTS
 Fundamental Rights
(A) Meaning of Fundamental Rights (B) Importance of Fundamental Rights
(C) Features of Fundamental Rights
 Classification of Fundamental Rights
(A) Right to Equality (B) Right to Freedom
(C) Right Against Exploitation (D) Right to Freedom of Religion
(E) Cultural & Educational Rights (F) Right to Constitutional Remedies

 FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS

  Meaning of Fundamental Rights :

The Fundamental Rights are those basic condition which are considered essential to be provided to a person
for his all-round development. After the inclusion of the Bill of Rights in the U.N. Charter, it has become
obligatory for all the member-states of the United Nations to ensure these basic conditions to their respective
citizens. These conditions, which are recognised as the primary requirements for the balanced development
of a person, are commonly called the ‘Fundamental Rights’.
 Significance or importance of the Fundamental Rights :
Fundamental Rights have a special significance or importance of their own, especially for the Indians who
remained under foreign rule and oppression for a long time.
1. Fundamental Rights provide those conditions which are essential for the all-round development of human
personality.
2. They ensure all such freedoms to an individual which make his life happy and worth living.
3. They provide equality of status and opportunity to every citizen.
4. They save him from exploitation on the part of the state or any individual.
In Short, we can say that the Fundamental Rights offer the best fruits of democracy and provide the best
opportunities for self-development.
 Special Features or Characteristics of the Fundamental Rights :
Like almost all the constitutions of the civilized states of the world, the Constitution of the Republic of India
has also a chapter on the Fundamental Rights. It is embodied in Part III of the Constitution under Articles 12
to 35.
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 The inclusion of the Fundamental Rights in the Constitution itself has a special importance of its own for a
country like India. During the long spell of foreign rule, The Indian polity had degraded into despotic rule by
the bureaucracy. Nepotism, favouritism, etc. had been the order of the day. Citizens were disgraced and
demoralised. In order to restore dignity to the citizens and to save them from executive excesses, the framers
of our Constitution thought it proper to enshrine Fundamental Rights in the Constitution.
Our Fundamental Rights have certain peculiar features which are given as under :
1. Our Fundamental Rights are Universal : The Fundamental Rights enshrined in our Constitution are
bestowed upon each and every citizen of the Republic without any consideration of religion, caste, creed,
colour or sex.
2. Not Absolute : Our Rights are not absolute. There are certain restrictions imposed on each of them. These
restrictions have been imposed as a safeguard against encroachment by others upon the similar rights of one
or more citizens.
3. Justiciable : If at all, there is an encroachment of the Rights by the State, a person or a body of persons, we
have been given the right to knock at the doors of the judiciary and get them redressed. Even a law of the
legislature in the country can be struck down by the court, if it abridges any of the Fundamental Rights
guaranteed by our Constitution.
4. Comprehensive : The Fundamental Rights have a comprehensive approach. They tend to safeguard our
social, economic, cultural and religious interests very zealously.
5. Suspendable : The Fundamental Rights of the citizens of India can be suspended in the event of a National
Emergency in the interests of the safety and integrity of our country.

 CLASSIFICATION OF FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS OR FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS

GUARANTEED TO THE CITIZENS OF INDIA
Our Constitution in the beginning bestowed seven Fundamental Rights on us. They were :
1. Right to Equality
2. Right to Freedom
3. Right Against Exploitation
4. Right to Freedom of Religion
5. Cultural and Educational Right
6. Right to Property
7. Right to Constitutional Remedies
1. Right to Equality (Articles 14 to 18) : First through the feudal system and then by the British rule, a class
of so-called high-ups was created in India. The age-old caste system had caused the cancer of untouchability
in the Indian social life. Right to Equality seeks to undo these wrongs under the provisions of Articles 14 to
18 of the Constitution.
Article 14 establishes equality before law and equality in protection by law irrespective of status, caste,
creed, religion, sect, sex or colour.
Article 15 prohibits any sort of discrimination among the citizens of the Republic on all or any of the grounds
mentioned in the case of Article 14 as stated above. This provision does not prevent any State or Central
Government from making provisions for the uplift of economically, socially or educationally backward
sections of a particular state cannot be made a condition for appointment to a particular job under the
Government.

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 Equality of opportunity in all fields of public life is guaranteed by Article 16 of the Constitution of the
Republic of India. No individual can be discriminated against on grounds of caste, religion, sect, race, sex or
place of birth in public appointments. However, this article does not restrict the reservation of posts for the
Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes.
Practising of untouchability in any form has been made an offence punishable by law. Thus Article 17 has
virtually erased the age-long slur on the face of Indian social order.
Lastly, Article 18 puts an end to all titles like ‘Rai Sahib’, ‘Khan Bahadur’, ‘Sardar Bahadur’, etc. This
article prohibits the State from awarding such titles. This has been done because conferring such titles goes
against the spirit of social equality. Only military and academic degrees can be conferred.
However, no individual, according to the 42nd Amendment Act, 1976, can move the court if his right to
equality is abridged to implement the Directive Principles of State Policy.
2. Right to Freedom (Articles 19 to 22) : Various kinds of individual and collective freedoms have been
guaranteed to the citizens of the Republic of India under Articles 19 to 22 of the Constitution. Although the
freedoms guaranteed under these Articles are regulated through certain restrictions for the sake of public
interest and safety of the State, yet they go a long way in making India a really democratic polity. The Right
to Freedom is actually a cluster of several rights. Some of the most important rights guaranteed under the
Right to Freedom are as follows :
(a) Right to Freedom of Speech and Expression : This right allows the citizens to discuss freely all matters
concerning public as well as national well-being orally or through the press. But this right cannot be used for
slandering others, for jeopardising the safety and integrity of the State or for inciting violence.
(b) Right to Assemble Peacefully and without Arms : This right is necessary for the exchange of views and
propagation thereof. But the assembly should invariably be peaceful and should not pose a danger to law and
order.
(c) Right to Form Associations or Unions : To safeguard individual as well as collective interests of the
citizens, this right has been guaranteed by the Constitution. Restrictions, however, can be imposed against
such unions or associations if they tend to pose a danger to the safety of the State or indulge in immoral and
illegal activities.
(d) Right to Free Movement : Every citizen of India is entitled to free movement throughout the territory of
India with the exception that this freedom does not apply to private buildings and estates. This right further
implies that no person can be detained or imprisoned without the express sanction of law. Restrictions,
however, can be imposed on this freedom by the State in public interest.
(e) Right to Reside and Settle in Any Part of the Territory of India : A citizen of the Indian Republic can
choose to reside in any part of the country with the only limitation that it should not go against the interests
of the weaker sections of the society. He can purchase, keep, transfer or dispose of property in any part of
the country except in the State of Jammu and Kashmir, where it is prohibited for citizens other than those of
the state itself. Further, the State can acquire the property of any citizen for public use.
(f) Right to Practise Any Profession or to Carry on Any Occupation : The Constitution of India bestows
on every citizen of India the right to practise any profession or carry on any occupation but such profession
should not be detrimental to public interest or moral ethics of the society, i.e., traffic in women or children,
smuggling, etc. cannot be allowed.

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  Limitation : The Right to Freedom is not, however, absolute. In the interests of the sovereignty and
integrity of India, the security of the State, public order, decency or morality, certain limitations can be
imposed on the exercise of this right and sometimes a person can be detained and even arrested. Various laws
passed by the Parliament like ‘MISA’ (Maintenance of Internal Security Act), ‘ESMA’ (Essential Services
Maintenance Act), Preventive Detention Act, have imposed certain restrictions on the exercise of this Right
to Freedom.
 Protection against Arrest and Detention :
But here too, the Constitution has imposed certain restrictions upon the unabridged powers of the
Government in the interest of individual liberty. Article 22 of the Constitution gives certain rights to the
individuals who are arrested :
(i) A person, who is arrested under ordinary circumstances, has got the right to be informed the ground of his or
her arrest.
(ii) Such an accused person shall have the right to defend himself by a lawyer of his choice.
(iii) The accused person shall be produced before a Magistrate within 24 hours of his arrest and he shall not be
detained under custody without an order by the court.
(iv) No person shall be prosecuted and punished for the same offence more than once.
(v) No person accused of an offence shall be compelled to be a witness against himself.
However, a person arrested under the Prevention Detention Act, can be detained for a period - three months
even without trial in a court of law. Such a thing is necessary for the security and integrity of the country. But
the interests of even such a person, detained under the Preventive Detention Act, have been fully
safeguarded. As soon as it may be possible, the Government must inform such a person the grounds on which
he has been detained. Then he should be afforded every opportunity to make a representation against such a
detention. Again, such a person cannot be detained for more than three months unless an Advisory Board
comprising of persons qualified to be the Judges of the High Court advise for further detention.
3 . Right Against Exploitation (Articles 23 to 24) : The Constitution under Articles 23 and 24 puts a
firm end to such exploitation as forced labour, beggary, traffic in women and children and unjustified under-
payment. This right also prohibits employment of children below 14 in mines, factories and other
occupations fraught with danger. Bonded labour in any form has also been made illegal.
4. Right to Freedom of Religion (Articles 25 to 28) : India is a secular State. Articles 25 to 28 of the
Constitution confer on the people of India the following freedoms :
(a) to follow any religion of their choice,
(b) to practise it according to their specific ways, and
(c) to preach it
The only restrictions on this right is that nothing should be done to malign or incite reaction among the
followers of other religions.
5. Cultural and Educational Rights (Articles 29-30) : All groups, sects, and linguistic minorities in the
country have been granted the right to safeguard their culture, language and script. They can open their own
educational institutions for this purpose and can teach their tuitions for this purpose and can teach their
children accordingly. But it has been made obligatory on such institutions to give admission to any student

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 desirous of joining them. Such students could not be forced to learn what does not fit in their own cultural
frame-work. It has been clearly laid down that
“No person shall be denied admission into any educational institution run by the State or aided by the State
on ground of religion, race, caste, sex or language.”
6. Right to Constitutional Remedies (Article 32) : Article 32 of the Constitution of India confers upon the
citizens the Right to Constitutional Remedies which implies that every citizen is entitled to move the
Supreme Court, any of the High Courts or any other court authorised by the Parliament for that purpose if
this or her Fundamental Right/Rights are encroached upon, abridged or snatched away by the State, a person
or a body of persons. The courts have been vested with the powers to issue orders, directions and writs in
order to protect the rights of the complainants. Most eminent of the writs are -Habeas Corpus, Mandamus,
Prohibition, Quo-Warranto and Certiorari.

GLOSSARY
1. Begar : Forced labour. The practise of working free for landlords or other powerful people.
2. Fundamental Rights : These are the basic human rights which are given to every citizens in a democracy for
the development of their personality. These rights are guaranteed by the constitution.
3. Constitutional Rights: Constitutional means of remaining or redressing grievances. A settlement through
courts.
4. Justiciable : A case which can be examined in a court of law.
5. Preventive Detention : Taken into custody by the police on grounds of fear of breach of the peace.
6. Writs : A written document by which a court asks to do something. Under the Right of constitutional Remedies,
the court issues five types of writs called quo warranto, habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition and certiorari.
7. Rights : Rights are the reasonable claims of persons recognised by society and sanctioned by law.
8. Amnesty International : It is an independent international organisation of volunteers who campaign for human
rights. It highlights violation of human rights on over the world.
9. Claim : A demand for legal or moral entitlement which a person makes of fellow citizens, society or the
government.
10. Covenant : A promise made by individuals, groups or countries to uphold a rule or principle.
11. Dalit : A person belonging to a low caste also known as scheduled castes and depressed classes.
12. Ethnic Group : A group of people who share a common ancestry. They are bound together by common cultural
practices, religious beliefs and historical memories.
13. Human Trafficking : Buying or selling of men, women or children for immoral purposes.
14. Summons : An order issued by a court asking a person to appear before it.

