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Cleaner Engineering and Technology 24 (2025) 100879

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Cleaner Engineering and Technology

journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/cleaner-engineering-and-technology

Removal of heavy metals in industrial wastewater using adsorption

technology: Efficiency and influencing factors
´
Fernando García Avila a,b , Janneth Cabrera-Sumba to , Sandra Valdez-Pilataxi to ,
d
Jessica Villalta-Chungata to , Lorgio Valdiviezo-Gonzales c,* , Cecilia Alegria-Arnedo
to
University of Cuenca, Faculty of Chemical Sciences, Cuenca, Ecuador
b
Environmental Risk Assessment Group in Production and Services Systems (RISKEN), University of Cuenca, Ecuador
c
Technological University of Peru, Faculty of Industrial Engineering, Lima, Peru
d
Academic Department of Chemistry, National Agrarian University La Molina, Peru

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords:
Industrial wastewater Most industries are responsible for environmental pollution because their wastewater contains heavy metals that are
Adsorption hazardous. These metals tend to persist indefinitely in the environment, compromising not only human health but also
Isotherm the well-being of ecosystems. The objective of this study was to analyze the adsorption technology for removing heavy
Heavy metal removal metals in industrial wastewater, evaluating influencing factors, adsorbent materials, applied isotherms and their
Friendly
advantages, through a systematic review of the scientific literature of the last 10 years. To conduct this research, the
Langmuir
Scopus digital database was consulted. The search was conducted using a systematic review methodology and the
PICO framework to identify, analyze, and interpret data on adsorption technology, factors influencing adsorption, the
efficiency of different materials used as adsorbents, and the advantages and disadvantages of adsorption isotherms. To
filter the information, the guidelines of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses
(PRISMA) statement were followed, which allowed the articles to be selected to answer the research questions posed in
this study. Based on the results, it was found that the factors influencing the adsorption of heavy metals include pH
(range of 3–9), contact time (range of 10–14,400 min), adsorbent dosage (0.011–20 g/L), temperature (25–30 ÿC),
particle size, and agitation speed (100–800 ppm).
Among the most efficient adsorbents are acacia cellulose lignin with 99.8% Cr, bentonite clay with 99% Cu, 96% Cd, and
99% Pb, modified sugarcane bagasse with 96.9% Cu, and activated carbon with 82.8% Cr at pH 3. The least efficient
adsorbents are natural moss (54.5% Cr) and biochar from corn husks (20% Cr). The Freundlich isotherm model is the
most used, and it can vary depending on the type of adsorbent, the correlation coefficient fit, and the type of heavy metal
being treated. Finally, the advantages and limitations of some adsorbents are presented, primarily highlighting their low
costs, reusability, and the sustainability they can offer in reducing environmental pollution.

1. Introduction 2024). Among the wastes that pose the greatest risk to both human health
and ecosystem balance are heavy metals (García-C´espedes et al., 2016),
Currently, the pollution of both surface and groundwater is one of the due to their toxicity, which depends on their mobility in the environment,
most alarming issues due to the degradation of this natural resource caused persistence, chemical variation, and tendency to bio-accumulate in the
by population growth,
´ making it a global problem (Vera et al., 2016; García- environment (Rubio et al., 2015).
Avila et al., 2021). Most of the heavy metal contamination is due to The United States Environmental Protection Agency considers several
anthropogenic activities, primarily industrial ones, as they constantly use metals, such as beryllium and mercury, as hazardous due to their use in
metals that are highly toxic pollutants, which increase their concentration in industrial sectors. This also includes cadmium, lead, chromium, copper,
water (Subramaniyam et al., 2022; Ni'mah et al., manganese, nickel, cobalt, zinc, and tin (Younas et al., 2021;

* Corresponding author. ´
E-mail addresses: garcia10f@hotmail.com (FG Avila), janneth.cabrera@ucuenca.edu.ec (J. Cabrera-Sumba), sandra.valdez@ucuenca.edu.ec (S. Valdez-Pilataxi),
jessicaa.villalta@ucuenca.edu.ec (J. Villalta-Chungata), lvaldiviez@utp.edu.pe (L. Valdiviezo-Gonzales), calegria@lamolina.edu.pe (C. Alegria-Arnedo).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clet.2025.100879

Received 31 October 2024; Received in revised form December 11, 2024; Accepted 2 January 2025
Available online 3 January 2025
2666-7908/© 2025 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/
4.0/ ).
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FG Avila et al. Cleaner Engineering and Technology 24 (2025) 100879

