See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/380150551

Design of Solar Water Desalination Machine with RO and UV Purifier

Conference Paper · March 2024

CITATIONS READS

0 928

8 authors, including:

Sadia Saleem Muhammad Sarfraz Ali

The Women University Multan University of Engineering and Technology Lahore
9 PUBLICATIONS 0 CITATIONS 13 PUBLICATIONS 105 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Sadia Saleem on 27 April 2024.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Proceedings of IMEC-2024, 4th-5th March 2024, Karachi, Pakistan

DESIGN OF SOLAR WATER DESALINATION MACHINE WITH RO AND UV

PURIFIER

Muhammad Sarfraz Ali1*, Sadia Saleem2, Rozeena Aslam1, Muhammad Imran1,

Hamza Akhtar1, Muhammad Ali1, Danyal Anwar1, Muhammad Saad1
1
Mechanical Engineering Department, Swedish College of Engineering & Technology,
Rahim Yar Khan, Pakistan
2
Institute of Computer Science and Information Technology, The Women University, Multan,
Pakistan

*Corresponding author. Tel.: +92-3458329528

E-mail address: sarfrazali@piet.edu.pk (Muhammad Sarfraz Ali)

ABSTRACT
In all ages of human beings, water performs a very vital function for everyone. As is well known, contaminated
water can lead to several potentially fatal diseases. Water-related problems plague many nations worldwide,
the majority of which lack access to potable water. We have seen that many villages are experiencing power
outages, and middle-class people and tiny communities are unable to purchase a water filter. Conventional
energy has a finite supply and negatively impacts the environment. In this study work, we use an
unconventional approach that uses a solar-powered water purifier. We need to take the purifying process to
the next level so that everyone can afford it. Direct current is produced by the solar panel and is kept in a
battery. The filtration mechanism that this purifier uses to remove undesirable germs and debris from water is
powered entirely by solar energy. By driving a pump that pushes water through a purifier's network of filters,
pumps, and hoses, the motor's rotation aids in the removal of pollutants. The method we employed in this
purifier was using solar panels to power the motor that lifted the water.

Keywords: RO membrane, Pre filters, Purifier, Solar panel, Small scale

salinity is a serious issue. The method for purifying

1 INTRODUCTION water that is already accessible is called RO, and one
One of the most important resources in the world is of the conventional energy sources that may be used
water. Thirty percent of Earth is land and seventy to power our system is sunshine [2]. The most
percent is water. Water is necessary for both human reliable way to purify polluted water is RO filtration.
survival and animal well-being. The process of The RO system's semi-permeable membrane
purifying water involves taking out unwanted removes excess minerals as well as other soluble
chemicals, biological pollutants, suspended particles including bacteria, fungi, viruses, and
particles, and gases. According to a survey algae. The device efficiently removes particles as
conducted by physicians, an average male and small as 0.0001 microns while turning the motor. In
female should drink around 3.7 litres and 2.7 litres Pakistan, access to clean drinking water is a big issue
of water respectively each day to maintain a healthy in both rural and urban areas [3]. There are several
lifestyle [1]. In Pakistan, water-borne illnesses conventional techniques for purifying drinking
including cholera, diarrhoea, and typhoid caused water, including the use of chlorine pills, pots for
roughly 2439 deaths and over 1.5 million cases of good chlorination, slow and quicksand filters, and
the disease. fluoride removal. However, these techniques are
more complex to use and yield lower purity levels
A water resource must be both reasonably priced and than RO. In this study, we present a concept that uses
trustworthy. Many parts of the nation have brackish, a solar panel to raise the water level in a tank and
saline, or polluted water supplies. In the Rahim Yar supply power to a RO system for purification [4]. In
Khan district and the coastal regions of Karachi,
 Proceedings of IMEC-2024, 4th-5th March 2024, Karachi, Pakistan