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 EXERCISE

A. VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS B. SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1 Why are the rights guaranteed by the Indian Q.1 Explain the Right to Equality enjoyed by the

Constitution called Fundamental Rights ? citizen of India ?

Q.2 ‘India is a secular state’. Explain.
Q.2 State two rights mentioned under the Right
Q.3 Write a short note on Cultural and
against Exploitation.
Educational rights.
Q.3 State two constitutional provisions for the
Q.4 What do you understand by the Right to
protection of women and children in India.
Constitutional Remedies ?
Q.4 State any two exceptions to the right to
Q.5 Define Fundamental Rights and discuss their
equality. importance in a democracy ?
Q.5 Which is the most important Right and why ? Q.6 Mention the new rights given to the citizens
Q.6 When and by whom can Fundamental Rights under the South African Constitution ?
be suspended ? Q.7 When was National Human Rights Commission
Q.7 What are the limitations on our Fundamental setup ? What is its composition ? What are its
Rights ? functions ?
Q.8 Mention two limitations to the exercise of the Q.8 What are the powers given to the Human Rights
right of Freedom of Speech and Expression ? Commission to carry out its enquiries ?

Q.9 Why has the practice of according ‘titles’ Q.9 What restrictions have been placed upon an
individual’s Right to Freedom ?
been abolished by the constitution ?
Q.10 What role do Rights play in a democracy ?
Q.10 What is meant by ‘Preventive Detention’ ?
Q.11 What was the main cause of conflict in
Q.11 Which fundamental rights are deleted from
Kosovo ?
the list of Fundamental Rights by the 44th
Q.12 What is the position of citizens with regard to
Amendment ?
their government in Saudi Arabia ?
Q.12 What is meant by ‘Public Interest Litigation’ Q.13 Where is Guantanamo Bay? Why was a
? prison set up.
Q.13 Mention two rights which are important Q.14 How have prisoners been treated in
constitutional rights but not Fundamental Guantanamo Bay ?
Rights ? Q.15 What safeguards are provided against
Q.14 What is the meaning of Fundamental Rights ? arbitrary arrest and detention ?
Q.15 What is a begar ? Q.16 Mention any two exceptions to the Right to

Q.16 What is the need to mention rights in the equality.

country’s constitution ? Q.17 What are the major functions of National

Human Rights Commissions ?
Q.17 Can the Fundamental Rights guaranteed by
the constitution be suspended ?

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 C. LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (A) Right to freedom (B) Right to equality
(C) Right to property (D) None of these
Q.1 “The Right to Freedom is actually a cluster of
several rights.” Discuss. Q.5 Where is Guantanamo Bay ?
(A) Near England (B) Near Cuba
Q.2 What are the chief characteristics of the
(C) Near Vietnam (D) In U.S.A.
Fundamental Rights ?
Q.6 Guantanamo Bay is controlled by ?
Q.3 Mention the Fundamental Rights given in the (A) By American Navy
Indian Constitution ? (B) By France Navy
(C) By U.K. Navy
Q.4 Write about Fundamental Duties. Why have
(D) All of them
they been included in the constitution ?
Q.7 In which country the testimony of one man is
Q.5 What Rights have been recognised by the considered equal to that of two women -
International Covenant on Economic, Social (A) Turkey (B) Iran
(C) Iraq (D) Saudi Arabia
and Cultural Rights ?
Q.8 Which of the following rights is available
under the Indian Constitution ?
D. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (A) Right to work
Q.1 Which is the most important right ? (B) Right to adequate livehood
(A) Right to equality (C) Right to protect one’s culture
(B) Right to freedom of speech (D) Right to privacy
(C) Right to constitutional Remedies
Q.9 Right against exploitation under
(D) Right to freedom of religion article......says no child below the age of 14
Q.2 When can Fundamental Rights be suspended ? will be employed in any hazardous
(A) During emergency occupation -
(B) During normal condition (A) 23 (B) 24
(C) During natural disasters (C) 25 (D) 26
(D) During all above condition Q.10 When was the National Human Rights
Q.3 Who can suspended the Fundamental Rights ? Commission (NHRC) setup -
(A) State Government (A) 1992 (B) 1993
(B) President (C) 1994 (D) 1995
(C) Election Commission
(D) Central Government
Q.4 Which Fundamental Right was deleted from
the list of fundamental Rights by the 44th
Amendment ?

ANSWER KEY

Q.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. C A D C B A D C B B

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GEOGRAPHY
 CLIMATE
1
CHAPTER

CONTENTS
F Climate of India F Factor influencing the climate of India
F Climatic controls F Distribution
F Monsoon as a Unifying Bond

 WEATHER AND CLIMATE

Weather Climate
1. It refers to short run atmospheric conditions 1. Climate is the aggregate of day to day weather
that exist for a given time in a specific area. conditions over a long period of time.
2. It refers to a particular station. 2. Climate refers to a large area.
3. It may change at a very short interval of time. 3. Climate remains more or less unchanged year after year.
4. It is influenced by any one of its predominant 4. It is the collective effect of all its elements.
elements i.e. temperature, humidity.

 CLIMATE OF INDIA

The climate of India is described as of monsoon type. Derived from an Arabic word ‘mausim’, monsoon
refers to the seasonal reversal in the wind direction through the year. This type of climate is found mainly in
the south and the south east Asia. Despite an overall unity and commonality in the general pattern, there are
perceptible regional variations in climatic conditions within the country.
The temperature touches as high as 50ºC in the western desert during the summer season, whereas it drops
down as low as –40ºC in Leh during the winter. Similarly, variations are noticeable not only in the type of
precipitation but also in its amount.

 CLIMATIC CONTROLS
There are six major controls of climate of any place. They are - 1. latitude 2. altitude 3. pressure and wind
system 4. distance from the sea 5. ocean current 6. relief features.
Latitude : Due to the curvature of the earth, the amount of solar energy received varies according to the
latitude.
 Altitude : Air temperature decreases from the equator towards the poles. As one goes from the surface of the
earth to higher altitudes. The atmosphere becomes less dense and temperature decreases. The hills are
therefore cooler during summer.

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  The Pressure and Winds : The system of any area depends, on the latitude and altitude of the place. Thus
it influences the temperature and rain fall pattern.

  Distance from the sea : The sea exerts a moderating influence on climate. As the distance from the sea
increases, its moderating influence decreases.
Ocean current : Ocean current along with on shore winds affects the climate of the coastal areas.
 Relief : It plays a major role in determining the climate of a place. High mountains act as barriers for cold or
hot winds. They may also cause precipitation.

 FACTORS AFFECTING THE CLIMATE OF INDIA

 Latitude : The tropic of cancer passes through the middle of the country from the Rann of Kuchchh in the
west to Mizoram in the east. Almost half of the country lying south of the tropic of cancer belongs to the
tropical area. All the remaining area, north of the Tropic, lies in the subtropics. Therefore, India’s climate has
tropical & subtropical climate.
 Altitude : India has mountains, to the north, which have an average height of about 6000 metres. India has a
vast coastal area where the maximum elevation is about 30 metres. The Himalayas prevent the cold winds
from Central Asia from entering the subcontinent. Because of these mountains, experiences comparatively
milder winter as compared to Central Asia.
 Pressure and winds : The climate and associated weather conditions in India are governed by the following
atmospheric condition.
(A) Pressure and surface winds.
(B) Upper air circulation.
(C) Western cyclonic disturbances and tropical cyclone.
The pressure conditions exerted by the surrounding countries like East Africa, Iran, Central Asia also
influence the climate condition of India. The fury of monsoons as well as long dry spell in India are mainly
due to the pressure conditions in the above mentioned countries.
Winds especially Typhoons, Air current and monsoon also have a great bearing on the climate of India.
Typhoons originating in the China sea also have a great bearing on the weather conditions in India.
 Distance from the sea : The location of seas on the three sides of India has exerted a moderate influence on
much of the Indian sub continent. As the distance from the sea increases its moderating influence decreases.
 Physiography : It plays an important role in determining the climate of a place. The location of the
Himalayas in the north has acted as a great barrier to the cold winds of the north. But for the Himalayas,
India would have become a cold country.

 THE INDIAN MONSOON

 Definition : The word monsoon comes from the Arabic word ‘mausam’ which means season. Monsoon is
thus rain bearing winds which reverse their direction with the change of ‘mausam’.
 Facts about mechanism of Monsoons :
(A) The differential heating and cooling of land and water creates low pressure on the landmass of India
while the sea around experiences comparatively high pressure.
(B) The shift of the position of Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). In summer over the Ganga plain
(This is the equatorial trough normally positioned about 5º N of the equator - also known as the monsoon
trough during the monsoon season).
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 (C) The presence of high pressure area, east of Madagascar approximately at 20ºS over the Indian ocean. The
intensity and position of this high pressure area affects the Indian monsoon.
(D) The Tibetan plateau gets intensely heated during summer which results in strong vertical air currents and
the formation of high pressure over the plateau at about 9 km above sea level.
(E) The movements of the westerly jet stream to the north of the Himalayas and the presence of the tropical
easterly jet stream over the Indian peninsula during summer.
 Southern Oscillation or SO : When the tropical eastern south Pacific Ocean experiences high pressure the
tropical eastern Indian Ocean experiences low pressure. But in certain years, there is a reversal in the
pressure conditions and the eastern Pacific has lower pressure in comparison to the eastern Indian Ocean.
This periodic change in pressure condition is known as Southern Oscillation or SO.
 El Nino Southern Oscillations : A warm ocean current EIL-Nino, flows past the Peruvian Coast, in place
of the cold Peruvian current, every 2 to 5 years. The changes in pressure conditions are connected to the El
Nino. Hence the phenomenon is referred to as ENSO. The presence of the EIL-Nino leads to an increase in
sea surface temperatures and weakening of the trade winds in the region.

 THE ONSET OF THE MONSOON

The monsoon is pulsating in nature. affected by different atmospheric conditions encountered by it on way
over the warm tropical seas. Around the time of its arrival the normal rainfall increases suddenly and
continues constantly for several days. This is known as the 'burst of the monsoon'.
The onset of the monsoon : The monsoon arrives at the southern tip of the Indian Peninsula generally by
the first week of the June. Subsequently, it divides into two -
1. The Arabian sea Branch. 2. The Bay of Bengal Branch.
1. The Arabian sea Branch reaches Mumbai about 10 days later on approximately the 10th of June. This is fairly
rapid advance.
2. The Bay of Bengal branch also advances rapidly and arrives in Assam in the first week of June.
3. The lofty mountains causes the monsoon winds to deflect towards the west over Ganga plains.
4. By mid June the Arabian sea branch of the monsoon arrives over Saurashtra-Kuchchh and the central part of
the country.
5. Both the branches of the monsoon merge over the northwestern part of the Ganga plain.
6. Delhi receives the monsoon shows from the Bay of Bengal branch by the end of June.
7. By the first week of July, Western Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and Eastern Rajasthan experience the
monsoon.
8. By mid July the monsoon reaches Himachal Pradesh and rest of the country.

 WITHDRAWAL OF THE MONSOON

1. It is a gradual process. It begins in northwestern states of India by early September.
2. By mid October, it withdraws completely from the northern half of the peninsula.
3. The withdrawal from the southern half of the peninsula is fairly rapid.
4. By early December, the monsoon has withdrawn from the rest of the country.