Mariana et al., 2021). The World Health Organization (WHO) established that metal ion through an exhaustive review of various scientific articles from the Scopus digital database,
concentrations should range between 0.01 and 1 ppm in water; However, current the adsorption technology for the treatment of wastewater containing heavy metals
concentrations of heavy metal ions can reach up to 450 ppm in effluents (Tejada-Tovar et produced by industries over the last 10 years.
al., 2015).
Among the various effects that heavy metals can have on humans at high This analysis allowed to investigate the application of adsorption technology for the
concentrations are conditions ranging from damage to vital organs to the development of removal of heavy metals in industrial wastewater, evaluating the key factors influencing
cancer (Reyes et al., 2016). However, in the environment, they can subtly accumulate to its effectiveness, the most used adsorbent materials and their respective removal
toxic concentrations for plants and animals, and in soils, they can persist for hundreds or capacities. To this end, the efficiency of different adsorbent materials was analyzed, the
thousands of years (Juarez, 2006). Different traditional treatment methods have been most used adsorption isotherms were identified, and the advantages and limitations of
´
proposed, such as coagulation, membrane separation, chemical precipitation, ion their application in various industrial contexts were examined. These issues were
exchange, electrochemical methods, enhanced oxidation, and biological treatment (Bayuo addressed through a systematic review of recent scientific literature.
et al., 2023; Ven¨ alainen, ¨ 2023), as well as coagulation and reverse osmosis (Khoshraftar
et al., 2023). However, these methods are very expensive, complex, and time-consuming
for metal removal (Carolin et al., 2017). This review is crucial for the field of heavy metal removal in industrial wastewater, as
it provides a systematic analysis of adsorption technologies and the factors influencing
their efficiency. By following the PRISMA methodology, it is ensured that the information
On the other hand, the adsorption method is simpler in operational conditions, has a wide collected is of high quality and relevant, which can guide future research and practice in
pH range, and a high capacity for binding metals (Sarria-Villa et al., 2020). Comparatively, pollutant management. Unlike other studies that may focus on a single type of adsorbent
the adsorption process is preferred for wastewater treatment due to its convenience, or a specific context, this article covers a variety of adsorbent materials, including biomass,
simplicity of operation, and low cost (Kainth et al., 2024; Arbabi et al., 2015). and evaluates their efficiency under a wide range of experimental conditions. Furthermore,
it focuses on the sustainability and reusability of adsorbents, aspects that are not always
Heavy metals are one of the contaminants that exhibit the greatest resistance to considered in previous research, making it more relevant in the current context of
treatment in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) environmental concerns.
˜
(S´ anchez Pena, 2019). Adsorption is a method used for the removal of heavy metals
present in either drinking water or industrial and municipal wastewater discharges
(Mzinyane, 2022; Sharifian et al., 2023).
Adsorption is a phenomenon that involves the migration of certain substances from the 2. Methodology
gaseous or liquid phase to the surface of a solid substrate (Sarria-Villa et al., 2020). The
efficiency of adsorption processes depends on several factors, such as the type, quantity, To carry out the review process, the methodology of systematic re-view of scientific
surface composition, and physicochemical characteristics of the adsorbent, as well as the literature was employed. This rigorous approach be-gins with the collection of information
chemical nature and concentration of the adsorbate (Bedova-Betancur et al., 2023; Dey generated by various researchers on a specific topic or question. The selection of studies
et al., 2022). is carried out with the aim of minimizing biases considering aspects such as: delimitation
of the topic, selection and specification of keywords, the range of publication years, and
The most important step in the adsorption process is selecting an adsorbent with high the databases to consult. This process ensures the acquisition of reliable and quality
adsorption capacity, abundance, and low cost (Ozeken et al., 2023; Aktar et al., 2023), information.
which does not produce secondary pollution and is environmentally friendly (Khosravi et
al., 2020). To ensure an accurate systematic review, the guidelines established in the PRISMA
Additionally, there are various types of sorbents with large surface areas, microporous statement (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic re-views and Meta-Analyses),
characteristics, and specific surface chemical properties (eg, minerals, organic, or published in 2009, were followed. The main purpose of this guide is to assist different
biological), such as zeolites, industrial by-products, agricultural waste, biomass, and authors in improving the quality of their publications and transparently document the
polymeric materials (AlJaberi and Mohammed, 2018; Cheng et al., 2021). information that is essential for conducting a systematic review.

