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Overview

Causes and prelude

Beginning of the war: 1337–1360

First peace: 1360–1369

French ascendancy under Charles V: 1369–1389

Second peace: 1389–1415

Resumption of the war under Henry V: 1415–1429

French victory: 1429–1453

Significance

Prominent figures

See also
Notes
References
Sources
Further reading
External links
Hundred Years' War

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For the earlier Anglo-French conflict, see First Hundred Years' War. For the later
Anglo-French conflict, see Second Hundred Years' War. For the war between the
Kingdom of Croatia and the Ottoman Empire, see Hundred Years' Croatian–Ottoman War.
Hundred Years' War
Part of the Crisis of the late Middle Ages and the Anglo-French Wars

Clockwise, from top left: the Battle of La Rochelle, the Battle of Agincourt, the
Battle of Patay, and Joan of Arc at the Siege of Orléans
Date 24 May 1337 – 19 October 1453 (intermittent)[a] (116 years, 4 months, 3 weeks
and 4 days)
Location
France, the Low Countries, Great Britain, the Iberian Peninsula
Result French victory
Territorial
changes England loses all continental possessions except for the Pale of
Calais.

Belligerents
Kingdom of France loyal to the House of Valois
Kingdom of England

Kingdom of France loyal to the House of Plantagenet

Burgundian State (1337–1419; 1435–1453)
Duchy of Brittany
Crown of Castile
Kingdom of Scotland
Welsh rebels
Crown of Aragon
Burgundian State (1419–1435)
Duchy of Brittany
Kingdom of Portugal
Kingdom of Navarre
Duchy of Gascony
Commanders and leaders
Philip VI #
John II Surrendered
Charles V #
Charles VI #
Charles VII
Louis, Dauphin
Joan of Arc Executed
Gilles de Rais
Bertrand du Guesclin
Philip the Bold
John the Fearless
Owain Glyndŵr
Philip the Good
Charles of Blois †
David II Surrendered
John Stewart †
Henry of Trastámara
John I
Edward III #
Richard II X
Henry IV #
Henry V #
Henry VI
The Black Prince
John of Gaunt
Richard of York
John of Lancaster
Henry of Lancaster
Jean III de Grailly Surrendered
Thomas Montacute †
John Talbot †
John Fastolf
Robert d'Artois
Philip the Good
John of Montfort
vte
Hundred Years' War
Edwardian phase
(1337–1360)
vte
War of the Breton Succession
vte
Hundred Years' War
Caroline phase (1369–1389)
vte
Hundred Years' War
Lancastrian phase (1415–1453)
vte
Hundred Years' War
vte
Anglo-French Wars
The Hundred Years' War (French: Guerre de Cent Ans; 1337–1453) was a conflict
between the kingdoms of England and France and a civil war in France during the
Late Middle Ages. It emerged from feudal disputes over the Duchy of Aquitaine and
was triggered by a claim to the French throne made by Edward III of England. The
war grew into a broader military, economic, and political struggle involving
factions from across Western Europe, fuelled by emerging nationalism on both sides.
The periodisation of the war typically charts it as taking place over 116 years.
However, it was an intermittent conflict which was frequently interrupted by
external factors, such as the Black Death, and several years of truces.

The Hundred Years' War was a significant conflict in the Middle Ages. During the
war, five generations of kings from two rival dynasties fought for the throne of
France, then the wealthiest and most populous kingdom in Western Europe. The war
had a lasting effect on European history: both sides produced innovations in
military technology and tactics, including professional standing armies and
artillery, that permanently changed European warfare. Chivalry reached its height
during the conflict and subsequently declined. Stronger national identities took
root in both kingdoms, which became more centralized and gradually emerged as
global powers.[1]

The term "Hundred Years' War" was adopted by later historians as a

historiographical periodisation to encompass dynastically related conflicts,
constructing the longest military conflict in European history.[2][3] The war is
commonly divided into three phases separated by truces: the Edwardian War (1337–
1360), the Caroline War (1369–1389), and the Lancastrian War (1415–1453). Each side
drew many allies into the conflict, with English forces initially prevailing;
however, the French forces under the House of Valois ultimately retained control
over the Kingdom of France. The French and English monarchies thereafter remained
separate, despite the monarchs of England styling themselves as sovereigns of
France until 1802.

Overview

A timeline of the key events of the Hundred Years' War

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this
article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material
may be challenged and removed. (January 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this
message)
Origins
The root causes of the conflict can be traced to the crisis of 14th-century Europe.
The outbreak of war was motivated by a gradual rise in tension between the kings of
France and England over territory; the official pretext was the interruption of the
direct male line of the Capetian dynasty.

Tensions between the French and English crowns had gone back centuries, since the
Norman Conquest of 1066 had put a king of (Norman) French origins, William, duke of
Normandy on the throne of England. Since that time, English monarchs had held
titles and lands within France, which made them vassals to the kings of France. The
status of the English king's French fiefs was a significant source of conflict
between the two monarchies throughout the Middle Ages. French kings systematically
sought to reduce the power of their vassals, stripping away English holdings as the
opportunity arose, mainly whenever England was at war with Scotland, an ally of
France. English holdings in France had varied in size, at some points dwarfing even
the French royal domain; by 1337, only Guyenne and Gascony were English.

In 1328, Charles IV of France died without any sons or brothers, and a new
principle, Salic law, disallowed female succession. Charles's closest male relative
was his nephew Edward III of England, whose mother Isabella was Charles's sister.
Isabella claimed the throne of France for her son by the rule of proximity of
blood, but the French nobility rejected this, maintaining that under Salic law
Isabella could not transmit a right she did not possess. An assembly of French
barons decided that a native Frenchman should receive the crown rather than Edward.
[4]

The throne passed to Charles's patrilineal cousin instead, Philip, Count of Valois.
Edward protested but ultimately submitted and did homage for Gascony. Further
French disagreements with Edward induced Philip during May 1337 to meet with his
Great Council in Paris. It was agreed that Gascony should be taken back into
Philip's hands, which prompted Edward to renew his claim for the French throne,
this time by force of arms.[5]

Edwardian phase
In the early years of the war the English, led by King Edward III and his son
Edward the Black Prince, saw resounding successes, notably at the battles of Crécy
(1346) and Poitiers (1356), where King John II of France was taken prisoner.

Caroline phase and Black Death

By 1378, under King Charles V the Wise and the leadership of Bertrand du Guesclin,
the French had reconquered most of the lands ceded to King Edward in the Treaty of
Brétigny (signed in 1360), notably reducing English control on the continent,
leaving them with few cities. The French victory of the Battle of the Castillion
was not just a victory but a significant turning point in the Hundred Years' War.
It characterized the end of English territorial claims in France and marked the
dawn of the decline of English power in France. [6]

However, both countries faced challenges and problems. The Black Death, a deadly
plague that spread through Europe between 1347 and 1351 caused catastrophic wide
spread damage. In France, 20 million people died, which was half their population.
The decline of population led to major labor shortages, economic collapse, and
widespread social dislocation. England also suffered from the Black Death, however
they faced less population decline with roughly 2–3 million deaths. The economic
defeat, caused by the plague, ultimately led to major unrest in both kingdoms. The
negative hardships coupled with the strains of the war, as well as all the deaths,
led to widespread poverty.[7][8]

In conclusion, the weakening of royal authority combined with the devastation

caused by the Black Death of 1347–1351 (which killed nearly half of France[9] and
20–33% of England[10]) and the significant economic crisis that followed, led to a
period of civil unrest in both countries. These crises were resolved in England
earlier than in France.