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 THE SEASONS
The year can be divided into the following four seasons on the basis of the monsoon variations.
1. The cold weather season : The cold weather persists from December to February throughout India.
January is the coldest month. Temperature is between 10º C to 15ºC in northern plains and 25ºC in southern
parts of the country. There is high pressure in northern plains due to the cold climatic conditions. The cold
dry winds blow from the high pressure towards the low pressure equatorial regions. These winds are north
westerly in the Ganga plains and north easterly over the Bay of Bengal. Only two parts of the country receive
rain in this season. First is the north west part of India which receives rainfall from the Mediterranean
cyclone. Second is the coast of Tamil Nadu which gets rainfall in winter.
2. The Hot Weather Season : During this period there is a rapid shifted belt of heat from south to north. In
May, the rising temperature leads to a low pressure in a wider area from the Thar desert to Chhota Nagpur.
Because of this low pressure, the moisture laden winds from the Arabian Sea are attracted toward this area
and consequently there is rain fall.
Kerala and Western Ghats also experience the pre monsoons showers. Assam and Bengal also receive some
rainfall by means of evening thunderstorms. But the north west remains dry and hot winds called the loo,
engulf the whole area. Sometimes dust storms in Punjab, Haryana and U.P. are followed by light rain and
cool breeze.
3.Advancing Monsoon Season : This season runs from June to September. During these months the south
west monsoon winds blow northwards into two branches from the Arabian sea and the Bay of Bengal. They
make rainfall almost in the whole of northern India. These winds blow from the oceanic high pressure area
towards the low pressure area of land and make heavy rainfall. The Arabian sea branche causes heavy
rainfall in the coastal areas of the Western Ghat but this rainfall decreases as the monsoon goes further.
Kutch receives less rain fall. The Bay of Bengal causes heavy rain fall in the hills of Meghalaya.
Mawsynram receive highest rainfall in the world As the monsoon winds take a turn from east to west
because of Himalayas, the rain goes on decreasing. Due to the uncertainty and uneven distribution of
rainfall, floods and droughts are common during this season.
4. The Retreating Monsoon : This season runs from October to November. At this time the monsoon start
retreating. The lower temperature on the plains gives rise to gradual increase in pressure and as such the
monsoons retreat from most parts of North India. Depressions originate in the southern part of the Bay of
Bengal and start moving towards the east coast of India. Tamil Nadu receives high rainfall from these winds
during this season. The distribution and the range of rainfall is not certain even during this season.

 DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL
1. The Western Coast and North Eastern India receive over about 400 cm of rainfall annually.
2. Western Rajasthan and adjoining parts of Gujarat receive less than 60 cm.
3. Rain fall is equally low in the interior of the Deccan plateau and east of the Sahyadris.
4. A third area of low precipitation is around Leh in Jammu and Kashmir.
5. The rest of the country receives moderate rainfall.
6. Snow fall is restricted to the Himalayan region.

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 MONSOON AS A UNIFYING BOND

 Effect of the Himalayas : The Himalayas extending from north west to north east act as a great
meteoreological barrier. These high mountains lend the entire country, a some what tropical touch. For
example the temperature is almost uniformly high throughout India during most of the year, specially during
the summer months. The Himalayas act as a closed base with which the monsoon winds blow and show their
unique performances.
 Effects of the monsoon : Moreover, the all pervading effects of the monsoons on the Indian subcontinent
have also lent unity to India. With few exceptions here and there. India gets most of its rainfall due to these
common winds and that to in the summer season. The concentration of rainfall over few months in a year
keeps the whole land water-thirst for a greater part of the year. This thirst for water is universal throughout
India. Hence, the need for developing the different means of irrigation (such as canals, wells, tube-well, etc.)
is felt all over India. Thus the vagaries (uncertainties) of monsoons is felt all over the country.

GLOSSARY
1. Climate : Sum total of weather conditions and variations over a large area for a long period of time. The
regular pattern of weather conditions of particular place.
2. Weather : It refers to the state of the atmosphere over an area at any point of time.
3. Range of temperature : Difference between the maximum & minimum recorded temperature.
4. Precipitation : The water that falls to the earth from the atmosphere in the form of rain, snow hail, dew etc.
5. Jetstream : The fast blowing air current in the upper level of atmosphere.
6. Monsoon : Monsoon refers to the seasonal reversal in the wind directions throughout the year.
7. Loo : It is a local wind which blows during the hot season in north India.
8. Cylone : An area of low pressure.
9. Tropical climate : A relatively high temperature almost throughout the year and predominantly dry winter.
10. October heat : It is the conditions of high temperature and humidity due to which the weather becomes
oppressive.
11. Extreme climate : The climate in which the summer ins extremely hot and winter is quite cold.
12. Trade winds : Trade winds are those which blow steady in the same direction and on the same course.
13. Western Disturbance : Shallow cyclonic depression originating over the mediterranean sea and disturbing
fineweather conditions in north western parts of India.
14. Windward side : The side of the mountain where moisture winds strike and bring heavy rain.
15. Leeward side : The side of the mountain which receives less rainfall.
16. Rain shadow : The rainless area on the leeward side.
17. Break or Brust of Monsoon : The sudden approach of the moisture ladenwinds which are associate with
violent thunder the lighting.
18. Catchment areas : The area from which the river derives its water from the hills.
19. Equable climate : It is one which is neither too hot in summer nor too cold in winter. typhoon - violently
revolving storm.

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 EXERCISE

A. VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS B. SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1 What is climate ? Q.1 India has diverse climate condition. Explain.
Q.2 Name the elements of weather and climate. Q.2 Why do south-westerly winds cause rain in
India ?
Q.3 What does monsoon imply ?
Q.3 Which are the rainest months of India. Give
Q.4 Mention the major factors that control the
reason.
climate of any place.
Q.4 Why are the parts of Rajasthan, Gujrat and
Q.5 What is Southern Oscillation ?
leeward side of the western Ghats drought -
Q.6 What is El Nino ? prone ?
Q.7 Where are monsoon winds confined in India ? Q.5 ‘Chennai gets more rainfall in winter than in
Q.8 Where does the law pressure area develop in summer’. Give two reason.
May ? Q.6 Name and give the direction of winds that
Q.9 Name the two branches of the monsoon ? cause snow and rainfall in the northern parts
of India during winter season.
Q.10 What are the ‘retreating monsoon’ ?
Q.7 Name the months which are known for
Q.11 Why does Tamil Nadu coast receive winter retreating monsoon. Write some which are
rainfall ? known for retreating monsoon. Write some
Q.12 What is jet stream ? main features of this climate.

Q.13 What is the importance of Jet stream ? Q.8 What is October heat ?

Q.14 Name two states where mango showers are Q.9 What are western disturbances ? Name two
common ? areas receiving rains from them. Write any
one benefit of these.
Q.15 What is meant by breaking of monsoon ?
Q.10 What are Jet streams ? How do they help to
Q.16 Name some regions for which the tropical
cause rain in Punjab and western Himalayas
cyclone are very destructive.
during the winter ?
Q.17 What is loo ?
Q.11 Why do premonsoon showers remains
Q.18 Name two hottest stations in the month of localised ?
May.
Q.12 What is the difference between cyclone and
Q.19 Write the main features of monsoon rain in anticyclone ?
India.
Q.13 Why does Mawsynram in Meghalaya receive
Q.20 What is cold wave ? the highest rainfall in the world ?
Q.21 Name the states where dust storms are very Q.14 Why is Cherapunji rainier than Kolkata ?
common.
Q.15 Why does Delhi receive more rain then
Q.22 How is average rainfall calculated ? Jodhpur ?
Q.23 Write any one effect of Jet stream ?

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Q.16 Distinguish between summer and winter D. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
monsoon.
Q.1 Where is monsoon type of climate mainly
Q.17 Distinguish between windward and leeward found ?
side. (A) South and South East Asia
Q.18 How are the nature and mechanism of (B) North and Northwest Asia
monsoon understood ? (C) North Asia
(D) West Asia
Q.19 Mention any three feature of the distribution
of annual rainfall in India. Q.2 Which part of India experiences the highest
Q.20 Write two features of “mango showers”. range of temperature in a day ?
(A) North India (B) Thar desert
C. LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (C) Western part (D) All the above

Q.1 Discuss the distribution of precipitation in the Q.3 Where does malabar coast lie ?
country and the consequences of its uneven (A) Eastern Ghat (B) South India
distribution. (C) Western Ghat (D) None of these

Q.2 Discuss the factors which influence the Q.4 Name two coldest areas in India -
climate of India. (A) Srinagar and Jammu
(B) Dras and Kargil
Q.3 Describe how the location and relief are
(C) Shilong and Kolkata
important factor in determining the climate of
(D) None of these
India.
Q.4 Discuss the main features of hot weather Q.5 Name the place in India receiving highest
season in India. Also write its duration. rainfall-
(A) Mawsynram (B) Delhi
Q.5 What is a climatic divide ? How do the (C) Chennai (D) Mumbai
Himalayas act as climatic divide ?
Q.6 Name two states where mango shower are
Q.6 Describe the main features of advancing
common -
monsoon under the following heads.
(A) Rajasthan & Bihar
(I) Duration (II) Pressure condition (B) Gujarat and Tamil Nadu
(C) Uttar Pradesh & Madhya Pradesh
(III) Prevailing winds (IV) Rain fall
(D) Kerala & Karnataka
Q.7 Describe the main features of Retreating
monsoon under the following heads. Q.7 Name two months associated with retreating
(A) Duration (B) Pressure conditions monsoon -
(A) July & August
(C) Prevailing (D) Rain fall
(B) October & November
Q.8 Describe the regional variations in the (C) May & June
(D) All the above
climatic candition of India with the help of
suitable examples? Q.8 What is the name given to the climate of
India ?
(A) Cold climate (B) Warm climate
(C) Monsoon climate (D) All the above

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Q.9 The local wind which is hot and dry is called- Q.13 Name the water body from which the
(A) Cyclone (B) Trade wind cyclonic depression origins -
(C) Jet (D) Loo (A) Nicobar sea (B) Bay of Bengal
(C) Arabian sea (D) Andaman sea
Q.10 From where do western disturbances come to
India ? Q.14 Name the hill which deflects the Bay of
(A) Pacific ocean (B) Mediterranean sea Bengal branch of advancing monsoon to
(C) Indian ocean (D) Bay of Bengal India-
(A) Nilgiri hills (B) Vindhya hills
Q.11 What kind of weather precedes western
(C) Arakan hills (D) None of these
disturbances ?
(A) Cold weather (B) Warm weather Q.15 Monsoon arrives in India approximately in -
(C) Both (D) None of these (A) Early May (B) Early June
(C) Early July (D) Early August
Q.12 What is the velocity of rain bearing winds
during the monsoon -
(A) 30 km per hour (B) 40 km per hour
(C) 50 km per hour (D) 45 km per hour

ANSWER KEY

Q.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. A B C B A D B C D B B B D C B

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 NATURAL VEGETATION & WILD LIFE
2
CHAPTER

CONTENTS
F Introduction F Diversity in flora and Fauna
F Importance of Forests F Types of Vegetation
F Wild Life F Uses of Wild Life

 INTRODUCTION

Our country is one of the twelve mega bio diversity countries of the world. With about 47,000 plant species
India occupies tenth place in the world and fourth in Asia in plant diversity. There are 15000 flowering plant
in India which about 6 % in the world’s total number of flowering plant. India also has 89000 species of
animals as well as rich variety of fish in its fresh and marine waters.
 Virgin Vegetation : Natural vegetion refers to a plant community which has grown naturally without
human aid and has been left undisturbed by humans for a long time. This is termed as virgin vegetation.
Flora : The term flora is used to denote plants of a particular region or period.
 Fauna : The species of animals are referred to as fauna.
The huge diversity in flora and fauna kingdom is due to the following reasons.
 Land : Land affects the natural vegetation directly and indirectly. The fertile level is generally devoted to
agriculture. The undulating and rough terrains are areas where grass land and wood lands develop and give
shelter to a variety of wild life.
 Soil : It is one of the most important factor of affecting vegetation. Different types of soil have different
vegetation changes in soil conditions have given rise to peculiar type of vegetation in many areas such as
mangrove forests, swamp and sandy coastal forest.
 Temperature : Temperature and humidity are the important factors which determines the character and
extent of vegetation. On the slope of the Himalayas and hills of the Peninsula above the height of 900 metres,
the fall in temperature affects the type of vegetation and its growth, and changes it from tropical to
subtropical temperate and alpine.
 Sunlight : The variation in sun’s radiant energy at different places is due to difference in latitude, altitude,
season and duration of the day. Due to the abundance of sunlight, trees grow faster in summer.
 Precipitation : It determines the density of vegetation. Areas of heavy rainfall have more dense vegetation
as compared to other areas.