The industries that contribute most to heavy metal pollution include mining, The systematic review was carried out following a specific strategy in which the main
electroplating, metallurgy, pigment production, and ceramics, all of which use metals such topic to be investigated was defined (industrial waste-water); the intervention (removal of
as Pb(II), Ni(II), and Arsenic (Ahmad and Mirza, 2018; Zhi et al., 2023). The plastics, heavy metals) and the expected outcome (adsorption technology). This strategy allowed
paint, and textile industries use Cr in their processes (Hussain et al., 2022; Putra et al., for formulating key questions that guided the research in a precise and effective manner.
2024). The nickel-cadmium battery manufacturing, anti-corrosive agents, and pigment
industries use Cd extensively in their processes (Huda et al., 2023). Industries have the
primary obligation to minimize or prevent negative impacts on the environment through 2.1. Protocol and focus questions
the treatment of waste-water before discharging it (Nino ˜ et al., 2013).
When defining the research questions for this systematic review, the PICO framework
developed by Tobi et al. (2019) was adopted, and the PRISMA model proposed by García-
Additionally, treating contaminated water allows industries to recover part of their Penalvo ˜ (2022) was followed. The PICO method has become established as an effective
water for use in other processes within their facilities (Murali et al., 2021). The objective strategy for formulating research questions in order to achieve greater specificity and
of this work is to analyze, conceptual clarity when conducting the systematic review (García-Avila et al., 2023). In
other words,
´ this methodology facilitates the search and selection of relevant and high-
quality informationbased on solid evidence.
Table 1
Description of the PICO system components.

Population Industries that work with heavy metals for the manufacturing of The method structures the research questions in the systematic re-view through four
products and by-products. important components: Population (Problem), Intervention, Comparison, and Results.
Intervention Implementation of conventional technology “Adsorption” to remove
Population/Problem: Defines the population or the problem of interest for the study,
heavy metals from industrial wastewater.
Comparison Different types of materials used as adsorbents for the removal of considered as the dependent variable, representing what is affected by the intervention.
heavy metals in industrial wastewater. In other words, it refers to: What is the problem or the study population?
Results Effectiveness and feasibility of conventional “Adsorption” technology in
the removal of heavy metals from industrial wastewater.
Intervention: This is the independent variable that describes the action

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FG Avila et al.

Fig. 1. Diagram of the process for searching information articles.

or change being evaluated in relation to the population or problem in question. In other 2.2. Research process
words, it refers to: What action or change is being evaluated in relation to the population/
problem? Comparison: This variable focuses on identifying whether there is an alternative To carry out this research, a series of defined steps were followed to ensure its rigor
to the intervention to the study. In other words, it refers to: Is there an alter-native to the and quality, including: (1). Defines the topic for the systematic review, clearly establishing
evaluated intervention? Results: This variable refers to the measures used to determine the scope and boundaries of the research. (2). Establish and determine the keywords
the impact or effectiveness of the intervention in relation to the problem. In other words, it directly related to the study topic; these keywords were essential for the subsequent in-
refers to: What are the relevant outcomes being evaluated? The application of the PICO formation search. (3). Screen the publication year of the found articles to investigate
strategy was carried out, and the results are presented in Table 1, which details each information using the databases. This stage allowed limiting the search to the most current
component of the research question and its relationship to the study conducted. and relevant information for the research.

This step ensured that only relevant and pertinent information was included for the
objectives of this systematic review. (4). Filter the information to ensure a high-quality
and reliable review that meets the standards required for this research.
2.1.1. Research questions
Based on the PICO strategy, the following questions were formulated: After conducting the aforementioned process, the obtained results were analyzed to
draw meaningful conclusions and meet the quality standards required for this research.

1. What are the factors influencing the adsorption of heavy metals from
industrial wastewater?
2. What is the effectiveness of different materials used as adsorbents in the removal of 2.3. Initial search

heavy metals from industrial wastewater?

3. What is the most commonly used adsorption isotherm for the removal of heavy metals in To begin the search in the Scopus digital database, the following keywords were
industrial wastewater, and what are its advantages and limitations when applied in different used: "Removal of heavy metals" AND (adsorption OR sorption) AND "Industrial
industrial contexts? wastewater", which provided a total of 1484 articles related to the topic. To obtain better
results, filters were applied to identify articles that address the research questions
proposed in this work. Below, the search guidelines based on the PRISMA methodology,

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Table 2
Adsorbent or bioadsorbent materials used for the Adsorption of heavy metals from industrial wastewater.

Type of Adsorbent Material Precursor

Living Organisms - Natural moss (Ozeken et al., 2023).