the event of an environmental issue or power outage, (below boiling points) using cheap heating coils. The
such as a flood or other disaster, the solar purifier's filtering chalk allows the cold water to be further
battery stores energy, enabling the process to purified once it has condensed. At this point, the
continue using solar power. It is a simple-to- water returns to ambient temperature by
assemble portable purifier that may be used in condensation. We can acquire pure drinking water
remote locations without electricity. This purifier using this procedure. We experienced nearly every
operates without producing any pollutants [5]. phase of the product development process, from
obtaining client requirements to completing the
Rural communities across the world have embraced
design.
basic, low-tech healing methods, with the specific
goal of removing obvious pollutants from water M. Rizwan et al. [7] suggested that solar-powered
obtained from adjacent resources. These water filtration devices could be considered a
conventional techniques are quick and effective in significant way to generate clean water. Solar energy
eliminating some types of particles from the water, is now a stable energy source that produces no
but they don't provide enough water to meet current pollution. A solar-powered water purification
standards for drinking quality. This is a great method system's design is entirely based on the thermal
for rural areas, and with a simple disinfection step, technique, which harnesses the sun's heat-converting
they can often provide water free of germs. There are energy to create heat. The process of absorbing heat
several approaches. to cause water to evaporate is the most important
component. According to research, liquids are often
1.1 Filtration along Winnowing Sieve
heated using flat plate collectors, which generate
When the water source is contaminated by airborne heat at comparatively modest temperatures (27°C to
contaminants such as dried leaves, stalks, and coarse 60°C). A solar-powered water purification system is
particles, this kind of filtering is employed. A made up of a filter that eliminates impurities and a
winnowing sieve is used to filter the contaminants solar collector that collects sunlight to guarantee
out of the raw water. Since the sieve cannot filter vaporization, the initial stage of purification. There
small suspended particles in raw water, this approach are now four distinct concepts in development.
cannot be employed in extremely turbid or muddy
R. K. Kumawat et al. [8] revealed from their study
conditions.
that reverse osmosis affected water purification.
1.2 Filtration through cloth: Reverse osmosis technology using raw water has
In the villages, the filter medium is made of white, advanced significantly in the creation of high-
thin cotton fabric or old, abandoned clothing. yielding, energy-efficient systems. The main
Uncooked water including particles of dust, germs, objectives for this field of study turned out to be a
insects, plants, or mud detritus can be removed using decrease in energy consumption, an extension of
this filter. Only a limited amount of the suspended membrane life, and an increase in energy recovery.
particles in the water may be removed by this The main goal of the study is to optimize the
cleaning method. In Pakistani communities, the variables in the pre-treatment process of various
technique of cloth filtering is rather widespread. water sources (ponds, canals, and surface waters) for
reverse osmosis plants. This will extend the
membrane life of the raw water by lowering its solids
1.3 Filtration through Clay Vessels content. To guarantee the greatest possible decrease
(Earthen Pot): in total solids as well as in several chemical
Occasionally, rather turbid water is filtered using parameters (BOD, TDS, and bacteria), experiments
clay jars with the proper particle size. Muddy water were conducted. These characteristics were
is collected in a large clay pot or jar and let sit on the determined to be ideal for feeding the pretreatment
pot's lower surface, allowing the water to drip effluent into the reverse osmosis section of the plant,
through the jar's porous clay wall. The trickling producing RO water that is safe for human
water is combined in a clay pot by lowering it to the consumption.
bottom of the porous clay container. R. M. Garud et al. [9] identified a purifying method
Y. Zhang et al. [6] uses solar energy, which is a free including reverse osmosis. The three primary
energy source, and stores it in batteries. After that, circuits in this system are the control, purification,
the water is heated to a predetermined temperature and power supply circuits. The solar panel, charge
 Proceedings of IMEC-2024, 4th-5th March 2024, Karachi, Pakistan