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 IMPORTANCE OF FORESTS

1. Forests are renewable resources and play a major role in enhancing the quality of environment.
2. They modify local climate, control soil erosion, regulate stream flow, support a variety of industries, provide
livelihood for many community and offer panoramic or scenic view for recreation.
3. It control wind force and temperature and cause rainfall.
4. It provides humus to the soil and shelter to the wild life.

 Ecosystem : All the plants and animals in an area are interdependent and inter related to each other in their

physical environment, thus forming an ecosystem.

 Biome : A very large ecosystem on land having distinct types of vegetation and animal life is called a biome.

 TYPE OF VEGETATION

The following major types of vegetation may be identified in our country.

1. Tropical Rain Forest 2. Tropical Deciduous Forest
3. Tropical Thorn Forests and Scrubs 4. Montane Forest
5. Mangrove Forests
 Tropical Rain forests :

1. These forests are found in areas with an annual rainfall of 200 cm or more.
2. These forests grow in the areas of high temperature and high rainfall.
3. In these forests trees grow very vigorously, reaching a height of 60 m and above.
4. These forests yield hard wood trees.
5. Rainy parts of Western Ghats, Assam, West Bengal, Island groups of Lakshadweep, and the Andaman and
Nicobar Island and Orissa have this type of forest.
6. Ebony, Mahogany, Rosewood and Shisham are some of the important trees.
7. A large number of species are found together. It creates difficulty in the commercial use of any particular
variety.

 The Tropical Deciduous Forest :

They are also called the monsoon forests. On the basis of availability of water, these forests are divided into
moist and dry deciduous.
Moist deciduous :
1. These forests are found in the areas of 100 to 200 cm of rainfall.

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 2. Due to longer dry season, the trees in these forests are deciduous. i.e. they shed their leaves during the dry
season.
3. Shisham, sandal wood and sal are the common trees found in these forests. Other economically important
trees are khair, rosewood, shisham etc. Bamboo are also very commonly found in these forests.
4. This vegetation belt covers a vast area of India extending from north-eastern states, along the foot hills of the
Himalayas, Jharkhand, West Orissa and Chhattishgarh and go on the eastern slopes of the Western Ghat.
Dry Deciduous :
1. These are found in the areas having rainfall between 100 cm to 70 cm.
2. These are found in the rainier parts of the Peninsular plateau and the plains of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.
3. These are open stretches. Teak and sal are the important trees.
4. Most of these forests have been cleared for cultivation and grazing.
 The Thorn Forest
1. These forests occur in areas which have less than 70 cm rainfall annually.
2. They are found in the north western parts of the country including semi arid areas of Rajasthan, Gujarat,
Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana.
3. The commonly found trees in these forests are short stunted and scattered.
4. Besides Acacia (Babul), date palm, euphorbies and cactus trees, different shrubs and grasses commonly grow
in between these trees.
5. In these forests the common animals found are goats, wild asses, horses, camels, wolves, tigers and lions etc.
 Montane Forests :
1. The wet temperature types of forests are found between a height of 1000 and 2000 metres.
2. Between 1500 and 3000 metres, temperate forest containing coniferous trees like pine, de order, silver, fir,
spruce and cedar are found.
3. These forests cover mostly the southern slope of the Himalayas, places having high altitude in southern and
north east India.
4. At high altitude (more than 3600 metres) above sea level, temperate forests and grass lands give way to the
alpine vegetation.
5. Silver fir, Junipers, pines and birches are the common trees of these forests.
6. Alpine grassland are used extensively for grazing by nomadic tribes like Gurjars and Bakarwals.
7. The common animals found in these forest are Kashmir stag, spotted dear, wild sheep, jack rabbits Tibetan
antelope, Yaks, now leopard, squirrels shaggy horn wild ibex, bear and red panda, sheep and goats with thick
hair.

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  Mangrove Forests :
These are found in the coastal having accumulated mud and silt. Dense mangrove are the common varieties
with roots of plants submerged under water. These forests are found in the deltas of Ganga, Mahanadi,
Godavari and Kaveri.

 WILD LIFE

India is also rich in its fauna. It has more than 89000 of animal species, 1200 species of birds. They
constitute 13 % of the world total. There are 2500 species of fish which accounts for 12 % of the world
stocks. It also shares between 5 and 8 percent of the world’s amphibians, reptiles and mammals.
Elephants are found in the hot wet forests of Assam, Karnataka and Kerala.
One horned rhinoceroses live in swampy and marshy land of Assam and West Bengal.
Wild ass and camels are found in arid areas of the Rann of Kachchh and the Thar desert.
Indian bison, nilgai (blue bull) chousingha, gazel and different species of deer are some other animals found
in India. It also has several species of monkeys.
India is the only country in the world that has both tigers and lions. Lions are found in Gir forest in Gujarat.
Tigers are found in the forest of Madhya Pradesh, the Sunderbans of West Bengal and the Himalayan region.
The Himalayan ranges are the home of several animals. Yak, the shaggy horned wild ox, the Tibetan
antelope, the bharal (blue sheep), wild sheep and the kiang are found in Ladhak’s region.
In the rivers, lakes and coastal areas, turtles, crocodiles and gharials are found.
There are also a variety of birds found in different parts of India. The chief among them are peacocks, geese,
pheasant, ducks, mynahs, pigeons, parrots, cranes, hornbills and sunbirds etc. They belong to both forests and
wet lands.
 Uses of animals :
1. They also provide us drought power, transportation, meat, eggs.
2. Fish provide us nutritive food.
3. Many insects help in pollination of crops and fruit trees and exert biological control on such insect which are
harmful.
4. They also maintain the ecological balance.
Due to excessive exploitation of plants and animals resources by human being, the ecosystem has been
disturbed.

 Causes for imbalance :

1. Hunting by greedy hunters for commercial purpose

2. Pollution due to chemical and industrial waste, acid deposits.
3. Inhabitation
4. Introduction of alien species

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 5. Reckless cutting of the forest to bring land under cultivation.
6. Inhabitation

 Steps taken by government to protect flora and fauna :

1. Fourteen biosphere reserves have been set up in the country to protect flora and fauna. The Sunderbans in
the West Bengal, Nanda Devi in Uttaranchal, the Gulf of Mannar in Tamil Nadu and the Nilgiris (Kerala,
Karnataka and Tamil Nadu) have been included in the world network of biospheres.
2. Financial and technical assistance is provided to many Botanical Gardens by the government since 1992.
3. Project Tiger, Project Rhino, Project Great Indian Bustard and many other eco developmental projects have
been introduced.
4. 89 National park, 49 wildlife sanctuaries and zoological gardens are set up to take care of Natural heritage.

 Fourteen Bio-reserves :

1. Sunderbans 2. Gulf of Mannar 3. The Nilgiris 4. Nanda Devi

5. Nokrek 6. Great Nicobar 7. Manas 8. Simplipal
9. Dihang - Dibang 10. Dibru Saikhowa 11. Agusthyamolai 12. Kanchenjunga
13. Pachmari 14. Achankmar - Amarkantak

GLOSSARY
1. Natural Resources : These are the gifts produced by nature such as air, water, soil etc.
2. Ecology : The science which deals with the inter relation between various organisms and physical
environment.

3. Endangered species : Plants and animals which are extinct or in the danger of getting extinct.
4. Wild life sanctuary : A reserved area for preserving natural beauty. e.g. Ranthambhor wild life sanctuary.
5. Biosphere : Part of the earth which is covered by living organisms both plants and animals.
6. Soil : The upper layer of the ground containing weathered rock and humus.
7. Coniferous forest : Evergreen trees that bear needle like leaves.
8. Deciduous forest : Type of trees that lose their leaves every year.
9. Ecosystem : An integrated unit consisting of the community of living organisms and the physical
environment.

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10. Flora : Plants of a particular region or period are referred to as flora.
11. Fauna : Species of animals are known as fauna.
12. Forest : Extensive area covered with trees.
13. Biome : A very large ecosystem on land having distinct types of vegetation and animal life is called a biome.

14. Vegetation : It refers to a plant community which has grown naturally without human aid and has been left
undisturbed by human for a long time.

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 EXERCISE

A. VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS Q.2 What are the major factors responsible for
threat to nature ?
Q.1 What is eco-system ?
Q.3 Write some steps taken by the government for
Q.2 Name some non flowering plants. the protection of and conservation of great
Q.3 What are the factors that form flora and biological diversity of India.
fauna? Q.4 Why is throny type of vegetation found in
Q.4 Where are evergreen forests found ? Rajasthan ? Give the reasons.

Q.5 Name some commercially useful trees of Q.5 Write short notes on tropical deciduous
tropical rain forests. forests.

Q.6 What are the two parts of tropical deciduous Q.6 Why have the deciduous forests been given
forests ? this name ? Name some places where these
are found.
Q.7 Name some trees of alpine forest ?
Q.7 Distinguish between dry deciduous and moist
Q.8 What type of trees grow in tidal forest ? Give
deciduous ?
an example.
Q.8 Why is there need to conserve bio diversity ?
Q.9 Where are rhinoceros found ?
Q.9 Why are the evergreen forests found on
Q.10 Name some nimble animals of India.
Western slopes of the Western Ghats ? Give
Q.11 Which are the different species of deer in two reasons.
India ?
Q.10 Explain the fauna of Himalayan regions.
Q.12 Write the name of two bio-sphere reserves.
Q.11 Mention some characteristics of mangrove
Q.13 Why are plants important ? tidal forests.
Q.14 What is virgin vegetation ? Q.12 Write short notes on the tropical rain forests.
Q.15 What is a biome ? Q.13 Mention any four features of thorn forests.
Q.16 What is vegetation ? Q.14 Write any three objectives of biosphere
reserves.
Q.17 Where is the alpine vegetation found ?
Q.15 What is meant by vegetation ? How much
Q.18 What are endangered species ?
natural is the ‘Natural vegetation’ of India
Q.19 Why are elephants found mostly in Assam, today ?
Kerala and Karnataka ?
C. LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
Q.20 Why tropical Evergreen forests are found in
most-parts of the western ghats ? Q.1 How are forests useful to man ?
Q.2 Why has India a rich heritage of flora and
fauna ?
B. SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
Q.3 Give a brief account of the wild life in India.
Q.1 Describe the altitude zone of vegetation in the
Q.4 Discuss how relief and rainfall influence the
mountainous region.
distribution of natural vegetation in India.
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Q.5 What is the great need of conserving wild Q.8 How many species of birds are known ?
life? (A) 1800 (B) 1500 (C) 1000 (D) 1200

D. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS Q.9 How many species of plants are there ?
(A) 40,000 (B) 42000
Q.1 Dachigam wild life sanctuary is in ..............
(C) 47000 (D) 50,000
(A) Jammu and Kashmir
(B) Punjab Q.10 Which natural vegetation is most
(C) Haryana predominant in India -
(D) Assam (A) Tropical deciduous
(B) Tropical Rain
Q.2 Name the national bird of India ..........
(C) Tropical thorn
(A) Great Indian Bustard
(D) None of these
(B) Peacock
(C) Monal Q.11 How many species of animals does India
(D) Falcon possess ?
(A) 70,000 (B) 80.000
Q.3 Name the national animal of India -
(C) 75000 (D) 89000
(A) Tiger (B) Lion
(C) Leopard (D) Rhinoceros Q.12 What is India rank in the world in plant
diversity ?
Q.4 .............. type of vegetation is found in the
(A) 7 (B) 9 (C) 10 (D) 12
region having more than 200 cm of rainfall.
(A) Evergreen Forest (B) Tidal Q.13 How many tiger reserves are there at present ?
(C) Thorn Forest (D) Dry deciduous (A) 10 (B) 17 (C) 20 (D) 24

Q.5 What was the first form of life that existed on Q.14 Where are wild asses are found in India ?
the earth ? (A) Rajasthan (B) Punjab
(A) Plant (B) Animal (C) Haryana (D) Uttar Pradesh
(C) Humanbeings (D) All the above
Q.15 How many species of fish are known ?
Q.6 Name an important tree of moist decidous (A) 2000 (B) 2500 (C) 1500 (D) 3000
forest -
(A) Sal (B) Teak
(C) Pine (D) Silver fer

Q.7 Sunderban forest get its name from the -

(A) Sundari trees (B) Teak
(C) Sal (D) Pine

ANSWER KEY

Q.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. A B A A A B A D C A D C B A B

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 POPULATION
3
CHAPTER

CONTENTS
F Size F Distribution F Age sex composition F Migration
F Literacy F Health F Occupational Structure
F National Population Policy F Adolescents

 POPULATION
Population is the total number of people living in a country at a given point of time. The people, who
constitute the population, act as the producers as well as the consumers of goods and services.
  The main objective of studying population is to estimate :
1. The total manpower available for production.
2. The total amount of goods and services required for their consumption.
 Three major aspects of the population :
1. Population size and distribution : How many people are there and where are they located ?
2. Population growth and processes of population change : How the population has grown and changed
through time?
3. Characteristics or qualities of the population : What are their age, sex-composition, literacy levels,
occupational structure and health conditions ?.
 Population size and distribution : Population size and distribution is estimated by census.
Census : It is the process of collection, compilation and publication of information relating to different
aspects of people living in a country at a specific time. A census is an official enumeration of population
done periodically.
India’s population as on March 2001 stood at 1.028 million which accounts for 16.7 % of the world
population.
These 1.02 billion people are unevenly distributed over our country’s vast area of 3.28 million km2, which
accounts for 2.4 % of the world area.
According to 2001 census data reveals that Uttar Pradesh with a population size of 166 million people is the
most populous state of India. Uttar Pradesh accounts for about 16 % of the country’s population. Sikkim has
population of 0.5 million and Lakshadweep has only 60 thousand people.

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 Almost half of India’s population lives in five states. These are Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, West
Bengal and Andhra Pradesh. Rajasthan the biggest state in terms of area, has only 5.5 %of the population of
India.

 INDIA'S POPULATION DISTRIBUTION BY DENSITY

 Population Density : It is calculated as the number of persons per unit area.
India is one of the most densely populated countries of the world. The population density of India in the year
2001 was 324 persons per sq. km.
 Densely Populated Areas : There are those areas which have population of more than 300 persons per sq.
km. The population is dense due to fertile soil and good rainfall or sufficient irrigation facilities.
Area - Satluj and Gangetic Plain, Malabar Coastal Plain, Coromandal coast.
 States : Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Kerala, Tamil Nadu.
 Medium Density : These are those areas which have population about 100 - 300 persons per sq. km.
Area : Brahmputra valley, industrial area.
States : Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Orissa Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu.
 Thinly populated : These are those areas which have population less than 100 persons per sq. km.
Area : Great Indian Desert, Hills of north eastern states.
States : Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Assam, Tripura, Nagaland, Meghalaya
Manipur, Mizoram, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh.

 POPULATION GROWTH AND PROCESS OF POPULATION CHANGE

 Population growth and Process of Population change

 Population growth : Magnitude and Pace are two important element of population increases.
 Magnitude : It refers to the number of person added each year or each decade to a given population.
 Pace : It refers to the speed or the rate at which the increase take place. It is recorded in percent per year.
Population Growth : It refers to the change in number of inhabitants of a country during a specified period
of time. (during the last 10 years).

 PROCESS OF POPULATION CHANGE

There are three main processes of change of population, birth rates, death rates and migration.
 Birth rate : It is the number of live births per thousand person in a year.
 Death rate : It is the number of deaths per thousand persons in a year.
 Migration : It is the movement of people across regions and territories. Migration can be internal (with in
the country) or international (between the countries).
 Internal Migration : It is that under which people move from one part of the country to other.
 Reasons of Internal Migration :
1. Rising population in rural areas.
2. Lack of demand for labour in agriculture.

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 3. Increased employment opportunities, better education and living standards in Urban areas.
4. Expansion of industrial and service sectors in Urban areas.
 International migration : Movement of people from one country to another is known as international
migration.
 Causes of Rapid growth of Population :
1. High Birth Rate 2. Decline in Death Rate 3. Child Marriage
4. Poverty 5. Marriage as a Necessity 6. Illiteracy

 AGE COMPOSITION
It refers to the number of people in different age groups in a country.
 Children (0-14 age group) : They are economically unproductive and need to be provided with food,
clothing, education and medical care.
 Working age : (15 - 59 years) : They are economically productive and biologically reproductive. They
comprise the working population.
 Aged : (above 59 year) : They can be economically productive though they may have retired. They may
be working voluntarily but they are not available for employment through recruitment.

 SEX RATIO
It is defined as the number of females per 1000 males in the population.
 Literacy Rates : It is a very important quality of a population. Only an informed and educated citizen can
make intelligent choices and undertake research and development project.
 Literate : A person aged 7 years and above who can read and write with understanding in any language is
trealed as literate.
Literacy rate according to the census 2001
India : 64.84 %
Males : 75.26 %
Females : 53.67 %

 OCCUPATIONAL STRUCTURE
The distribution of the population according to different types of occupation is referred to as the occupational
structure.
1. Primary Sector : Agriculture, animal husbandry, forestry, logging, fishery etc. are collectively known as
Primary activities. These are primary because production is carried on with the help of nature.
2. Secondary Sector : Manufacturing industries are known as secondary activities. All manufacturing units
like small scale industry large scale industry, construction work etc.
3. Tertiary sector : It is a sector which provides services to both primary as well as secondary sector. It
include transport, communication, banking, insurance, public administration etc.

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 HEALTH
Health does not mean survival only, it concerns physical, mental, economic and social well being of an
individual as well. It is an important component of population composition, which affects the process of
development.
 Improvement in the Health Status :
1. Diseases like small pox and plague have been eradicated. Malaria has been brought under control.
2. The mortality rate, too has been reduced to less than half.
3. Life expectancy has gone upto 61 years in 2001 from a mere 41 years during 1951-61.
4. Government has created an extensive network of community Health centres and Primary Health Centres.

 ADOLESCENT POPULATION
Adolescents are generally grouped in the age group of 10-19 years,. It constitutes one fifth of the total
population of India. They are the most important resources for the future. Nutrition requirements of
adolescents are higher than those of a normal child or adult. Poor nutrition can lead to deficiency and stunted
growth. A large number of adolescent girls suffer from anaemia. The adolescent girls have to be sensitised
can be improved through the spread of literacy and education among them.
 National Population Policy :
1. The government of India initiated the comprehensive family planning programme in 1952.
2. The family welfare programme has sought to promote responsible and planned parenthood on a voluntary
basis.
3. The national population policy 2000 is a culmination of years of planned efforts.
 Family welfare programme :
1. Provides free and compulsory school education up to 14 years.
2. Reducing infant mortality rate to below 30 per thousand live births.
3. Promoting delayed marriage for girls.
4. Achieving universal immunisation of children against all vaccine preventable disease.
5. Making family welfare a people centred programme.

 NPP 2000 AND ADOLESCENTS

NPP 2000 identified adolescents as one of the major sections of the population that need greater attention.
 Major objectives of the policy :
1. To fulfill nutritional requirements
2. Protection from unwanted pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases.
3. Encouraging delayed marriage and child bearing.
4. Education of adolescents about the risk of unprotected sex.
5. Making contraceptive services accessible and affordable.
6. Providing food supplements.
7. Strengthening legal measures to prevent child marriage.

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 GLOSSARY
1. Natural resources : They are various useful gifts which are provided by nature like soil, water, minerals etc.
2. Census : Official enumeration of population along with certain economic and social statistics in a given
teritory, carried out on a specific day. It is generally conducted periodically.
3. Migration : The movement of people across regions and territories.
4. Birth Rate : The number of infants born for every 1000 persons in a year.
5. Death Rate : The number of deaths per 1000 persons a year is called death rate.
6. Sex Ratio : Number of women per 1000 of men population.
7. Density of population : The average number of persons per unit area.
8. Metropolis : A very large city or agglomeration of population in a district or a country and is often a chief
centre seat of some form of activity administrative, commercial or industrial.
9. Natural growth rate of population : Difference between birth rate and death rate.
10. Dependency ratio : The ratio between economically working population and the dependent population is
known as the dependency ratio.
11. Demography : It is the study of the population statistics, trends and changes over a time based on birth rate,
death rate and fertility rate.
12. Age composition : The number of people in different age groups in a country.
13. Occupational structure : It refers to the distribution of country’s people according to different occupations.
14. Population growth : It is the change in the number of inhabitants of a country during a specific period of
time.
15. Literate : According to the census 2001, a person aged 7 yrs and above who can read and write with
understanding in any language is treated as literate.
16. Adolescence : It is a period in which a person is no longer a child and not yet an adult. Such persons are
grouped in the age group of 10-19 years.

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 EXERCISE

A. VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS Q.2 What is the main causes of the rapid
population growth in India ?
Q.1 What is the significance of studying Q.3 Why has Kerala a better sex ratio than the rest
population? of the country ?
Q.2 Name most populous states of India. Q.4 What is migration ? What are two types of
Q.3 Define the term density of population. migrations in India ?
Q.4 Give the formula for density of population Q.5 What is natural growth rate of population ?
Also give the density of population of India. How can birth rate be brought down ? Give
Q.5 In how many types is the population of India two methods ?
divided and state them. Q.6 Describe occupational structure ?
Q.6 Define annual growth rate of population. Q.7 How can we control the rapid growth of
Q.7 What is the population of in the region population in India ? Explain any five
of moderate density. State at least two measures.
states and a union territory each belonging to Q.8 Write a short note on population growth ?
the region ? Q.9 “Health situation in India is still a cause for
Q.8 What is the population in the region of low serious concern”. Give reasons.
density ? Q.10 What are the main objective of new national
Q.9 Name the states having the highest and the population policy ?
lowest density of population. Q.11 What is adolescent population ? How is this
Q.10 State four factors which affect the distribution age group a very critical stage in a national’s
of density of population. life ?
Q.11 State the implication of high density Q.12 Define census. What is the importance of the
population in India. study of population ?
Q.12 Why peninsular states have moderate Q.13 Describe age compositions.
population densities ? Q.14 How is population growth related to female
Q.13 Define sex-ratio ? Give two reasons literacy ?
responsible for unfavourable sex-ratio ? Q.15 Discuss the causes of decline in death rate.
Q.14 What do you understand by growth rate ?
C. LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
Q.15 How is populations living in various regions
compared ? Q.1 Write a note on the population distribution in
Q.16 Why is north India plain thickly populated ? India pointing out the geographical factors
Q.17 Why is there less population in Rajasthan ? influencing the same.
Q.18 Define the term birth rate ? Q.2 Why has the rapid growth of population in the
metropolitan cities of India become serious
Q.19 What is dependent ratio of population ?
problem ?
Q.20 What do you mean by migration ? What are
its two types ? Q.3 What are the demerits of over population ?
explain giving examples from different parts
Q.21 Give two reasons for migration of people of India.
zrom rural to urban areas is India.
Q.4 Why is necessary to change the present
B. SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS occupational structure of India ? Explain by
giving five examples.
Q.1 What is the importance of studying
population ? Q.5 Explain five factors which are responsible for
the uneven distribution of population.