- Escherichia coli (E. coli) (Khosravi et al., 2020).
- Methylobacterium hispanicum (Jeong et al., 2019).
- Microalgae Spirulina platensis (Malakootian et al., 2016).
- Green algae (Birungi and Chirwa, 2015).
-Filamentous green algae Spirogyra porticalis (Sayyaf et al., 2016).
Biomasses - Coffee pulp (Gomez-Aguilar et al., 2020).
- Mulberry leaf (Mangood et al., 2023).
- Pistachio shell (Beidokh ti et al., 2019).
- Rice husk (Sanka et al., 2020).
- Corn husk (Sanka et al., 2020).
- Watermelon rind (Li et al., 2019a).
- Porous carbon derived from biospecies (Li et al., 2019b).
- Platanus orientalis bark (Akar et al., 2019).
- Sugarcane bagasse (Gupta et al., 2018).
- Pine sawdust (Elboughdiri et al., 2021).
- Banana peel (Mohd Salim et al., 2016).
- Mangifera seed shell (Kose et al., 2015).
- Corn cobs (Jin et al., 2019).

Biopolymers - Gum arabic (Shalikh and Majeed, 2022).

- Palm cellulose copolymer (Rahman et al., 2020).
- Chelating ligand of poly (hydroxamic acid) - poly (amidoxime) from acacia cellulose grafted with poly (methyl acrylate-co-acrylonitrile) (Rahman et al.,
2016).
- Polyethyleneimine (PEI) modified nanocellulose cross-linked with magnetic bentonite (Sun et al., 2022).
Activated Carbons - Activated carbon extracted from pineapples (Saleh Ibrahim et al., 2022).
- Activated carbon extracted from sugarcane bagasse (Gupta et al., 2018).
- Activated carbon (Sajjad et al., 2017).
- Activated carbon from mixed waste (ALOthman et al., 2016).

Chemical - Kaolin modified by calcination with NaOH NaOH (Yang et al., 2018).
Modification - Nanocellulose modified with polyethyleneimine (PEI) cross-linked with magnetic bentonite (Sun et al., 2022).
Other materials - Magnetic biochar (MBN3) (Noor et al., 2023).
- Porous flocculant particles from coal fly ash residues (MFCA) (Hussain et al., 2022).
- Bentonite clay (Maleki et al., 2019).
- Iranian sepiolite (Hojati and Landi, 2015).
- Copper oxide (CuO) (Kondabey et al., 2019)
- Plant ashes and dielectrophoresis (Jin et al., 2019).
- Mixture of solid waste (RS) with Clinoptilolite (CL) modified in a 10:1 ratio (Aljerf, 2018).
- Vermiculite mixed with chitosan (Prakash et al., 2017).
- Ethylene and polyurethane sorbent (PES) (Iqbal et al., 2017).
- Vinyl acetate sorbent (VAS) (Iqbal et al., 2017)
- Magnetite nanoparticles (Sosun et al., 2022).
- Humic acid on a chitosan-crosslinked silica gel surface (SiChiHA) (Prasetyo and Toyoda, 2023).
- Macroporous terpolymer of glycidyl methacrylate (GMA), methyl methacrylate (MMA), and divinylbenzene (DVB) (Yayayürük and Erdem Yayayürük,
2016).
- Wax debris with magnetite nanoparticles (Arbabi et al., 2018).
- Modified clinoptilolite (CL) (Aljerf, 2018).

as well as the exclusion criteria for some documents, are detailed. research, thereby ensuring that this systematic review is reliable. The inclusion
criteria pertinent to the research questions are as follows:

2.4. Systematic search based on the PRISMA statement

- The keywords used in the search must appear in the title and abstract
of the article.
The search was conducted in the Scopus database. The combination of
- The studies must be directly related to the removal of heavy metals through
keywords that yielded the best results was: (TITLE-ABS-KEY ("Removal of
adsorption technology.
heavy metals" AND (adsorption OR sorption) AND “In-industrial wastewater”)).
- The studies must be related to the treatment of industrial
This combination resulted in 1484 articles in the Scopus digital database.
wastewater.
Initially, this number of articles was obtained because inclusion criteria were
- The studies must address the efficiency of different adsorbent materials,
not applied in the search. Scopus: It is a bibliographic database of abstracts
adsorption isotherms, and factors influencing the removal of heavy metals
and citations from scientific journal articles with quality web content, created
in an industrial context.
by Elsevier and launched in 2004 (Guz and Rushchitsky, 2009).
- The articles must be published between 2014 and 2024.
- The language of the articles to be reviewed must be limited to
Prior to the selection of articles, certain inclusion and exclusion
criteria were established. English.
- The studies were analyzed across a broad geographical scope.