controller, battery, and inverter make up the power scaffold assembly, which is made up of three
supply. A booster pump, a reverse osmosis system, cameras attached to the eccentric tread wheel,
and a control circuit with a sensor, microcontroller, turning in reverse. The diaphragm of the RO booster
and relays make up the purification unit. A booster pump can continue to reproduce due to the engine's
pump generates high pressure to complete the continual spinning, which serves to pump and
reverse osmosis process. The microprocessor increase the water once it enters. The RO membrane
monitors the water tank's level and stops it from can eliminate the bulk of pollutants by forcing the
overflowing. We may get pure water in the water water through a semi-permeable membrane, which
tank by employing this method. eliminates all water impurities. There are three layers
in the membrane. The first layer is composed of a
The fundamental idea of reverse osmosis. Solar
0.2-micron-thick polyamide sheet that excludes all
panels are used to capture solar radiation. A battery
other types of particles. The polysulfide layer can
is then used to store this energy. A relay that operates
eliminate any nutrients, bacteria, chemicals, or
on electromagnetic principles connects the battery to
viruses that are present in the water. The polyester
the purifying unit. The reverse osmosis system,
foundation, through which the cleaned water passes,
water tank, and high-pressure motor make up the
is the final. Both the clean and the filthy water are
purification unit. Reverse osmosis may be performed
separated after the purification procedure. Figure 2
because of the pressure created by the high pressure.
shows the design of the model.
The 8051 microprocessor monitors the water level in
the tank and stops it from overflowing. We can
receive clean water from the water tank through this
technique.
2 METHODOLOGY
As indicated in Fig. 1. Filters, solar panels, booster
pumps, solar charge controllers, reverse osmosis
membranes, and other components are the main parts
of this purifier. This purifier's operation is entirely
reliant on solar panel electricity. Batteries are used
to store energy, which is obtained from solar power.
Raw
Booster RO
Water Filters
Membrane
Fig. 2 Design of the Model
Pump
Tank
3 COMPONENTS SPECIFICATIONS
3.1 Reverse Osmosis Membrane
Solar The membrane is composed of three layers. All other
Battery Purifier/Fresh Reject
Charge kinds of particles are blocked from entering the first
Water Tank Water
Controller
layer by a polyamide sheet that is 0.2 microns thick.
Any nutrients, bacteria, chemicals, or viruses that are
present in the water can be removed by the
Solar polysulfide layer. The cleansed water travels through
Panels
the polyester foundation, which is the last. Following
the purification process, the clean and dirty water are
Fig. 1 Block Diagram of System separated. Table 1 shows the technical specifications
of the RO plant.
The solar panel is composed of photovoltaic cells,
which convert solar radiation into electrical energy. Table. 1 Technical Specifications of RO Plant
The energy from the panel is stored in batteries, and Characteristics Values
a solar charger controller controls the voltage and Voltage and Frequency 110V~220V
amperage the panel delivers to keep the batteries' Wattage 23W - 36W
load from being overcharged. The power supply then Inlet TDS < 500 ppm
activates the filters and motor rotor, which in turn Chlorine Level < 0.2 ppm
causes the eccentric swing wheel to move Pressure Tank 3.0G Plastic Tank
eccentrically. The diaphragm is driven by the water Flush Type Manual
 Proceedings of IMEC-2024, 4th-5th March 2024, Karachi, Pakistan