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 D. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS Q.12 Name the state having the highest density of
population -
Q.1 India has .............. of total world population. (A) Punjab (B) Haryana
(A) 17.7 % (B) 16.7 % (C) West Bengal (D) Rajasthan
(C) 18.2 % (D) 20 %
Q.13 Name the state having the lowest density of
Q.2 Literacy rate in India according to 2001 population -
census is - (A) Rajasthan (B) Uttar Pradesh
(A) 55.3 % (B) 62.25 % (C) Arunachal Pradesh (D) Bihar
(C) 63.35 % (D) 67 %
Q.3 Kerala’s literacy rate is - Q.14 What is the annual growth rate of population
(A) 90.92 % (B) 100 % of India -
(C) 95 % (D) 97 % (A) 1.93 % (B) 5 %
(C) 7 % (D) 10 %
Q.4 The percentage of children below 15 years
is- Q.15 Which is the most densely populated country
(A) 35.20 % (B) 34.33 % of the world -
(C) 34.44 % (D) 50 % (A) Pakistan (B) Bhutan
(C) Nepal (D) India
Q.5 The percentage of senior citizen is -
(A) 9.6 % (B) 6.10 % Q.16 Which is the most populous state of India -
(C) 6.97 % (D) 10 % (A) Uttar Pradesh
(B) West Bengal
Q.6 The percentage of working population is - (C) Bihar
(A) 58.7 % (B) 57.35 % (D) Punjab
(C) 56.8 % (D) 50 %
Q.17 Which is the least populous state of India -
Q.7 What is the marriage age for boys and girls - (A) Haryana
(A) 21 yrs & 18 yrs (B) Tamil Nadu
(B) 15 yrs and 10 yrs (C) Sikkim
(C) 14 yrs and 12 yrs (D) Madhya Pradesh
(D) all the above Q.18 What is India share in total area of the world -
(A) 2.4 % (B) 3.3 %
Q.8 What is life expectancy in India ?
(C) 5.5 % (D) 6.2 %
(A) 55 yrs (B) 50 yrs
(C) 61 yrs (D) 65 yrs Q.19 The position of India in terms of population
size -
Q.9 Which state has the highest literacy level -
(A) First (B) Second
(A) Rajasthan (B) Gujarat
(C) Third (D) Fourth
(C) Punjab (D) Kerala
Q.20 Total population of India according to 2001
Q.10 Which state has the lowest literacy level -
census -
(A) Karnataka (B) Tamil Nadu
(A) 1, 028 million
(C) Haryana (D) Bihar
(B) 900 million
Q.11 According to 2001 census the sex ratio in (C) 7500 million
India is - (D) 1200 million
(A) 950 (B) 933
(C) 960 (D) 970

ANSWER KEY

Q.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. B C A B C A A C B D B C C A D A C A B A

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ECONOMICS
 POVERTY AS A CHALLENGE
1
CHAPTER

CONTENTS
F Problem of Poverty F Measurement of Poverty
F Vulnerable Groups F Poverty in states & Different Countries
F Causes of Poverty F Removal of Poverty
F Poverty Alleviation Programme

 PROBLEM OF POVERTY
 Poverty : It is the situation in which person is unable to get minimum basic necessities of life i.e., food,
clothing and shelter for his or her sustenance.
Mass Poverty : When a large section of people in an economy are deprived of these basic necessities, that
economy is said to be in mass poverty.
Poverty is used in two ways.
1. Relative poverty 2. Absolute poverty
1. Relative poverty : Under relative poverty the economic condition of different regions, or condition of
different regions , or countries is compared.
Two indicators of Relative Poverty are
1. Per capita Income 2. National Income
According to a report submitted by UNO those countries are treated as per whose poor capita income is less
than US $ 725 per annum.
2. Absolute poverty : It refers to the measure of poverty keeping in view the per capita intake of calories and
minimum level of consumption.
National income
Per Capital Income =
Population
 National Income : It is the total value of goods and services produced with in the country plus net income
from abroad.

 MEASUREMENT OF POVERTY
There are two approaches by which the number of poor is estimated :
(1) Expenditure Method (2) Income Method
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1. Expenditure Method :
(A) Under expenditure method first of all the minimum nutritional food requirement for survival is estimated.
(B) The food value is converted to calories.
(C) The caloric value of food is then converted to money value i.e. rupees.
(D) A minimum amount of money which is required for purchasing cloth and other necessities is added to the
money value of food.
(E) The total equivalent amount is considered as poverty line.
(F) All those families which spent less than the poverty line families.

2. Income Method :
A person is considered poor if his or her income or consumption level falls. Below as given minimum level
necessary to fulfill basic needs. Each country uses an imaginary line that is considered appropriate for its
existing level of development and its accepted minimum social norms.
(A) This method is used by the government while distributing food through Public Distribution System at the
local level.
(B) Under this a poverty line is fixed by the government. For example for the year 1999-2000 it was fixed at Rs.
328 per capita per north for rural areas and Rs. 454 per capita per month for Urban areas.
(C) All the families whose total income in a month is less than the poverty line fixed by the government are
considered Below Poverty Line (BPL).
 Poverty Estimates : It is the line which indicates the level of purchasing power required to satisfy the
minimum need of person. In other words it represents the capacity to satisfy the minimum level of human
needs.
The line divides the population in two groups, one of those who have this purchasing power or more is
known as Above Poverty Line and other group of those people who do not have this much of purchasing
power is known as Below the Poverty Line.
The number of persons living below the poverty line in 2001-02 was 26.02 crore. Among them 19.32 crore
are living in rural area and 6.7 crore in urban areas. In 1973-74 about 55 % of India’s population was living
below poverty line. 1999-2000, this has come down to 26 %. This means only about a quarter of the
population in India is now living below poverty line.

 VULNERABLE GROUPS

 Vulnerability : Vulnerability to poverty is a measure, which describes the greater probability of certain
communities (say, members of a backward caste) or individuals (such as a widow or a physically
handicapped person) of becoming, or remaining, poor in the coming years. Vulnerability is determined by the
options available to different communities for finding an alternative living in terms of assets, education,
health and job opportunities. Further, it is analysed on the basis of the greater risks these groups face at the
time of natural disasters (earthquakes, tsunami), terrorism etc.

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

 Who are Vulnerable : Poverty and occupation both are co-related. Most of the poor people include
agricultural and casual labourers, the tribals and the disabled or the physically challenged. According to the
estimates of Planning Commissions agricultural labour house hold constitute 25 % of the total labour house
hold and of these 57.60 % live below poverty line. In those states where agricultural labourers are a great
share, Poverty is also higher. In case of Urban poor, the poverty occurs primarily due to the outflow of the
rural poor into Urban areas. The casual workers, the unemployed daily wage earners, domestic servants,
Rickshaw Pullers, Hotel and Restaurant Workers fall in the category of the urban poor.

 INTER-STATE DISPARITIES
Poverty in some states of India, 1999-2000
High Low
Number of people Percent of Number of People Percent of
States below poverty line people below States below poverty line people below
(in lakh) poverty line in (lakh) poverty line
Bihar 425.64 42.60 Goa 0.70 4.40
Madhya Pradesh 298.54 37.43 Gujarat 67.89 14.07
Maharashtra 227.99 25.03 Haryana 17.34 8.74
Orissa 169.09 47.15 Himachal Pradesh 5.12 7.63
Tamil Nadu 130.48 21.12 Jammu & Kashmir 3.46 3.48
Uttar Pradesh 529.89 31.15 Kerala 41.04 12.72
West Bengal 213.49 27.02 Punjab 14.49 6.16

Poverty in India also has another aspect or dimension. The proportion of poor people is not the same in every
state. Recent estimates show that in 20 states and union territories, the poverty ratio is less than the national
average. On the other hand, poverty is still a serious problem in Orissa, Bihar, Assam, Tripura and Uttar
Pradesh. Orissa and Bihar continue to be the two poorest states with poverty ratios of 47 and 43 per cent
respectively. Along with rural poverty urban poverty is also high in Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Uttar
Pradesh. States like Punjab and Haryana have traditionally succeeded in reducing poverty with the help of
high agricultural growth rates. Kerala has focused more on human resource development. In West Bengal,
land reform measures have helped in reducing poverty. In Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu public
distribution of food grains could have been responsible for the improvement.

 GLOBAL POVERTY SCENARIO

 The proportion of people in developing countries living in extreme economic poverty— defined by the
World Bank as living on less than $1 per day—has fallen from 28 per cent in 1990 to 21 per cent in 2001.
Although there has been a substantial reduction in global poverty, it is marked with great regional
differences. Poverty declined substantially in China and Southeast Asian countries as a result of rapid
economic growth and massive investments in human resource development. In Sub-Saharan Africa, poverty
in fact rose from 41 per cent in 1981 to 46 percent in 2001 (see graph 3.3). In Latin America, the ratio of
poverty remained the same.

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
Poverty comparison among some related countries :
Country % of population below 81 a day.
Nigeria 70.8
Bangladesh 36.0
India 35.3
Pakistan 17.0
China 16.6
Brazil 08.2
Indonesia 07.5
Sri Lanka 05.6
Poverty in India
1973-74 2001-02
Region Number of person Number of person
(In crores) (In %) (In crore) (In %)
Rural 26.13 56.44 19.32 27.01
Urban 6.01 49.01 6.7 23.62
Total 32.14 54.88 26.02 26.1

 CAUSES OF POVERTY

1. British Rule : Britishers rules India for more than 100 years. Prior to the Brithsh rule, traditional industries,
for instance textile, were flowshing in India. During the British rule, they adopted policies to discourage such
industries. This left millions of weavers poor.
2. Rural Economy : In India, 70 % of the total population is engaged is agriculture but its contribution to the
national predominantly an agricultural country, it is very much backward in agriculture.
3. Heavy Pressure of Population : Population in India has been increasing very rapidly. Main factors
accounting for it is sharp fall in death rate but stable birth rate for the last many decades. This pressure of
population serves as a big stumbling block to economic development. Inspite of increase in total production,
per capita income is very low.
4. Chronic unemployment and Under employed : Due to increasing pressure on land per hectare
availability of land is decreasing. Due to division of land production is decreasing. Agricultural sector is also
facing problem of disguised unemployment.
5. Lack of proper Industrialisation : India is very backward from the industrial point of view. Hardly
3 % of population (working) is engaged in large scale industries. No doubt, consumer’s good industries have
developed to a large scale but capital and producers goods industries have not year developed properly. We
still have to depend on foreign countries with regard to these industries.
6. Social factors : Social factors like illiteracy, large size of family, law of inheritance and caste system are
also responsible for prevalence of poverty ridden people.

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 REMOVAL OF POVERTY
Following are some of the measures under taken by the government alleviation of poverty.
1. Trickle down effect :
(A) Under this government laid stress on the development of agriculture and industries.
(B) It was assumed that development of industry and agriculture would create employment opportunities and
incomes, which would lead to rapid economic development.
(C) It was assumed that the benefit to a particular section across the country, particularly the poorer ones. This is
also known as trickle down effect.
2. Land Reforms :
Due to economic policies of the Britishers there was a huge gap between the income of the rich and poor.
Wealth and other resources like land was concentrated in the hands of a few. In order to reduce the gap the
government introduced following land reforms.
1. Abolition of Zamindari system
2. Land ceiling
3. Fixation of Rents
3. Promotion of cottage and small scale industries :
Cottage and small scale industries, which employ more labourers and less machinery, is being encouraged.
The government has reserved some products solely for these industries.
4. Income redistribution measures :
In order to reduce the gap between the poor and the rich, the government made an attempt through income
redistribution measures. This has been done by taxing -
(A) The rich and middle class
(B) The commodities of luxury consumption.
(C) Subsidising the provision of essential goods to lower income groups.