Lancastrian phase and after

King Henry V of England seized the opportunity presented by the mental illness of
King Charles VI of France and the French civil war between Armagnacs and
Burgundians to revive the conflict. Overwhelming victories at the battles of
Agincourt (1415) and Verneuil (1424)—as well as an alliance with the Burgundians—
raised the prospects of an ultimate English triumph and persuaded the English to
continue the war over many decades. A variety of factors prevented this, however.
Notable influences include the deaths of both Henry and Charles in 1422, the
emergence of Joan of Arc (which boosted French morale), and the loss of Burgundy as
an ally (concluding the French civil war).

The Siege of Orléans (1429) made English aspirations for conquest all but
infeasible. Despite Joan's capture by the Burgundians and her subsequent execution
in 1431, a series of crushing French victories concluded the siege, favoring the
Valois dynasty. Notably, the battles of Patay (1429), Formigny (1450), and
Castillon (1453) proved decisive in ending the war. England permanently lost most
of its continental possessions, with only the Pale of Calais remaining under its
control on the continent until the Siege of Calais in 1558.

Related conflicts and after-effects

Local conflicts in neighbouring areas, which were contemporarily related to the
war, including the War of the Breton Succession (1341–1364), the Castilian Civil
War (1366–1369), the War of the Two Peters (1356–1369) in Aragon, and the 1383–1385
crisis in Portugal, were used by the parties to advance their agendas.

By the war's end, feudal armies had mainly been replaced by professional troops,
and aristocratic dominance had yielded to a democratization of the manpower and
weapons of armies. Although primarily a dynastic conflict, the war inspired French
and English nationalism. The broader introduction of weapons and tactics supplanted
the feudal armies where heavy cavalry had dominated, and artillery became
important. The war precipitated the creation of the first standing armies in
Western Europe since the Western Roman Empire and helped change their role in
warfare.

Civil wars, deadly epidemics, famines, and bandit free-companies of mercenaries

reduced the population drastically in France. But at the end of the war, the French
had the upper hand with their better supply, such as small hand-held cannons,
weapons, etc. In England, political forces over time came to oppose the costly
venture. After the war England was left insolvent, leaving the conquering French in
complete control of all of France except Calais. The dissatisfaction of English
nobles, resulting from the loss of their continental landholdings as well as the
general shock at losing a war in which investment had been so significant, helped
lead to the Wars of the Roses (1455–1487). The economic consequences of the Hundred
Years' War produced a decline in trade and led to a high collection of taxes from
both countries, which played a significant role in civil disorder.

Causes and prelude

Dynastic turmoil in France: 1316–1328
Main article: English claims to the French throne
The question of female succession to the French throne was raised after the death
of Louis X in 1316. Louis left behind a young daughter, Joan II of Navarre, and a
son, John I of France, although he only lived for five days. However, Joan's
paternity was in question, as her mother, Margaret of Burgundy, was accused of
being an adulterer in the Tour de Nesle affair. Given the situation, Philip, Count
of Poitiers and brother of Louis X, positioned himself to take the crown, advancing
the stance that women should be ineligible to succeed to the French throne. He won
over his adversaries through his political sagacity and succeeded to the French
throne as Philip V. When he died in 1322, leaving only daughters behind, the crown
passed to his younger brother, Charles IV.[11]

vteRoyal families involved in the Hundred Years' War (1337–1453)

Charles IV died in 1328, leaving behind his young daughter and pregnant wife, Joan
of Évreux. He decreed that he would become king if the unborn child were male. If
not, Charles left the choice of his successor to the nobles. Joan gave birth to a
girl, Blanche of France (later Duchess of Orleans). With Charles IV's death and
Blanche's birth, the main male line of the House of Capet was rendered extinct.

By proximity of blood, the nearest male relative of Charles IV was his nephew,
Edward III of England. Edward was the son of Isabella, the sister of the dead
Charles IV, but the question arose whether she could transmit a right to inherit
that she did not possess. Moreover, the French nobility balked at the prospect of
being ruled by an Englishman, especially one whose mother, Isabella, and her lover,
Roger Mortimer, were widely suspected of having murdered the previous English king,
Edward II. The French barons, prelates, and the University of Paris assemblies
decided that males who derive their right to inheritance through their mother
should be excluded from consideration. Therefore, excluding Edward, the nearest
heir through the male line was Charles IV's first cousin, Philip, Count of Valois,
and it was decided that he should take the throne. He was crowned Philip VI in
1328. In 1340, the Avignon papacy confirmed that, under Salic law, males would not
be able to inherit through their mothers.[11][4]

Eventually, Edward III reluctantly recognized Philip VI and paid him homage for the
duchy of Aquitaine and Gascony in 1329. He made concessions in Guyenne but reserved
the right to reclaim territories arbitrarily confiscated. After that, he expected
to be left undisturbed while he made war on Scotland.

Dispute over Guyenne: a problem of sovereignty

Main article: First Hundred Years' War
Further information: Peerage of France

Homage of Edward I of England (kneeling) to Philip IV of France (seated), 1286. As

Duke of Aquitaine, Edward was also a vassal to the French king (illumination by
Jean Fouquet from the Grandes Chroniques de France in the Bibliothèque Nationale de
France, Paris).
Tensions between the French and English monarchies can be traced back to the 1066
Norman Conquest of England, in which the English throne was seized by the Duke of
Normandy, a vassal of the King of France. As a result, the crown of England was
held by a succession of nobles who already owned lands in France, which put them
among the most influential subjects of the French king, as they could now draw upon
the economic power of England to enforce their interests in the mainland. To the
kings of France, this threatened their royal authority, and so they would
constantly try to undermine English rule in France, while the English monarchs
would struggle to protect and expand their lands. This clash of interests was the
root cause of much of the conflict between the French and English monarchies
throughout the medieval era.

The Anglo-Norman dynasty that had ruled England since the Norman conquest of 1066
was brought to an end when Henry, the son of Geoffrey of Anjou and Empress Matilda,
and great-grandson of William the Conqueror, became the first of the Angevin kings
of England in 1154 as Henry II.[12] The Angevin kings ruled over what was later
known as the Angevin Empire, which included more French territory than that under
the kings of France. The Angevins still owed homage to the French king for these
territories. From the 11th century, the Angevins had autonomy within their French
domains, neutralizing the issue.[13]

King John of England inherited the Angevin domains from his brother Richard I.
However, Philip II of France acted decisively to exploit the weaknesses of John,
both legally and militarily, and by 1204 had succeeded in taking control of much of
the Angevin continental possessions. Following John's reign, the Battle of Bouvines
(1214), the Saintonge War (1242), and finally the War of Saint-Sardos (1324), the
English king's holdings on the continent, as Duke of Aquitaine, were limited
roughly to provinces in Gascony.[14]

The dispute over Guyenne is even more important than the dynastic question in
explaining the outbreak of the war. Guyenne posed a significant problem to the
kings of France and England: Edward III was a vassal of Philip VI of France because
of his French possessions and was required to recognize the suzerainty of the King
of France over them. In practical terms, a judgment in Guyenne might be subject to
an appeal to the French royal court. The King of France had the power to revoke all
legal decisions made by the King of England in Aquitaine, which was unacceptable to
the English. Therefore, sovereignty over Guyenne was a latent conflict between the
two monarchies for several generations.