The membrane is composed of three layers. All other requires that water flow from a high concentration to
kinds of particles are blocked from entering the first a low concentration. Therefore, to perform the
layer by a polyamide sheet that is 0.2 microns thick. reverse osmosis process, the high-concentration
Any nutrients, bacteria, chemicals, or viruses that are lateral pressure must be higher than the osmotic
present in the water can be removed by the pressure.
polysulfide layer. The cleansed water travels through
3.3 Solar Panel
the polyester foundation, which is the last. Following In this concept, solar energy is captured using a solar
the purification process, the clean and dirty water are panel. Photovoltaic cells are used to make solar
separated. panels. The power output is entirely dependent on
the light's intensity. We are utilizing a 20-watt
miniature solar panel to charge a 12-volt battery that
is exposed to sunlight. This portable solar panel is
lightweight and has a wide range of uses. The panel
is specifically made to charge tiny batteries with a
maximum capacity of 10,000 mAh or 10 Ah. The
dimensions of little solar panels vary from 0.6 x 2.55
inches to 14 × 18 inches, or 1.7 square feet, which is
similar to a standard medium-sized house mirror.
3.4 Solar Charger Controller
An electrical gadget called a solar charge controller
regulates the amount of electricity that the solar
panel supplies to the battery. This makes sure that
energy is not replenished during the day and that the
Fig. 3 Reverse Osmosis Process solar panel receives electricity during the night to
prevent the deep cycle battery from being depleted.
A typical three-stage reverse osmosis system While some charge controllers come with other
consists of three different kinds of filters. A sediment capabilities like load control and illumination, power
filter is designed to capture bigger particles floating management is the primary objective.
in water, such as rust and mud. The carbon filter 3.5 Storage Battery
purges water of VOCs, chlorine, and other minor It is a crucial component of the setup. Seasonal
impurities. Reverse osmosis membrane that is semi- variations in atmospheric conditions result in
permeable and effectively eliminates almost all variations in the intensity of solar radiation. The
leftover impurities. impurity pump is shielded from overvoltage by the
constant 12V voltage. It features a 12-volt output
voltage and a 5-amp output current.
3.6 Sediment Filter
Sand, grit, precipitated mineral particles, insoluble
iron oxide, and other debris are removed by the
sediment cartridge, which prevents them from
clogging the reverse osmosis film surface or
plugging the drain flow restrictor, which reduces the
amount of water produced. Sediment filters rated to
remove particles as small as 5 microns are used in
the majority of RO systems. We advise changing this
Fig. 4 Inside of an RO Membrane Filter filter at least once every six months. It is necessary
to change TINY RO sediment filters every three
months.
3.2 Booster Pump 3.7 Carbon Filter
Booster pumps are used to increase water pressure. City utilities disinfect drinking water to stop the
Usually, the osmotic pressure is higher. Purification growth of dangerous bacteria, viruses, and other
 Proceedings of IMEC-2024, 4th-5th March 2024, Karachi, Pakistan

microbes that can cause life-threatening diseases or 4 DESIGN CALCULATIONS

even death. Nevertheless, over time, TFC films may
4.1 Design solar parameters
degrade in these chlorinated water sources. A basic
chlorine level of 1.0 mg/L (1.0 ppm) is required for The following are the primary panel designs that
water going through the plant by the majority of city have an impact on collector panel performance.
water utilities. Extended TDS passage (less impurity • Power for Application: The manifold panel is
rejection) may be allowed by the RO membranes directly impacted by the power needed for a
after 1000 ppm-long regions of free chlorine certain application. In terms of cost and received
openness. In addition to eliminating chlorine, the power, bigger panels have larger areas. This
carbon filter shields the membrane underneath it. panel has an 18W maximum power output.
The angle of Latitude: To maximize solar energy
3.8 UV Lamp
absorption, the panel should be kept at the angle
UV lamp: A UV lamp is typically used in Ultra
of latitude. The angle between the earth's equator
Violet disinfection. To create clean, safe drinking
plane and the line connecting a specific place on
water, a UV light is employed. A strong UV light
its surface to the equatorial centre is known as
known as UV-C, or germicidal UV, is employed in
the latitude of a certain location.
this procedure. UV-C rays enter the body of the
o Using the following method, the latitude
pathogens and assault them. The harmful organisms'
angle is determined.
DNA has been modified to prevent growth and
➢ Check off all three points. i.e.
disease-causing properties. UV treatment only adds
➢ The Equatorial plane lines.
energy to the water; it makes no chemical changes.
➢ The Earth's centre.
There is no removal of the sterilised bacteria from
➢ The location on a globe map where the
the water. These rays can render 99.9% of the
panel is to be created.
bacteria inactive. Unlike chemical disinfection, UV
o Join the location point with the earth point.
radiation does not cause live things to build an
o Determine the angle formed by the earth's
immune system.
centre point and the equatorial plane line.
3.9 Flow Restrictor • Average Power Intensity: The average power
As the name suggests, a flow restrictor limits the intensity for any locality is the unit of power
flow of RO reject water. The flow restrictor not only collected per day.
regulates the purifier's recovery ratio but also
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑙𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 6.1 𝐾𝑊ℎ⁄𝑚2. 𝑑𝑎𝑦 (1)
generates back pressure on the RO membrane to
maintain high pressure within it, which is a But,
prerequisite for RO purification. The high-pressure 1 𝐾𝑊ℎ⁄𝑚2 = 3.6 𝑀𝐽⁄𝑚2
water entering from the booster pump will flow
freely from the RO membrane's reject exit if the flow 𝐴𝑣𝑔. 𝑔𝑙𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 6.1 × 3.6
restrictor is not employed. Low pressure inside the = 211.96 𝑀𝐽⁄𝑚2
RO membrane and increased water waste are the i.e,
results of this. If the pressure inside the RO
(21.96 × 106 )⁄24 × 60 = 15250 𝐽⁄𝑚2 . 𝑚𝑖𝑛
membrane is not high, the membrane will not
function.
3.10 Water Tank 15250⁄60 = 254 𝐽⁄𝑚2 . 𝑠𝑒𝑐
The primary purpose of a water tank is to hold water. 𝑈⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 1𝑊
Another name for it is the storage tank. Water is 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑣𝑔. 𝑔𝑙𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 254 𝑊 ⁄𝑚2
stored in a tank on the building's roof, and gravity
distributes the water to the lower stories. Basement • The angle of Incidence: It depends upon the
pumps feed the tank with water from the mains time of day also the angle of sunrays makes the
system, and when the tank is empty, the pumps start horizontal Surface measured w.r.t,
up again. In this sense, the tower serves as a reservoir
As the sun travels the angular distance of 180°
and a supply of water.
for 12 hrs. it travels at an angular speed of 180/12
= 15°/hr.
 Proceedings of IMEC-2024, 4th-5th March 2024, Karachi, Pakistan