 POVERTY ALLEVIATION PROGRAMMES

1. Swarna Jayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana (SJGSY) (launched in 1999) Main objectives.
(A) Help the existing poor families to come above the poverty line.
(B) Families below poverty line are provided with financial assistance.
(C) This is a centrally sponsored scheme.
2. Sampoorna Gramin Rojgar Yojana (SGRY) (launched on 1-09-2001) Main objective.
1. To provide opportunities to surplus labour.
2. To provide security of fertilisers and manures.
3. Development of the basic infrastructure.
4. Development of the regional economic and social conditions.
3. Prime Minister Rozgar Yojana (PMRY) : PMRY started in 1993 with the objective of providing self-
employment opportunities to the educated unemployed youth and to setup village industries.
4. Swarnajayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana : This was started in the 1997. The main objectives are :
1. To alleviate poverty from Urban Areas.
2. To provide self employment to the educated unemployed in Urban Areas.
5. Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojana (PMGY) (Launched in 2000-01) Objectives :
To provide basic services such as Primary Health, Primary Education, Rural Shelter, Rural drinking water.

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 GLOSSARY
1. Poverty : It is a state in which people do not have sufficient income to fullfill the basic necessities of life like
food, clothing and shelter.
2. Absolute Poverty : It refers to the total number of people living below poverty line.
3. Relative poverty : It refers to poverty of people in relation to other people, regions or nations.
4. Poverty line : It is the level of income which divides the population as poor and non poor. It is drawn on the
basis of minimum consumption expenditure.
5. International poverty line : It is defined by world bank as an income of less than $ 1 per day.
6. Social exclusion : It is the state of living in very poor condition and excluded from facilities, benefits and
opportunities that other enjoys.
7. Vulnerability : It describe the level of poverty when people have a greater probability of being adversely
affected than other people of the time of natural disasters.

8. Economic growth : It is the term which defines an increase in real output of a country.
9. Mass poverty : It is a situation in which a large section of people in economy are deprived of the basic
necessities.

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 EXERCISE

A. VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS B. SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1 What is poverty ? Q.1 Explain briefly how the poverty lines is
estimated in India ?
Q.2 How does rapid growth of population
responsible for poverty ? Q.2 Describe the poverty trends in India since
1973.
Q.3 Mention two methods of estimate poverty ?
Q.3 Discuss briefly the global poverty trends as
Q.4 Mention any two steps which have been taken
studied by the world Bank.
by the government to alleviate poverty.
Q.4 Give a brief account of inter state disparities
Q.5 What is poverty line ?
in poverty in India.
Q.6 Mention any two objectives of the Prime Q.5 Give a brief account of inter state disparities
Minister Rozgar Yojana. in poverty in India.
Q.7 Mention any two poverty alleviation Q.6 What are the main features of the National
programmes. Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005 ?
Q.8 Name any four poverty ridden states. Q.7 How does economic growth lead to poverty
Q.9 Mention any two land reforms introduced by reduction ?
the government. Q.8 Discus the major dimensions of poverty.
Q.10 What is mass poverty ? Q.9 The result of poverty alleviation programmes
have been mixed. Give any four reasons.
Q.11 Mention the major indicators of poverty.
Q.10 Explain poverty as seen by the social
Q.12 How is poverty line estimated periodically.
scientists.
Q.13 Why is calorie requirement higher in rural
Q.11 Mention any four social factors responsible
areas then in Urban areas ?
for poverty ?
Q.14 Despite less calorie requirement, Urban areas
Q.12 Give the poverty trends in India since 1973.
have a higher poverty line. Why ?
Q.15 Which groups are the most vulnerable in
India ? C. LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.16 Who are the Urban poor ? Q.1 Explain the major causes of poverty
Q.17 Why does the poverty line is vary with time Q.2 Explain the steps taken by government for the
and place ? removal of poverty
Q.18 Is it possible to achieve better success in
Q.3 Describe measurement of poverty.
poverty reduction ? How ?
Q.4 Suggest some measures to remove poverty in
Q.19 What do you mean by poverty alleviation
India.
programme.
Q.20 Who is the poorest of the poor ?

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D. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS Q.6 What is the poverty line for the Urban areas
in India at present ?
Q.1 What is the number of persons living below
(A) Rs 454 per month
poverty line in 2001-02 ?
(B) Rs. 300 per month
(A) 26.02 crore (B) 20.52 crore
(C) Rs. 600 per month
(C) 22.67 crore (D) 24.52 crore
(D) Rs. 550 per month
Q.2 Which region has high percentage of people
Q.7 Swarna jayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana was
living below poverty line -
launched in -
(A) Rural (B) Urban
(A) 1997 (B) 1998
(C) Hilly (D) All the above
(C) 1996 (D) 1999
Q.3 What is accepted average calorie requirement
Q.8 Prime Minister’s Rozgar Yojana was started
in rural areas in India -
in -
(A) 2000 cal (B) 2600 cal
(A) 1990 (B) 1991
(C) 2400 cal (D) 3000
cal (C) 1992 (D) 1993

Q.4 What is the accepted average calorie Q.9 Which is the poorest state in India -
requirement in Urban areas in India - (A) Bihar (B) Orissa
(A) 1500 cal (B) 2100 cal (C) Rajastahn (D) Gujarat
(C) 2400 cal (D) 2700 Q.10 The population of India in 2000-01 was -
cal (A) 100 crore (B) 98 crore
Q.5 What is the poverty line for the rural areas in (C) 102 crore (D) 105 crore
India at present - Q.11 Contribution of agriculture in Indian
(A) Rs. 400 per month economy
(B) Rs. 350 per month is -
(C) Rs. 328 per month (A) 25 % (B) 30 %
(D) Rs. 375 per month
(C) 35 % (D) 50 %

ANSWER KEY

Q.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Ans. A A C B C A D D B C C

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 FOOD SECURITY IN INDIA
2
CHAPTER

CONTENTS
F Food security and its dimensions F Need for food security
F Who are food insecure ? F Type of Hunger
F Self-sufficiency in food grains F Food security in India
F Buffer sock & Public Distribution System F Role of cooperatives in food security

 FOOD SECURITY

It means availability, accessibility and affordability of food to all people at all times. food security depends
on the Public Distribution System (PDS).

 Dimension of food security :

(A) Availability of foods means food production with in the country, food imports and the previous years stock
stored in government granaries.
(B) Accessibility means food is within reach of every person.
(C) Affordability implies that an individual has enough money to buy sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet
one’s dietary needs.
Food security is ensured in a country only if -
(A) Enough food is available for all the persons.
(B) All the persons have the capacity to buy food of acceptable quality.
(C) There is no barrier on access to food.

 WHY FOOD SECURITY ?

The poorest section of the society might be food insecure most of the times while persons above the poverty
line might also be food insecure when the country faces a national disaster/calamity like earthquake, tsunami,
drought etc.

 How is food security affected during a calamity ?

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 1. Due to a natural calamity, say drought, total production of food, grains decreases.
2. It create a shortage of food in a affected areas.
3. Due to shortage of food, the prices go up.
4. At the high prices, some people cannot afford to buy food.
If such calamity (Drought) happens in a very wide area or is stretched over a longer time period, it may cause
a situation of starvation. A massive starvation might take a turn of famine.

 Features of famine :
1. Wide spread deaths due to starvation.
2. Epidemics caused by forced use of contaminated water or decaying food.
3. Loss of the body resistance due to weakening from starvation.

 WHO ARE FOOD INSECURE ?

The worst affected groups are landless people with little or no land to depend upon, traditional artisans
providers of traditional services, petty self employed workers and destitutes including beggars.
In the urban areas food insecure families are those whose working members are generally employed in ill
paid occupations and casual labour market. These workers are largely engaged in seasonal activities and are
paid very low wages that just ensure bare survival.

 Social composition :
1. The SCs, STs and some section of the OBCs (lower caste among them) who have either poor landbase or
very low land productivity are prone to food insecurity.
2. The people affected by natural disasters, who have to migrate to other areas in search of work are also among
the food insecure people.
3. A high incidence of malnutrition prevails among women especially pregnant and nursing mother and
children under the age of 5 years.

 Areas of Food Insecurity :

1. The food insecure people are disproportionately large in some regions of the country, such as economically
backward states with high incidence of poverty, tribal and remote areas, regions more prone to natural
disasters etc.
2. The state of Uttar Pradesh (eastern and south eastern parts) Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa, West Begal,
Chattisgarh, parts of Madhya Pradesh and Maharastra account for largest number of food insecure people in
the country.

 Hunger :
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 Hunger is not just an expression of poverty, it brings about poverty. The attainment of food security therefore
involves eliminating current hunger and reducing the risk of future hunger.

There are two types of dimensions of hunger -

1. Chronic hunger 2. Seasonal hunger

1. Chronic hunger : It is consequence of diets persistently inadequate in terms of quantity and/or quality. Poor
people suffer from chronic hunger because of their very low income and in turn inability to buy food even for
survival.

2. Seasonal Hunger : It is related to cycles of food growing and harvesting. This is prevalent in rural areas
because of the seasonal nature of the agricultural activities and in urban areas because of the casual labour,
e.g. there is a less work for casual construction labour during the rainy season. This type of hunger exists
when a person is unable to get work for the entire year.

 SELF SUFFICIENCY IS FOOD GRAIN

 Self sufficiency : Though after the success of Green Revolution an new Agricultural Policy the imports of
food grains have considerably fallen but still India is not, self dependent in case of food security. Success of
wheat Revolution in July 1968 later was replicated in rice. The highest rate of growth was achieved in Punjab
and Haryana, where food production jumped from 7.23 million tones in 1964-65 to reach an all time high of
30.33 million tones in 1995-96. Production in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa and the north
eastern states continued to stagger. Tamil Nadu and Andra Pradesh, on the other hand, recorded significant
increases in rice yield.

 FOOD SECURITY IN INDIA

Food security system has two components -

(A) Buffer stock (B) Public Distribution System

(A) Buffer stock : It is stock of food grains, namely wheat and rice procured by the government through Food
Corporation of India (FCI).

FCI : The food corporation of India was set in 1965. The main function of FCI are -

(A) To procure food grains directly from the farmers.

(B) To store the food grains

(C) To distribute the food grains to various agencies.

 Minimum Support Price : The farmers are paid a pre-announced price for their crops. This price is called
minimum support Price (MSP). The MSP is declared by the government every year before the sowing season
to provide incentives to the farmers for raising the production of these crops. The purchased food grains are
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 stored in granaries. This buffer stock is created by the government. This is done to distribute food grains in
the deficit areas and among the poorer strata of society at price lower than the market price also known as
Issue Price. This also helps to resolve the problem of shortage of food during adverse weather conditions or
during the period of calamity.

(B) Public Distribution System : Supply of essential commodities to the people through government agencies
is known as public distribution system. It is used as an important activity of the state to ensure food security
to the people, particularly the poorer ones. Under PDS the central government has assumed responsibility for
supply of essential commodities like wheat, rice sugar, ediable oils and kerosene. This schemes is
implemented with the help of the government in states and union territories. There are more than 4.55 Lakh
fair price shops to distribute the essential commodities. The prices of the goods sold through PDS in fair
price shops is less than that of the market price. The cost of this price difference is borne by the government.
This amount is known as subsidy.