During the War of Saint-Sardos, Charles of Valois, father of Philip VI, invaded
Aquitaine on behalf of Charles IV and conquered the duchy after a local
insurrection, which the French believed had been incited by Edward II of England.
Charles IV grudgingly agreed to return this territory in 1325. Edward II had to
compromise to recover his duchy: he sent his son, the future Edward III, to pay
homage.

The King of France agreed to restore Guyenne, minus Agen, but the French delayed
the return of the lands, which helped Philip VI. On 6 June 1329, Edward III finally
paid homage to the King of France. However, at the ceremony, Philip VI had it
recorded that the homage was not due to the fiefs detached from the duchy of
Guyenne by Charles IV (especially Agen). For Edward, the homage did not imply the
renunciation of his claim to the extorted lands.

Gascony under the King of England

France in 1330.
France before 1214
French acquisitions until 1330
England and Guyenne/Gascony as of 1330
In the 11th century, Gascony in southwest France had been incorporated into
Aquitaine (also known as Guyenne or Guienne) and formed with it the province of
Guyenne and Gascony (French: Guyenne-et-Gascogne). The Angevin kings of England
became dukes of Aquitaine after Henry II married the former Queen of France,
Eleanor of Aquitaine, in 1152, from which point the lands were held in vassalage to
the French crown. By the 13th century the terms Aquitaine, Guyenne and Gascony were
virtually synonymous.[15]

At the beginning of Edward III's reign on 1 February 1327, the only part of
Aquitaine that remained in his hands was the Duchy of Gascony. The term Gascony
came to be used for the territory held by the Angevin (Plantagenet) kings of
England in southwest France, although they still used the title Duke of Aquitaine.
[16]

For the first 10 years of Edward III's reign, Gascony had been a significant
friction point. The English argued that, as Charles IV had not acted properly
towards his tenant, Edward should be able to hold the duchy free of French
suzerainty. The French rejected this argument, so in 1329, the 17-year-old Edward
III paid homage to Philip VI. Tradition demanded that vassals approach their liege
unarmed, with heads bare. Edward protested by attending the ceremony wearing his
crown and sword.[17] Even after this pledge of homage, the French continued to
pressure the English administration.[18]

Gascony was not the only sore point. One of Edward's influential advisers was
Robert III of Artois. Robert was an exile from the French court, having fallen out
with Philip VI over an inheritance claim. He urged Edward to start a war to reclaim
France, and was able to provide extensive intelligence on the French court.[19]

Franco-Scot alliance
See also: Auld Alliance
France was an ally of the Kingdom of Scotland as English kings had tried to
subjugate the country for some time. In 1295, a treaty was signed between France
and Scotland during the reign of Philip the Fair, known as the Auld Alliance.
Charles IV formally renewed the treaty in 1326, promising Scotland that France
would support the Scots if England invaded their country. Similarly, France would
have Scotland's support if its own kingdom were attacked. Edward could not succeed
in his plans for Scotland if the Scots could count on French support.[20]

Philip VI had assembled a large naval fleet off Marseilles as part of an ambitious
plan for a crusade to the Holy Land. However, the plan was abandoned and the fleet,
including elements of the Scottish navy, moved to the English Channel off Normandy
in 1336, threatening England.[19] To deal with this crisis, Edward proposed that
the English raise two armies, one to deal with the Scots "at a suitable time" and
the other to proceed at once to Gascony. At the same time, ambassadors were to be
sent to France with a proposed treaty for the French king.[21]

Beginning of the war: 1337–1360

Main article: Hundred Years' War, 1337–1360
vte
Hundred Years' War
Edwardian phase
(1337–1360)

Animated map showing progress of the war (territorial changes and the most
important battles between 1337 and 1453).
End of homage
At the end of April 1337, Philip of France was invited to meet the delegation from
England but refused. The arrière-ban, a call to arms, was proclaimed throughout
France starting on 30 April 1337. Then, in May 1337, Philip met with his Great
Council in Paris. It was agreed that the Duchy of Aquitaine, effectively Gascony,
should be taken back into the King's hands because Edward III was in breach of his
obligations as a vassal and had sheltered the King's "mortal enemy" Robert
d'Artois.[22] Edward responded to the confiscation of Aquitaine by challenging
Philip's right to the French throne.

When Charles IV died, Edward claimed the succession of the French throne through
the right of his mother, Isabella (Charles IV's sister), daughter of Philip IV. His
claim was considered invalidated by Edward's homage to Philip VI in 1329. Edward
revived his claim and in 1340 formally assumed the title "King of France and the
French Royal Arms".[23]

On 26 January 1340, Edward III formally received homage from Guy, half-brother of
the Count of Flanders. The civic authorities of Ghent, Ypres, and Bruges proclaimed
Edward King of France. Edward aimed to strengthen his alliances with the Low
Countries. His supporters could claim that they were loyal to the "true" King of
France and did not rebel against Philip. In February 1340, Edward returned to
England to try to raise more funds and also deal with political difficulties.[24]

Relations with Flanders were also tied to the English wool trade since Flanders'
principal cities relied heavily on textile production, and England supplied much of
the raw material they needed. Edward III had commanded that his chancellor sit on
the woolsack in council as a symbol of the pre-eminence of the wool trade.[25] At
the time there were about 110,000 sheep in Sussex alone.[26] The great medieval
English monasteries produced large wool surpluses sold to mainland Europe.
Successive governments were able to make large amounts of money by taxing it.[25]
France's sea power led to economic disruptions for England, shrinking the wool
trade to Flanders and the wine trade from Gascony.[27]

Outbreak, the English Channel and Brittany

The Battle of Sluys from a BNF manuscript of Froissart's Chronicles, Bruges, c.

1470.
On 22 June 1340, Edward and his fleet sailed from England and arrived off the Zwin
estuary the next day. The French fleet assumed a defensive formation off the port
of Sluis. The English fleet deceived the French into believing they were
withdrawing. When the wind turned in the late afternoon, the English attacked with
the wind and sun behind them. The French fleet was almost destroyed in what became
known as the Battle of Sluys.

England dominated the English Channel for the rest of the war, preventing French
invasions.[24] At this point, Edward's funds ran out and the war probably would
have ended were it not for the death of the Duke of Brittany in 1341 precipitating
a succession dispute between the duke's half-brother John of Montfort and Charles
of Blois, nephew of Philip VI.[28]

In 1341, this inheritance dispute over the Duchy of Brittany set off the War of the
Breton Succession, in which Edward backed John of Montfort and Philip backed
Charles of Blois. Action for the next few years focused on a back-and-forth
struggle in Brittany. The city of Vannes in Brittany changed hands several times,
while further campaigns in Gascony met with mixed success for both sides.[28] The
English-backed Montfort finally took the duchy but not until 1364.[29]

Battle of Crécy and the taking of Calais

Battle of Crécy, 1346, from the Grandes Chroniques de France. British Library,
London
See also: Hundred Years' War, 1345–1347
In July 1346, Edward mounted a major invasion across the channel, landing on
Normandy's Cotentin Peninsula at St Vaast. The English army captured the city of
Caen in just one day, surprising the French. Philip mustered a large army to oppose
Edward, who chose to march northward toward the Low Countries, pillaging as he
went. He reached the river Seine to find most of the crossings destroyed. He moved
further south, worryingly close to Paris until he found the crossing at Poissy.
This had only been partially destroyed, so the carpenters within his army were able
to fix it. He then continued to Flanders until he reached the river Somme. The army
crossed at a tidal ford at Blanchetaque, stranding Philip's army. Edward, assisted
by this head start, continued on his way to Flanders once more until, finding
himself unable to outmaneuver Philip, Edward positioned his forces for battle, and
Philip's army attacked.