Table. 2 Purified Water Properties

Sr. # Water quality parameter Units Permissible limits Results
1 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) (mg/L) 1000 55.0
2 pH - 6.5-8.5 7.44
3 Alkalinity (mg/J) NGVS 2.4
4 Total Hardness (mg/L) 500 36.0
5 Chloride (mg/L) 250 5.7
6 Calcium (mg/L) NGVS 11.2
7 Magnesium (mg/L) NGVS 1.9
8 Sodium (mg/L) NGVS 7.0

The ideal angle of incidence is the angle which Now find the velocity of water through the pipe,
makes the sun at an angle of Latitude (Q) & 𝐻𝑓 = (4 × 𝑓 × 𝐿 × 𝑉 2 )⁄ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐⁄𝑠 × 2𝑔 (5)
incidence = 90°
Where,
𝐴𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 = 𝑄 = 20𝑜
𝐻𝑓 = 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 = 4𝑚
𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 90𝑜 − 20𝑜 = 70𝑜
𝐹 = 𝑐𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 0.009
4.2 Area of Collector
The collector's area mostly affects the power that the 𝐿 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 = 10.0584𝑚
collector produces. The following protocol is
𝑉 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
adhered to during the design process.
So,
𝑖𝑛 = 𝑖𝑏𝑛 × 𝐴 × cos ∅ (2) 4 = 4 × 0.009 × 10.058 × 𝑉 2 ⁄0.00001 × 2 × 9.8
Where, 𝑉 = 1.4721 𝑚⁄𝑠
𝑖𝑛 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑑
𝑄 = 0.0001 × 1.4721
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟.
𝑄 = 0.000014721 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠
𝐼𝑏𝑛 = 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑄 = 0.01472 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒⁄𝑠
As the ideal angle of incidence is 70° 5 RESULTS
𝐼𝑛 = 𝐼𝑏𝑛 × 𝐴 × cos ∅ The most readily available energy source—
sunlight—was used to build the water purification
6 = 254 × 𝐴 × cos 70 system. Sunlight is simply absorbed and stored using
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝐴 = 0.069066 𝑚 solar panels, requiring no additional energy or
power. However, the remaining components are
Consider it a rectangular panel having a side ratio of working to move the process along via the motor and
1:3 further filtering through several RO membranes and
𝐼 2 = 0.069066 filter pumps, eliminating not just undesired bacteria,
viruses, and other materials but also dirt, algae, and
= 0.325𝑚 = 32.5 minerals. It is more cost-effective and efficient to
utilize due to its design and simplicity of usage.
𝐵 = 3 × 𝐼 = 47 𝑐𝑚
Properties of the purified water are shown in Table
𝑃𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 32.5 × 47 = 1527.5𝑐𝑚2 2.