Types of ration card :

1. Antyodaya cards for the poorest of the poor.

2. BPL card for those below poverty line.

3. APL cards for all other.

Three important food intervention programmes :

(A) Public distribution system.
(B) Integrated Child Development Services (introduced in 1975)
(C) Food for work (Introduced in 1977-78)

 CURRENT STATUS OF PUBLIC DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

1. In the beginning the coverage of PDS was universal with no discrimination between the poor and non poor.
2. In 1992, Revamped Public Distribution System (RPDS) was introduced in 1700 blocks in the country. The
target was to provide benefits of PDS to remote and backward areas.
3. From June 1997, in a renewed attempt Targeted Public distribution system (TDPS) was introduced to adopt
the principle of targeting the poor in all areas. It was for the first time that a differential price policy was
adopted for poor and non poor.

4. In 2000, two special schemes were launched i.e.

Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) and the Annapurana scheme (APS) with special target groups of poorest of
the poor and indigent senior citizen.

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  Advantages of Public Distribution System :
1. The PDS has proved to be the most effective instrument of government policy over the years in stabilising
prices and making food available to consumers at affordable prices.
2. It has been instrumental in averting widespread hunger and famine by supplying food from surplus region of
the country to the deficit ones.
3. In addition, the prices have been under revision in favour of poor house hold in general.
4. The system, including the MSP and procurrent has contributed to an increase in food grain production and
provided income security to farmers in certain regions.

 Disadvantages of Public Distribution System :

1. Instances of hunger are prevalent despite overflowing granaries.
2. FCI godowns are overflowing with grains.
3. In July 2002, the stock of wheat and rice with FCI was 63 million tones which was much more than the
minimum buffer norms of 243 million tones.
4. The decline in stocks continued in the subsequent years.
5. The high level of buffer stocks food grains is very wasteful.
6. The PDS dealers are some times found resorting to malpractices like diverting the grains to open market to
get better margin, selling or quality grains at ration shop, irregular opening of the shops.

 Role of cooperatives in food security :

The co-operative societies are the societies which are run by local people who are democratically elected by
the people. These co-operation provide the people the basic necessities of like food grains, milk, vegetable
etc at reasonable rates.
The consumer co-operative structure in the country has four tiers.
1. The National Co-operative, Consumer Federation of India Limited (NCCF)
2. State Co-operative Consumer Organisation.
3. Consumer Co-operative Stores
4. Primary Stores
The NCCF has its Head Office at New Delhi
Main function of NCCF are -
1. To provide essential and other commodities to the consumers at reasonable prices.
2. To protect the consumers against artificial scarcity, over charging of prices supply of sub-standard goods and
the unfair trade practices.
3. To stabilize the prices of essential goods.
4. To strengthen the consumer Co-operative societies.

 GREEN REVOLUTION AND PRODUCTION OF MORE FOOD GRAINS

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 Green Revolution means revolution in the field of agriculture production by introducing the various
technological and institutional reforms and also by bringing new tracts of wasteland under cultivation.
To meet this situation, the government took up many schemes for the improvement of agriculture :

1. Agriculture was given top priority in the First Five - Year Plan.
2. Several schemes for irrigation were undertaken and arid and semi-arid areas were brought under cultivation.
3. New and scientific methods of farming were adopted.
4. Few high-yielding varieties of seeds were developed.
5. Farmers were also encouraged to use manures and a break-through was made in the sixties and India saw a
boom in agriculture.

 PROBLEMS OF THE WORKING OF THE RATION SHOPS

Some scholars criticise the public Distribution System on various grounds and stress the need of reforming
the whole system. They point out the following problems in the working of the Ration Shops or the Public
Distribution system :
1. Firstly, it is pointed out the quality of rationed articles issued to the poor is much less than required by them.
As a result, the poor have to depend on markets than the ratio shops for their food needs.
2. Secondly, the ration shop dealers resort to malpractices. They divert the grains of the open market to get a
better margin.
3. Some ration shop dealers sell poor quality of grains at the ration shops.
4. Still others open their shops irregularly so that the poor people could not draw their ration quota.
5. Some dealers weigh less and cheat the illiterate customers.
6. Some ration shops are unable to sell their poor quality grains, which becomes a great headche for the FCI.
7. With the introduction of three types of cards and three different prices for the same article to the different
people, the whole system of public distribution System has became much complicated. In such a case many
ration shop dealers themselves surrender them and they shift to other business.
8. Any family above the poverty line gets very little discount at the ration shop so there is very little charm for
them to buy their items from the ration shops.

 REASON OUT WHY

(i) Why farm labourers remain unemployed during a part of the year ?
Because agriculture is a seasonal activity and during the four months of plant consolidation and maturing
there is no work in the field.

(ii) Why it is said that high level of buffer stocks of food grains is very undersirable ?

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 Because it leads to wastage and deterioration of grain quality.

(iii) Why do some people criticise the system of Minimum support Price ?
The rising Maximum Support Prices year after year have led to the rise in prices of various commodities.

(iv) Why is agriculture a seasonal activity ?

(a) There is a work in the field during sowing, transplanting and harvesting alone.

(b) For about 4 months in a year during the period of plant consolidation and maturing, there is very little or
no work in the fields.

As such agriculture is a seasonal activity.

(v) Why is the Buffer Stock created by the Government ?

1. The first reason for this is that to resolve the problem of shortage of food arising due to adverse weather
conditions like drought or too much of rains.

2. This is done to face the shortage of food in any part of the country which is affected by any calamity
such as tsunamis, earthquakes, cyclone, storms or famine etc.

3. This stock is also used to help the poor strata of the society at a price lower than the market price.

4. This stock helps a lot in distributing in different areas.

Key Terms
Term Meaning/Definition
1. PDS Public Distribution System
2. FAO Food and Agriculture Organiszation
3. NHFS Nationial Health and Family Survey
4. FCI Food Corporation of India
5. MSP Minimum Support Price
6. ICDS Integrated Child Developemnt Scheme
7. FFW Food - For - Work
8. PAD Poverty Alleviation Programme
9. BPL Below Poverty Line
10. RPDS Revamped Public Distribution System
11. AAY Antyodaya Anna Yojana
12. ADS Annapurna Anna Scheme
13. TPDS Three (different prices) Public Distribution System
14. ADS Academy of Development Science
15. NGOs Non-Government Organizations

GLOSSARY
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1. Food Security : Food security at the individual, house hold, regional, national and global level exists when all
people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient safe and nutritious foods. It implies
availability, accessibility and affordability of food to all people at all times.

2. Famine : It is characterised by wide spread death due to starvation and epidemics caused by forced use of
contaminated water or decaying food and loss of body resistance due to weakening from starvation.

3. Malnutrition : It is the state of not having enough food or not getting nutritious food.

4. Buffer stock : It is the stock of food-grains namely rice and wheat procured by the government through FCI.

5. Food corporation of India : It was set up under the Food Corporation Act 1964. As the country’s nodal
organisation for implementing the national food policy. It provides food grains at reasonable prices, maintain
buffer stock and intervenes in the market for price stabilization of agricultural goods.

6. Minimum Support Price : The FCI purchases food grains from the farmers in states where there is surplus
production. The farmers are paid a pre announced price for their crops. It is fixed to protect the small farmers.

7. Issue Price : It is price lower than the market price at which the government distributes food grains among the
poorer strata of society.

8. Bengal Famine : It was the most divesting famine that occurred in India in 1943. Killing 30 Lakh people in the
province of Bengal.

9. Public Distribution System (PDS) : It implies distribution of food among the poorer section of the society by
the government through government regulated shops.

10. Fair Price Shops : These are the outlets from where poor people can produce food items at subsidized prices.

11. Subsidy : It is a payments that a government makes to a producer to supplement the market price of a
commodity. It can keep consumer prices low while maintain a higher income for producer.

12. Rationing : It is a term given to government controlled distribution of resources and scarce goods or services. It
restricts how much people are allowed to buy at a particular time with in a particular period.

EXERCISE

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 Q.2 Explain the major dimension of food security.
A. VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
Q.3 Explain the impact of green revolution.
Q.1 What is food security ?
Q.4 “In most of the years the food stock in buffer
Q.2 Name the factors on which the food security
stock remained consistently higher than the
depends upon ?
buffer norms” Why ?
Q.3 Name the two dimensions of hunger.
Q.5 What is public distribution system ? What is its

Q.4 Mention any two factors responsible for importances ?

seasonal hunger. Q.6 What are the major objective of Academy

Q.5 What is chronic hunger ? Name any one factor Development Science ?

responsible for chronic hunger. Q.7 Distinguish between seasonal hunger and

Q.6 Define green revolution. chronic hunger.

Q.8 How does PDS ensure food security in India.

Q.7 What are the function of FCI ?
Q.9 What are the problems in the functioning of
Q.8 What is public distribution system ?
ration shops ?
Q.9 What is TPDS ?
Q.10 Which are the groups worst affected by food
Q.10 What are cooperative societies ? insecurity ?

Q.11 What is subsidy ? Q.11 How has PDS been removed by the Indian

Q.12 Name any two Yojanas introduced with one Government to improve and ensure food

objective of each of food security. security ?

Q.12 Discuss briefly the three important food

Q.13 How does calamity affect food security ?
intervention programmes introduced by the
Q.14 How does rising MSP affect food security ?
Indian Government ?
Q.15 How is food security ensured in a country ?
Q.13 How is food security affected during a

Q.16 Which areas in India lack food security ? calamity ?

Q.17 Write a short note on fair price shops ? Q.14 What is famine ? What are the main features of

famine ?
Q.18 Why do people criticise the system of minimum

support Price ? Q.15 Describe M.S.P. ?

Q.16 Why is the buffer stock created by the

B. SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS government ?

C. LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1 Mention any four limitation of PDS.

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Q.1 What factors have led to the decline of the (C) 1970-80

PDS ? (D) 1980-90

Q.2 Why there is need for food security in India ? Q.5 Antyodaya Anna Yojana was launched in -

Q.3 What are advantages and disadvantage of PDS ? (A) Dec 2002

(B) Dec 2001

Q.4 Explain the current states of PDS.
(C) Dec 2000
Q.5 Explain the role of co-operatives in food
(D) Dec 2005
security.
Q.6 ............... hunger is related to cycle of food
D. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
growing and harvesting -
Q.1 In which recent year food grain stock with the (A) Chronic (B) Seasonal
government was maximum ?
(C) Both of them (D) None of these
(A) July 2002
Q.7 The basic cause of chronic hunger is -
(B) July 1998
(A) High income (B) Low income
(C) July 1999
(C) Lack of work (D) All the above
(D) July 2000
Q.8 The basic cause of seasonal hunger is -
Q.2 What is the minimum buffer stock norms for the
(A) High income (B) Low income
FCI ?
(C) Enough work (D) Lack of work
(A) 20 million tones
Q.9 How many types of ration card available in our
(B) 24.3 million tones
country ?
(C) 22 million tones
(A) 1 (B) 2
(D) 23 million tones
(D) 3 (D) 4
Q.3 In which year did our country cross the 200
million tones per year mark in food grain Q.10 Integrated child developed services was
production ?
(A) 2001-02 (B) 2003-04 introduced in -

(C) 2005-06 (D) 2007-08 (A) 1972 (B) 1975

(C) 1977 (D) 1980

Q.4 In which decade did India experience the

highest decade increase in the food grain Q.11 Food for work programme was launched in -

production ? (A) 1975-76 (B) 1976-77

(A) 1950-60 (C) 1977-78 (D) 1978-79

(B) 1960-70

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 (C) All the people (D) All the above

Q.12 BPL cards for those people who are -

(A) Poorest of poor (B) Below poverty line

ANSWER KEY

Q.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Ans. A B A D C B B D C B C B

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