Edward III counting the dead on the battlefield of Crécy

The Battle of Crécy of 1346 was a complete disaster for the French, largely
credited to the English longbowmen and the French king, who allowed his army to
attack before it was ready.[30] Philip appealed to his Scottish allies to help with
a diversionary attack on England. King David II of Scotland responded by invading
northern England, but his army was defeated, and he was captured at the Battle of
Neville's Cross on 17 October 1346. This greatly reduced the threat from Scotland.
[28][31]

In France, Edward proceeded north unopposed and besieged the city of Calais on the
English Channel, capturing it in 1347. This became an important strategic asset for
the English, allowing them to keep troops safely in northern France.[30] Calais
would remain under English control, even after the end of the Hundred Years' War,
until the successful French siege in 1558.[32]

Battle of Poitiers
Main article: Battle of Poitiers
The Black Death, which had just arrived in Paris in 1348, ravaged Europe.[33] In
1355, after the plague had passed and England was able to recover financially,[34]
King Edward's son and namesake, the Prince of Wales, later known as the Black
Prince, led a Chevauchée from Gascony into France, during which he pillaged
Avignonet, Castelnaudary, Carcassonne, and Narbonne. The next year during another
Chevauchée he ravaged Auvergne, Limousin, and Berry but failed to take Bourges. He
offered terms of peace to King John II of France (known as John the Good), who had
outflanked him near Poitiers but refused to surrender himself as the price of their
acceptance.

This led to the Battle of Poitiers (19 September 1356) where the Black Prince's
army routed the French.[35] During the battle, the Gascon noble Jean de Grailly,
captal de Buch led a mounted unit that was concealed in a forest. The French
advance was contained, at which point de Grailly led a flanking movement with his
horsemen, cutting off the French retreat and successfully capturing King John and
many of his nobles.[36] With John held hostage, his son the Dauphin (later to
become Charles V) assumed the powers of the king as regent.[37]

After the Battle of Poitiers, many French nobles and mercenaries rampaged, and
chaos ruled. A contemporary report recounted:

... all went ill with the kingdom and the State was undone. Thieves and robbers
rose up everywhere in the land. The Nobles despised and hated all others and took
no thought for usefulness and profit of lord and men. They subjected and despoiled
the peasants and the men of the villages. In no wise did they defend their country
from its enemies; rather did they trample it underfoot, robbing and pillaging the
peasants' goods ...

— From the Chronicles of Jean de Venette[38]

Reims campaign and Black Monday
Main article: Reims campaign

A later engraving of Black Monday in 1360: hailstorms and lightning ravage the
English army outside Chartres
Edward invaded France, for the third and last time, hoping to capitalise on the
discontent and seize the throne. The Dauphin's strategy was that of non-engagement
with the English army in the field. However, Edward wanted the crown and chose the
cathedral city of Reims for his coronation (Reims was the traditional coronation
city).[39] However, the citizens of Reims built and reinforced the city's defences
before Edward and his army arrived.[40] Edward besieged the city for five weeks,
but the defences held and there was no coronation.[39] Edward moved on to Paris,
but retreated after a few skirmishes in the suburbs. Next was the town of Chartres.

Disaster struck in a freak hailstorm on the encamped army, causing over 1,000
English deaths – the so-called Black Monday at Easter 1360. This devastated
Edward's army and forced him to negotiate when approached by the French.[41] A
conference was held at Brétigny that resulted in the Treaty of Brétigny (8 May
1360).[42] The treaty was ratified at Calais in October. In return for increased
lands in Aquitaine, Edward renounced Normandy, Touraine, Anjou and Maine and
consented to reduce King John's ransom by a million crowns. Edward also abandoned
his claim to the crown of France.[43]

First peace: 1360–1369

France at the Treaty of Brétigny, English holdings in light red

The French king, John II, was held captive in England for four years. The Treaty of
Brétigny set his ransom at 3 million crowns and allowed for hostages to be held in
lieu of John. The hostages included two of his sons, several princes and nobles,
four inhabitants of Paris, and two citizens from each of the nineteen principal
towns of France. While these hostages were held, John returned to France to try to
raise funds to pay the ransom. In 1362, John's son Louis of Anjou, a hostage in
English-held Calais, escaped captivity. With his stand-in hostage gone, John felt
honour-bound to return to captivity in England.[37][44]

The French crown had been at odds with Navarre (near southern Gascony) since 1354,
and in 1363, the Navarrese used the captivity of John II in London and the
political weakness of the Dauphin to try to seize power.[45] Although there was no
formal treaty, Edward III supported the Navarrese moves, particularly as there was
a prospect that he might gain control over the northern and western provinces as a
consequence. With this in mind, Edward deliberately slowed the peace negotiations.
[46] In 1364, John II died in London, while still in honourable captivity.[47]
Charles V succeeded him as king of France.[37][48] On 16 May, one month after the
dauphin's accession and three days before his coronation as Charles V, the
Navarrese suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Cocherel.[49]

French ascendancy under Charles V: 1369–1389

Aquitaine and Castile
Main article: Hundred Years' War, 1369–1389
See also: Castilian Civil War
vte
Hundred Years' War
Caroline phase (1369–1389)
In 1366, there was a civil war of succession in Castile (part of modern Spain). The
forces of the ruler Peter of Castile were pitched against those of his half-brother
Henry of Trastámara. The English crown supported Peter; the French supported Henry.
French forces were led by Bertrand du Guesclin, a Breton, who rose from relatively
humble beginnings to prominence as one of France's war leaders. Charles V provided
a force of 12,000, with du Guesclin at their head, to support Trastámara in his
invasion of Castile.[50]

Statue of Bertrand du Guesclin in Dinan, Brittany

Peter appealed to England and Aquitaine's Black Prince, Edward of Woodstock, for
help, but none was forthcoming, forcing Peter into exile in Aquitaine. The Black
Prince had previously agreed to support Peter's claims but concerns over the terms
of the treaty of Brétigny led him to assist Peter as a representative of Aquitaine,
rather than England. He then led an Anglo-Gascon army into Castile. Peter was
restored to power after Trastámara's army was defeated at the Battle of Nájera.[51]

Although the Castilians had agreed to fund the Black Prince, they failed to do so.
The Prince was suffering from ill health and returned with his army to Aquitaine.
To pay off debts incurred during the Castile campaign, the prince instituted a
hearth tax. Arnaud-Amanieu VIII, Lord of Albret had fought on the Black Prince's
side during the war. Albret, who already had become discontented by the influx of
English administrators into the enlarged Aquitaine, refused to allow the tax to be
collected in his fief. He then joined a group of Gascon lords who appealed to
Charles V for support in their refusal to pay the tax. Charles V summoned one
Gascon lord and the Black Prince to hear the case in his High Court in Paris. The
Black Prince answered that he would go to Paris with sixty thousand men behind him.
War broke out again and Edward III resumed the title of King of France.[52] Charles
V declared that all the English possessions in France were forfeited, and before
the end of 1369 all of Aquitaine was in full revolt.[53]

With the Black Prince gone from Castile, Henry of Trastámara led a second invasion
that ended with Peter's death at the Battle of Montiel in March 1369. The new
Castilian regime provided naval support to French campaigns against Aquitaine and
England.[51] In 1372, the Castilian fleet defeated the English fleet in the Battle
of La Rochelle.