2.5. Inclusion criteria

2.6. Exclusion criteria
In the present research, inclusion criteria were established to define the
boundaries of the review, aiming to focus on specific studies and The following exclusion criteria were established for the research

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Table 3
Factors influencing the adsorption of heavy metals in industrial wastewaters. Where: T: Contact Time, D: Adsorbent or bioadsorbent dose, temp: Temperature, Tp: Particle Size, Va: Stirring speed.

Heavy metals Type of adsorbent Factors influencing adsorption Authors

removed
pH t D T Tp Goes

Cu (II) -Natural moss 5 360 5 g/L 25 ÿC 180 ÿm 350 rpm (Ozeken et al., 2023; Mangood et al., 2023;
min Hussain et al., 2022; Maleki et al., 2019; Gupta et al.,
7 25 ÿC –
-Powdered mulberry leaf 60 min 0.8 g/L 300 rpm 2018; Sun et al., 2022; Yayayürük and Erdem
Yayayürük, 2016; ALOthman et al., 2016)
-Flocculating porous particles from coal fly ash 5 60 min 1 g/L 30 ÿC 50 nm 180 rpm
residues (MFCA)
-Bentonite clay 7 120 0.05 25 ÿC 200 nm 150 rpm
min g/L
-Sugarcane bagasse (SG), sugarcane bagasse 5 60 min 5 g/L 25 ÿC 150–300 150–160

modified with acid (ASG), sugarcane bagasse ÿm rpm

modified with base
(BSG), and activated carbon (AC)
-Nanocellulose modified with 6 28 ÿC –
10 min 2 g/L 200 rpm
polyethyleneimine (PEI) crosslinked with
magnetic bentonite
7 26 ÿC –
-Macroporous terpolymer of glycidyl methacrylate 30 min 1.5 g/L 150 rpm
(GMA), methyl methacrylate (MMA),
and divinylbenzene (DVB)

-Activated carbon prepared from mixed waste 6 180 0.3 g/L 25 ÿC 5 mm 200 rpm
min
Cu -Palm cellulose copolymer -Biofilm 6 60 min 1 g/L 14400 1 28 ÿC 150 ÿm 300 rpm 324.70 nm 150 (Rahman et al., 2020; Khosravi et al., 2020;
of Escherichia coli (E. coli) placed on zeolite. 6 g/L 28 ÿC rpm Rahman et al., 2016; Arbabi et al., 2018; Mohd Salim
min et al., 2016)
-Chelating ligands of poly (hydroxamic acid)-poly 6 60 min 1.5 g/L 25 ÿC 0.45 ÿm 200 rpm
(amidoxime) derived from acacia cellulose grafted
with poly (methyl acrylate-co-acrylonitrile)

-Activated carbon from bean wax waste 7 40 min 1 g/L 27 ÿC 1180 ÿm 100 rpm
activated by magnetite nanoparticles
-Banana peel 9 120 0.9 g/L 28 ÿC 400 ÿm 300 rpm
min
Pb 6.5 30 min 0.05 25 ÿC 12 nm –
-Carbonized gum Arabic (Shalikh and Majeed, 2022; Rahman et al., 2020;
g/L Sanka et al., 2020; Rahman et al., 2016; Sajjad et al.,
-Palm cellulose copolymer 6 60 min 1 g/L 1 g/L 28 ÿC 150 ÿm 300 rpm 2017; Malakootian et al., 2016; Mohd
-Rice husk biochar 6.5 20–30 30 ÿC <0.125 160 rpm Salim et al., 2016)
min mm
-Corn husk biochar 6 20–30 1 g/L 30 ÿC <2 nm 160 rpm
min

-Chelating ligands of poly (hydroxamic acid)-poly 6 60 min 1.5 g/L 25 ÿC 0.45 ÿm 200 rpm
(amidoxime) from acacia cel-lulose grafted with poly
(methyl acry-late-co-acrylonitrile)