4.3 Discharge of water 6 CONCLUSIONS

The discharge of water can be calculated from the In situations when power supplies and water
continuity equation. purification methods are not mapped, this equipment
𝑄 = Arae × Velocity (3) is the most accessible and practical for disinfecting
Now, water. Potable water is produced by the
straightforward mechanism and integrated structure,
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 0.01 × 0.01 = 0.0001𝑚𝑚2 (4) which turns solar energy into a motor that runs on a
 Proceedings of IMEC-2024, 4th-5th March 2024, Karachi, Pakistan

schedule and helps filter out undesired viruses, Enever, “Application of solar energy in water
minerals, bacteria, and other particles. It may be used treatment processes : A review,”
somewhere there is no power because it is cheap and Desalination, vol. 428, no. October 2017, pp.
uses solar energy to purify copious water. In this day 116–145, 2018, doi:
and age, this may be a topic for further study. There 10.1016/j.desal.2017.11.020.
aren't any water purifiers of this kind available right
now. Therefore, we think that if solar water purifiers [7] M. Rizwan, S. Shaikh, and S. Labade, “A
are deployed successfully and barriers are removed, Review Paper on Electricity Generation
they would be able to draw in customers from all from,” no. September 2017, 2018, doi:
sectors of the metropolitan population. 10.22214/ijraset.2017.9272.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT [8] R. K. Kumawat, S. Agrawal, S. Chourasiya,

and D. K. Palwalia, “A Comparative Study of
The Authors would like to thank the management of Power Inverter Topology and Control
the Swedish College of Engineering and Structures for Renewable Energy Recourses,”
Technology, Rahim Yar Khan, for supporting this
pp. 350–354, 2015, doi: 10.17148/IARJSET.
experimental study.
[9] R. M. Garud, S. V Kore, V. S. Kore, and G. S.
REFERENCES Kulkarni, “A Short Review on Process and
Applications of Reverse Osmosis Abstract : 1
[1] B. Benelam and L. Wyness, “Hydration and . 3 Reverse Osmosis Process Description : 1 .
health : a review,” pp. 3–25, 2010, doi: 2 Treatment options for Reverse Osmosis :,”
10.1111/j.1467-3010.2009.01795.x. vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 233–238, 2011.

[2] S. G. Salinas-rodriguez, G. L. Amy, J. C.

Schippers, and M. D. Kennedy, “The Modi fi
ed Fouling Index Ultra fi ltration constant fl
ux for assessing particulate / colloidal fouling
of RO systems,” vol. 365, pp. 79–91, 2015,
doi: 10.1016/j.desal.2015.02.018.

[3] S. Khalil and I. Introduction, “RESEARCH

NOTES DRINKING WATER QUALITY
CHALLENGES OF PAKISTAN Samina
KHALIL* I. Introduction,” vol. 23, no. 1,
2013.

[4] M. S. Atab, A. J. Smallbone, and A. P.

Roskilly, “A hybrid reverse osmosis /
adsorption desalination plant for irrigation
and drinking water,” Desalination, vol. 444,
no. May, pp. 44–52, 2018, doi:
10.1016/j.desal.2018.07.008.

[5] I. E. Imiete, N. V. Alekseeva, I. E. Imiete, and

N. V. Alekseeva, “Reverse osmosis
purification : A case study of the Niger Delta
region Reverse osmosis purification : A case
study of the Niger Delta region,”
TITLE=Water Sci., vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 129–
137, 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.wsj.2018.04.001.

[6] Y. Zhang, M. Sivakumar, S. Yang, and K.

View publication stats