1373 campaign of John of Gaunt

Main article: John of Gaunt's chevauchée of 1373
In August 1373, John of Gaunt, accompanied by John de Montfort, Duke of Brittany
led a force of 9,000 men from Calais on a chevauchée. While initially successful as
French forces were insufficiently concentrated to oppose them, the English met more
resistance as they moved south. French forces began to concentrate around the
English force but under orders from Charles V, the French avoided a set battle.
Instead, they fell on forces detached from the main body to raid or forage. The
French shadowed the English and in October, the English found themselves trapped
against the River Allier by four French forces. With some difficulty, the English
crossed at the bridge at Moulins but lost all their baggage and loot. The English
carried on south across the Limousin plateau but the weather was turning severe.
Men and horses died in great numbers and many soldiers, forced to march on foot,
discarded their armour. At the beginning of December, the English army entered
friendly territory in Gascony. By the end of December, they were in Bordeaux,
starving, ill-equipped, and having lost over half of the 30,000 horses with which
they had left Calais. Although the march across France had been a remarkable feat,
it was a military failure.[54]

English turmoil

The Franco-Castilian Navy, led by Admirals de Vienne and Tovar, managed to raid the
English coasts for the first time since the beginning of the Hundred Years' War.
With his health deteriorating, the Black Prince returned to England in January
1371, where his father Edward III was elderly and also in poor health. The prince's
illness was debilitating, and he died on 8 June 1376.[55] Edward III died the
following year on 21 June 1377[56] and was succeeded by the Black Prince's second
son Richard II who was still a child of 10 (Edward of Angoulême, the Black Prince's
first son, had died sometime earlier).[57] The treaty of Brétigny had left Edward
III and England with enlarged holdings in France, but a small professional French
army under the leadership of du Guesclin pushed the English back; by the time
Charles V died in 1380, the English held only Calais and a few other ports.[58]
It was usual to appoint a regent in the case of a child monarch but no regent was
appointed for Richard II, who nominally exercised the power of kingship from the
date of his accession in 1377.[57] Between 1377 and 1380, actual power was in the
hands of a series of councils. The political community preferred this to a regency
led by the king's uncle, John of Gaunt, although Gaunt remained highly influential.
[57] Richard faced many challenges during his reign, including the Peasants' Revolt
led by Wat Tyler in 1381 and an Anglo-Scottish war in 1384–1385. His attempts to
raise taxes to pay for his Scottish adventure and for the protection of Calais
against the French made him increasingly unpopular.[57]

1380 campaign of the Earl of Buckingham

In July 1380, the Earl of Buckingham commanded an expedition to France to aid
England's ally, the Duke of Brittany. The French refused battle before the walls of
Troyes on 25 August; Buckingham's forces continued their chevauchée and in November
laid siege to Nantes.[59] The support expected from the Duke of Brittany did not
appear and in the face of severe losses in men and horses, Buckingham was forced to
abandon the siege in January 1381.[60] In February, reconciled to the regime of the
new French king Charles VI by the Treaty of Guérande, Brittany paid 50,000 francs
to Buckingham for him to abandon the siege and the campaign.[61]

French turmoil
After the deaths of Charles V and du Guesclin in 1380, France lost its main
leadership and overall momentum in the war. Charles VI succeeded his father as king
of France at the age of 11, and he was thus put under a regency led by his uncles,
who managed to maintain an effective grip on government affairs until about 1388,
well after Charles had achieved royal majority.

With France facing widespread destruction, plague, and economic recession, high
taxation put a heavy burden on the French peasantry and urban communities. The war
effort against England largely depended on royal taxation, but the population was
increasingly unwilling to pay for it, as would be demonstrated at the Harelle and
Maillotin revolts in 1382. Charles V had abolished many of these taxes on his
deathbed, but subsequent attempts to reinstate them stirred up hostility between
the French government and populace.

Philip II of Burgundy, the uncle of the French king, brought together a Burgundian-
French army and a fleet of 1,200 ships near the Zeeland town of Sluis in the summer
and autumn of 1386 to attempt an invasion of England, but this venture failed.
However, Philip's brother John of Berry appeared deliberately late, so that the
autumn weather prevented the fleet from leaving and the invading army then
dispersed again.

Difficulties in raising taxes and revenue hampered the ability of the French to
fight the English. At this point, the war's pace had largely slowed down, and both
nations found themselves fighting mainly through proxy wars, such as during the
1383–1385 Portuguese interregnum. The independence party in the Kingdom of
Portugal, which was supported by the English, won against the supporters of the
King of Castile's claim to the Portuguese throne, who in turn was backed by the
French.

Second peace: 1389–1415

See also: Armagnac–Burgundian Civil War
vte
Glyndŵr rebellion

France in 1388, just before signing a truce. English territories are shown in red,
French royal territories are dark blue, papal territories are orange, and French
vassals have the other colours.
The war became increasingly unpopular with the English public due to the high taxes
needed for the war effort. These taxes were seen as one of the reasons for the
Peasants' Revolt.[62] Richard II's indifference to the war together with his
preferential treatment of a select few close friends and advisors angered an
alliance of lords that included one of his uncles. This group, known as Lords
Appellant, managed to press charges of treason against five of Richard's advisors
and friends in the Merciless Parliament. The Lords Appellant were able to gain
control of the council in 1388 but failed to reignite the war in France. Although
the will was there, the funds to pay the troops was lacking, so in the autumn of
1388 the Council agreed to resume negotiations with the French crown, beginning on
18 June 1389 with the signing of the three-year Truce of Leulinghem.[63]

In 1389, Richard's uncle and supporter, John of Gaunt, returned from Spain and
Richard was able to rebuild his power gradually until 1397, when he reasserted his
authority and destroyed[specify] the principal three among the Lords Appellant. In
1399, after John of Gaunt died, Richard II disinherited Gaunt's son, the exiled
Henry of Bolingbroke. Bolingbroke returned to England with his supporters, deposed
Richard and had himself crowned Henry IV.[57][64] In Scotland, the problems brought
in by the English regime change prompted border raids that were countered by an
invasion in 1402 and the defeat of a Scottish army at the Battle of Homildon Hill.
[65] A dispute over the spoils between Henry and Henry Percy, 1st Earl of
Northumberland, resulted in a long and bloody struggle between the two for control
of northern England, resolved only with the almost complete destruction of the
House of Percy by 1408.[66]

In Wales, Owain Glyndŵr was declared Prince of Wales on 16 September 1400. He was
the leader of the most serious and widespread rebellion against England authority
in Wales since the conquest of 1282–1283. In 1405, the French allied with Glyndŵr
and the Castilians in Spain; a Franco-Welsh army advanced as far as Worcester,
while the Spaniards used galleys to raid and burn all the way from Cornwall to
Southampton, before taking refuge in Harfleur for the winter.[67] The Glyndŵr
Rising was finally put down in 1415 and resulted in Welsh semi-independence for a
number of years.[68][clarification needed]

Assassination of Louis I, Duke of Orléans in Paris in 1407

In 1392, Charles VI suddenly descended into madness, forcing France into a regency
dominated by his uncles and his brother. A conflict for control over the Regency
began between his uncle Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy and his brother, Louis of
Valois, Duke of Orléans. After Philip's death, his son and heir John the Fearless
continued the struggle against Louis but with the disadvantage of having no close
relation to the king. Finding himself outmanoeuvred politically, John ordered the
assassination of Louis in retaliation. His involvement in the murder was quickly
revealed and the Armagnac family took political power in opposition to John. By
1410, both sides were bidding for the help of English forces in a civil war.[69] In
1418 Paris was taken by the Burgundians, who were unable to stop the massacre of
Count of Armagnac and his followers by a Parisian crowd, with an estimated death
toll between 1,000 and 5,000.[70]

Throughout this period, England confronted repeated raids by pirates that damaged
trade and the navy. There is some evidence that Henry IV used state-legalised
piracy as a form of warfare in the English Channel. He used such privateering
campaigns to pressure enemies without risking open war.[71] The French responded in
kind and French pirates, under Scottish protection, raided many English coastal
towns.[72] The domestic and dynastic difficulties faced by England and France in
this period quieted the war for a decade.[72] Henry IV died in 1413 and was
replaced by his eldest son Henry V. The mental illness of Charles VI of France
allowed his power to be exercised by royal princes whose rivalries caused deep
divisions in France. In 1414 while Henry held court at Leicester, he received
ambassadors from Burgundy.[73] Henry accredited envoys to the French king to make
clear his territorial claims in France; he also demanded the hand of Charles VI's
youngest daughter Catherine of Valois. The French rejected his demands, leading
Henry to prepare for war.[73]

Resumption of the war under Henry V: 1415–1429

Main article: Hundred Years' War (1415–1453)
vte
Hundred Years' War
Lancastrian phase (1415–1453)
Burgundian alliance and the seizure of Paris
Battle of Agincourt (1415)
Main article: Battle of Agincourt

Fifteenth-century miniature depicting the Battle of Agincourt in October 1415

In August 1415, Henry V sailed from England with a force of about 10,500 and laid
siege to Harfleur. The city resisted for longer than expected, but finally
surrendered on 22 September. Because of the unexpected delay, most of the campaign
season was gone. Rather than march on Paris directly, Henry elected to make a
raiding expedition across France toward English-occupied Calais. In a campaign
reminiscent of Crécy, he found himself outmanoeuvred and low on supplies and had to
fight a much larger French army at the Battle of Agincourt, north of the Somme.
Despite the problems and having a smaller force, his victory was near total; the
French defeat was catastrophic, costing the lives of many of the Armagnac leaders.
About 40% of the French nobility was killed.[9] Henry was apparently concerned that
the large number of prisoners taken were a security risk (there were more French
prisoners than there were soldiers in the entire English army) and he ordered their
deaths before the French reserves fled the field and Henry rescinded the order.[73]

Treaty of Troyes (1420)

Main article: Treaty of Troyes
Henry retook much of Normandy, including Caen in 1417, and Rouen on 19 January
1419, turning Normandy English for the first time in two centuries. A formal
alliance was made with Burgundy, which had taken Paris in 1418 before the
assassination of Duke John the Fearless in 1419. In 1420, Henry met with King
Charles VI. They signed the Treaty of Troyes, by which Henry finally married
Charles' daughter Catherine of Valois and Henry's heirs would inherit the throne of
France. The Dauphin, Charles VII, was declared illegitimate. Henry formally entered
Paris later that year and the agreement was ratified by the Estates-General
(French: Les États-Généraux).[73]

Death of the Duke of Clarence (1421)

Clan Carmichael crest with a broken lance commemorating the unseating of the Duke
of Clarence, leading to his death at the Battle of Baugé
On 22 March 1421 Henry V's progress in his French campaign experienced an
unexpected reversal. Henry had left his brother and presumptive heir Thomas, Duke
of Clarence in charge while he returned to England. The Duke of Clarence engaged a
Franco-Scottish force of 5,000 men, led by Gilbert Motier de La Fayette and John
Stewart, Earl of Buchan at the Battle of Baugé. The Duke of Clarence, against the
advice of his lieutenants, before his army had been fully assembled, attacked with
a force of no more than 1,500 men-at-arms. Then, during the course of the battle,
he led a charge of a few hundred men into the main body of the Franco-Scottish
army, who quickly enveloped the English. In the ensuing mêlée, the Scot, John
Carmichael of Douglasdale, broke his lance unhorsing the Duke of Clarence. Once on
the ground, the duke was slain by Alexander Buchanan.[74] The body of the Duke of
Clarence was recovered from the field by Thomas Montacute, 4th Earl of Salisbury,
who conducted the English retreat.[75]
English success
Henry V returned to France and went to Paris, then visiting Chartres and Gâtinais
before returning to Paris. From there, he decided to attack the Dauphin-held town
of Meaux. It turned out to be more difficult to overcome than first thought. The
siege began about 6 October 1421, and the town held for seven months before finally
falling on 11 May 1422.[73]

At the end of May, Henry was joined by his queen and together with the French
court, they went to rest at Senlis. While there, it became apparent that he was ill
(possibly dysentery), and when he set out to the Upper Loire, he diverted to the
royal castle at Vincennes, near Paris, where he died on 31 August.[73] The elderly
and insane Charles VI of France died two months later on 21 October. Henry left an
only child, his nine-month-old son, Henry, later to become Henry VI.[76]

On his deathbed, as Henry VI was only an infant, Henry V had given the Duke of
Bedford responsibility for English France. The war in France continued under
Bedford's generalship and several battles were won. The English won an emphatic
victory at the Battle of Verneuil (17 August 1424). At the Battle of Baugé, the
Duke of Clarence had rushed into battle without the support of his archers; by
contrast, at Verneuil the archers fought to devastating effect against the Franco-
Scottish army. The effect of the battle was to virtually destroy the Dauphin's
field army and to eliminate the Scots as a significant military force for the rest
of the war.[77]

French victory: 1429–1453

Main article: Hundred Years' War, 1415–1453
Joan of Arc and French revival

The first Western image of a battle with cannon: the Siege of Orléans in 1429. From
Les Vigiles de Charles VII, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris.
The English laid siege to Orléans in October 1428, which created a stalemate for
months. Food shortages within the city led to the likelihood that the city would be
forced to surrender. In April 1429 Joan of Arc persuaded the Dauphin to send her to
the siege, stating she had received visions from God telling her to drive out the
English. She entered the city on April 29, after which the tide began to turn
against the English within a matter of days.[76] She raised the morale of the
troops, and they attacked the English redoubts, forcing the English to lift the
siege. Inspired by Joan, the French took several English strongholds on the Loire
River.[78]

Joan of Arc pictured in 1429

The English retreated from the Loire Valley, pursued by a French army. Near the
village of Patay, French cavalry broke through a unit of English longbowmen that
had been sent to block the road, then swept through the retreating English army.
The English lost 2,200 men, and the commander, John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury,
was taken prisoner. This victory opened the way for the Dauphin to march to Reims
for his coronation as Charles VII, on 16 July 1429.[78][79]

After the coronation, Charles VII's army fared less well. An attempted French siege
of Paris was defeated on 8 September 1429, and Charles VII withdrew to the Loire
Valley.[80]

Henry's coronations and the desertion of Burgundy

Henry VI was crowned king of England at Westminster Abbey on 5 November 1429 and
king of France at Notre-Dame, in Paris, on 16 December 1431.[76]

Joan of Arc was captured by the Burgundians at the siege of Compiègne on 23 May
1430. The Burgundians then transferred her to the English, who organised a trial
headed by Pierre Cauchon, Bishop of Beauvais and a collaborator with the English
government who served as a member of the English Council at Rouen.[81] Joan was
convicted and burned at the stake on 30 May 1431[78] (she was rehabilitated 25
years later by Pope Callixtus III).

After the death of Joan of Arc, the fortunes of war turned dramatically against the
English.[82] Most of Henry's royal advisers were against making peace. Among the
factions, the Duke of Bedford wanted to defend Normandy, the Duke of Gloucester was
committed to just Calais, whereas Cardinal Beaufort was inclined to peace.
Negotiations stalled. It seems that at the congress of Arras, in the summer of
1435, where the duke of Beaufort was mediator, the English were unrealistic in
their demands. A few days after the congress ended in September, Philip the Good,
duke of Burgundy, deserted to Charles VII, signing the Treaty of Arras that
returned Paris to the King of France. This was a major blow to English sovereignty
in France.[76] The Duke of Bedford died on 14 September 1435 and was later replaced
by Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York.[82]

French resurgence

The French victory at the Battle of Formigny (1450)

The allegiance of Burgundy remained fickle, but the Burgundian focus on expanding
their domains in the Low Countries left them little energy to intervene in the rest
of France.[83] The long truces that marked the war gave Charles time to centralise
the French state and reorganise his army and government, replacing his feudal
levies with a more modern professional army that could put its superior numbers to
good use. A castle that once could only be captured after a prolonged siege would
now fall after a few days from cannon bombardment. The French artillery developed a
reputation as the best in the world.[82]

By 1449, the French had retaken Rouen. In 1450 the Count of Clermont and Arthur de
Richemont, Earl of Richmond, of the Montfort family (the future Arthur III, Duke of
Brittany), caught an English army attempting to relieve Caen and defeated it at the
Battle of Formigny in 1450. Richemont's force attacked the English army from the
flank and rear just as they were on the verge of beating Clermont's army.[84]

French conquest of Gascony

Charles "the Victorious" by Jean Fouquet. Louvre, Paris.

After Charles VII's successful Normandy campaign in 1450, he concentrated his
efforts on Gascony, the last province held by the English. Bordeaux, Gascony's
capital, was besieged and surrendered to the French on 30 June 1451. Largely due to
the English sympathies of the Gascon people, this was reversed when John Talbot and
his army retook the city on 23 October 1452. However, the English were decisively
defeated at the Battle of Castillon on 17 July 1453. Talbot had been persuaded to
engage the French army at Castillon near Bordeaux. During the battle the French
appeared to retreat towards their camp. The French camp at Castillon had been laid
out by Charles VII's ordinance officer Jean Bureau and this was instrumental in the
French success as when the French cannon opened fire, from their positions in the
camp, the English took severe casualties losing both Talbot and his son.[85]

End of the war

vte
Burgundian Wars (1474–1477)
Although the Battle of Castillon is considered the last battle of the Hundred
Years' War,[85] England and France remained formally at war for another 20 years,
but the English were in no position to carry on the war as they faced unrest at
home. Bordeaux fell to the French on 19 October and there were no more hostilities
afterwards. Following defeat in the Hundred Years' War, English landowners
complained vociferously about the financial losses resulting from the loss of their
continental holdings; this is often considered a major cause of the Wars of the
Roses that started in 1455.[82][86]

The Hundred Years' War almost resumed in 1474, when the duke Charles of Burgundy,
counting on English support, took up arms against Louis XI. Louis managed to
isolate the Burgundians by buying Edward IV of England off with a large cash sum
and an annual pension, in the Treaty of Picquigny (1475). The treaty formally ended
the Hundred Years' War with Edward renouncing his claim to the throne of France.
Kings of England (and later of Great Britain) continued to claim the title until
1803, when they were dropped in deference to the exiled Count of Provence, titular
King Louis XVIII, who was living in England after the French Revolution.[87]

Significance
Historical significance

Burgundian territories (orange/yellow) and limits of France (red) after the

Burgundian War
The French victory marked the end of a long period of instability that had begun
with the Norman Conquest (1066), when William the Conqueror added "King of England"
to his titles, becoming both the vassal to (as Duke of Normandy) and the equal of
(as king of England) the king of France.[88]

When the war ended, England was bereft of its continental possessions, leaving it
with only Calais on the Continent (until 1558). The war destroyed the English dream
of a joint monarchy and led to the rejection in England of all things French,
although the Anglo-Norman, which had served as the language of the ruling classes
and commerce there from the time of the Norman conquest, left its mark in English
vocabulary. English became the official language in 1362 and French was no longer
used for teaching from 1385.[89]

National feeling that emerged from the war unified both France and England further.
Despite the devastation on its soil, the Hundred Years' War accelerated the process
of transforming France from a feudal monarchy to a centralised state.[90] In
England the political and financial troubles which emerged from the defeat were a
major cause of the War of the Roses (1455–1487).[86]

The spread of the Black Death (with modern borders)

Historian Ben Lowe argued in 1997 that opposition to the war helped to shape
England's early modern political culture. Although anti-war and pro-peace spokesmen
generally failed to influence outcomes at the time, they had a long-term impact.
England showed decreasing enthusiasm for conflict deemed not in the national
interest, yielding only losses in return for high economic burdens. In comparing
this English cost-benefit analysis with French attitudes, given that both countries
suffered from weak leaders and undisciplined soldiers, Lowe noted that the French
understood that warfare was necessary to expel the foreigners occupying their
homeland. French kings found alternative ways to finance the war – sales taxes,
debasing the coinage – and were less dependent than the English on tax levies
passed by national legislatures. English anti-war critics thus had more to work
with than the French.[91]

A 2021 theory about the early formation of state capacity is that interstate war
was responsible for initiating a strong move toward states implementing tax systems
with higher state capabilities. For example, see France in the Hundred Years' War,
when the English occupation threatened the independent French Kingdom. The king and
his ruling elite demanded consistent and permanent taxation, which would allow a
standing army to be financed. The French nobility, which had always opposed such an
extension of state capacity, agreed in this exceptional situation. The inter-state
war with England increased French state capability.[92]
Bubonic plague and warfare reduced population numbers throughout Europe during this
period. France lost half its population during the Hundred Years' War,[9] with
Normandy reduced by three-quarters and Paris by two-thirds.[93] During the same
period, England's population fell by 20 to 33 percent.[10]

Military significance
French success in the Caroline war had been largely driven by a professional
standing army that Charles V had been able to create and finance in the aftermath
of the disastrous experience with the mercenary routiers who had pillaged much of
the country after the 1360 peace. This force, the first standing army in post-Roman
western Europe, had been disbanded in the tumultuous regency period after 1380.[94]
Charles VII reestablished a permanent standing army in 1445 with the Compagnies
d'ordonnance which would survive until eventually replaced by the gendarmerie
system in the 17th century.[95][96] The professional units gave the French a
considerable strategic advantage as well as an edge in professionalism and
discipline, being composed of paid full-time soldiers, at a time when levies could
only be fielded for limited periods of time and the allegiances of the aristocratic
knights could often shift to the opposing side. The standing armies of both Charles
V and Charles VII had approximately 6,000 men, divided to many companies of
cavalrymen.[97]

The Hundred Years' War was a time of rapid military evolution. Weapons, tactics,
army structure and the social meaning of war all changed, partly in response to the
war's costs, partly through advancement in technology and partly through lessons
that warfare taught. The feudal system slowly disintegrated as well as the concept
of chivalry.

By the war's end, although the heavy cavalry was still considered the most powerful
unit in an army, the heavily armoured horse had to deal with several tactics
developed to deny or mitigate its effective use on a battlefield.[98] The English
began using lightly armoured mounted troops, known as hobelars whose tactics had
been developed against the Scots, in the Anglo-Scottish wars of the 14th century.
Hobelars rode smaller unarmoured horses, enabling them to move through difficult or
boggy terrain where heavier cavalry would struggle. Rather than fight while seated
on the horse, they would dismount to engage the enemy.[97][99] The closing battle
of the war, the Battle of Castillon, was the first major battle won through the
extensive use of field artillery.[100]

Prominent figures
Part of a series on the
Wars of Plantagenet England
Royal Banner of the Kingdom
Other wars
Revolt of 1173–1174Third CrusadeSecond Barons' WarWars of the Roses
Anglo-French Wars
Anglo-Welsh wars
Wars of Scottish Independence
vte
France
Arms Historical Figure Life Role(s)
King Philip VI 1293–1350
Reigned 1328–1350 Charles of Valois' son
King John II 1319–1364
Reigned 1350–1364 Philip VI's son
King Charles V 1338–1380
Reigned 1364–1380 John II's son
Bertrand du Guesclin 1320–1380 Commander
Louis I
Duke of Anjou 1339–1384
Regent 1380–1382 John II's son
King Charles VI 1368–1422
Reigned 1380–1422 Charles V's son
King Charles VII 1403–1461
Reigned 1422–1461 Charles VI's son
Joan of Arc 1412–1431 Religious visionary
La Hire 1390–1443 Commander
Jean Poton de Xaintrailles 1390–1461 Commander
John II
Duke of Alençon 1409–1476 Commander
Jean de Dunois 1402–1468 Commander
Jean Bureau 1390–1463 Master gunner
Gilles de Rais 1405–1440 Commander
England
Arms Historical Figure Life Role(s)
Isabella of France 1295–1358
Regent of England 1327–1330 Queen consort of England, wife of Edward II, mother
of Edward III, regent of England, sister of Charles IV and daughter of Philip IV of
France
King Edward III 1312–1377
Reigned 1327–1377 Philip IV's grandson
Henry of Grosmont
Duke of Lancaster 1310–1361 Commander
Edward the Black Prince 1330–1376 Edward III's son and Prince of Wales
John of Gaunt
Duke of Lancaster 1340–1399 Edward III's son
King Richard II 1367–1400
Reigned 1377–1399 Son of the Black Prince, Edward III's grandson
King Henry IV 1367–1413
Reigned 1399–1413 John of Gaunt's son, Edward III's grandson
King Henry V 1387–1422
Reigned 1413–1422 Henry IV's son
Catherine of Valois 1401–1437 Queen consort of England, daughter of
Charles VI of France, mother of Henry VI of England and by her second marriage
grandmother of Henry VII
John of Lancaster
Duke of Bedford 1389–1435
Regent 1422–1435 Henry IV's son
Sir John Fastolf[79] 1380–1459 Commander
John Talbot
Earl of Shrewsbury 1387–1453 Commander
King Henry VI 1421–1471
Reigned 1422–1461 (also 1422–1453 as King Henry II of France) Henry V's son,
grandson of Charles VI of France
Richard Plantagenet
Duke of York 1411–1460 Commander
Burgundy
Arms Historical Figure Life Role(s)
Philip the Bold
Duke of Burgundy 1342–1404
Duke 1363–1404 Son of John II of France
John the Fearless
Duke of Burgundy 1371–1419
Duke 1404–1419 Son of Philip the Bold
Philip the Good
Duke of Burgundy 1396–1467
Duke 1419–1467 Son of John the Fearless
See also
flag United Kingdom portal
flag France portal
France–United Kingdom relations
Military history of the United Kingdom
Military history of France
Influence of French on English
List of battles involving the Kingdom of France
Medieval demography
Timeline of the Hundred Years' War
List of Hundred Years' War battles
Journal d'un bourgeois de Paris
Notes
24 May 1337 is the day when Philip VI of France confiscated Aquitaine from Edward
III of England, who responded by claiming the French throne. Bordeaux fell to the
French on 19 October 1453; there were no more hostilities afterwards.
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Further reading
Library resources about
Hundred Years' War
Resources in your library
Resources in other libraries
Barker, Juliet R. V. (2012). Conquest: the English kingdom of France, 1417-1450
(PDF). Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-06560-4. Archived
from the original (PDF) on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 3 September 2020.
Corrigan, Gordon (2013). A great and glorious adventure: a military history of the
Hundred Years War. London: Atlantic Books. ISBN 978-1-78239-026-8.
Cuttino, G. P. (1956). "Historical Revision: The Causes of the Hundred Years War".
Speculum. 31 (3): 463–477. doi:10.2307/2853350. ISSN 0038-7134. JSTOR 2853350.
Favier, Jean (1980). La guerre de Cent Ans (in French). Paris: Fayard. ISBN 978-2-
213-00898-1.
Froissart, Jean (1895). Macaulay, George Campbell (ed.). The Chronicles of
Froissart. Translated by Bourchier, John. London: Macmillan and Son. OCLC 8125361.
Green, David (2014). The Hundred Years War: a people's history. New Haven: Yale
University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-13451-3.
Lambert, Craig L. (September 2011). "Edward III's siege of Calais: A reappraisal".
Journal of Medieval History. 37 (3): 245–256. doi:10.1016/j.jmedhist.2011.05.002.
ISSN 0304-4181. S2CID 159935247.
Postan, M. M. (1942). "Some Social Consequences of the Hundred Years' War". The
Economic History Review. 12 (1/2): 1–12. doi:10.2307/2590387. ISSN 0013-0117. JSTOR
2590387.
Seward, Desmond (2003). A brief history of the Hundred Years War: the English in
France, 1337 - 1453 (Rev. ed.). London: Robinson. ISBN 978-1-84119-678-7.
External links

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Hundred Years'
War".

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The Hundred Years War and the History of Navarre
"Timeline of the Hundred Years War". Archived from the original on 26 March 2017.
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The Hundred Years' War information and game
Jean Froissart, "On The Hundred Years War (1337–1453)" from the Internet Medieval
Sourcebook
Online database of Soldiers serving in the Hundred Years War. University of
Southampton and University of Reading.
"Causes of the Wars of the Roses: An Overview". Luminarium Encyclopedia (Online
Resource ed.). 26 April 2007. Retrieved 14 September 2017.
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