3 30 ÿC –
-Activated carbon (AC) 60 min 2 g/L 60 min 2 g/ 150 rpm
7 25 ÿC –
-Microalgae Spirulina platensis L 120 0.9 g/L 180 rpm
-Banana peel 9 28 ÿC 400 ÿm 300 rpm
min
7 25 ÿC –
Pb (II) -Powdered mulberry leaf 60 min 0.8 g/L 300 rpm Mangood et al., 2023; Hussain et al., 2022;
Maleki et al., 2019; Yang et al., 2018; Jeong et al.,
-Flocculant porous particles from coal fly ash waste 5 60 min 1 g/L 30 ÿC 50 nm 180 rpm 2019; ALOthman et al., 2016)
(MFCA)
7 120 0.05 25 ÿC 200 nm –
-Bentonite clay
min g/L
-Modified kaolin combined 25 ÿC –
5.5 60 min 1 g/L 7 60 min 1 g/L 200 rpm
-Strain (EM2) of Methylobacterium hispanicum 30 ÿC 600 nm 150 rpm
producing bacterial films
-Activated carbon prepared from mixed waste 6 180 0.3 g/L 25 ÿC 5 mm 200 rpm
min
Cd (II) -Magnetic biocarbon (MBN3) 6 60 min 0.3 g/L 25 ÿC 150 ÿm 125 rpm (Noor et al., 2023; Maleki et al., 2019; Yang et al.,
2018; Prakash et al., 2017; Iqbal et al., 2017)
7 120 0.05 25 ÿC 200 nm –
-Bentonite clay
min g/L
25 ÿC – –
-Kaolin modified by calcination with 5.5 60 min 1 g/L
NaOH
-Vermiculite mixed with chitosan 5.5 300 2 g/L 30 ÿC 228.8 nm 160 rpm
min

-Shoe waste (ethylene polyurethane - type I shoe 4.9 932 1.3 g/L 25 ÿC 300 ÿm 180 rpm
material) min

-Shoe waste (vinyl acetate - type II shoe material) 5 881 1.2 g/L 25 ÿC 300 ÿm 180 rpm
min
5 157 0.05 14 ÿC 12 nm –
-Carbonized gum Arabic Shalikh and Majeed (2022);
min g/L

(continued on next page)

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Table 3 (continued )

Heavy metals Type of adsorbent Factors influencing adsorption Authors

removed
pH t D T Tp Goes

-Chelating ligands of poly (hydroxamic acid)-poly 6 60 min 1.5 g/L 25 ÿC 0.45 ÿm 200 rpm
(amidoxime) from acacia cel-lulose grafted with poly
(methyl acry-late-co-acrylonitrile)

3 30 ÿC –
-Activated carbon (AC) 60 min 2 g/L 60 min 0.8 150 rpm
7 25 ÿC –
Neither (II) -Powdered mulberry leaf g/L 300 rpm (Mangood et al., 2023; Hussain et al., 2022;
Beidokhti et al., 2019; Iqbal et al., 2017)
-Flocculant porous particles from coal fly ash residues 5 60 min 1 g/L 30 ÿC 50 nm 180 rpm
(MFCA) (Rahman et al., 2020; Rahman et al., 2016; Akar
-Pistachio shell powder (PSP) 4–6 60 min 5 g/L 7 28 ÿC 150 ÿm 250 rpm et al., 2019)
120 0.05 25 ÿC 200 nm –
-Bentonite clay
min g/L
4.5 934 28 ÿC – 150 rom
-Ethylene and polyurethane sorbent 1.3 g/L
(PES) min
4.6 881 28 ÿC –
-Vinyl acetate sorbent (VAS) 1.2 g/L 150 rpm
min

-Palm cellulose copolymer 6 60 min 1 g/L 60 min 1.5 28 ÿC 150 ÿm 300 rpm
-Chelating ligands of poly(hydroxamic acid)- 6 g/L 25 ÿC 0.45 ÿm 200 rpm (Rahman et al., 2016, 2020; Akar et al., 2019)
poly(amidoxime) from acacia cel-lulose grafted with
poly(methyl acrylate-co-acrylonitrile)

-Powder from modified Platanus orientalis 3 28 ÿC – –

90 min 2 g/L
bark
Cr (VI) -Natural moss 2 360 5 g/L 25 ÿC 180 ÿm 350 rpm (Ozeken et al., 2023; Akar et al., 2019; Prakash et
min al., 2017; Sayyaf et al., 2016)
-Powder from modified Platanus orientalis 5 300 28 ÿC – –
2 g/L
bark min
-Vermiculite mixed with chitosan 5 300 2 g/L 30 ÿC 357.9 nm 160 rpm
min
3 360 30 ÿC – –
-Powdered filamentous green algae 1 g/L
Spirogyra porticalis min
Cr (III) -Copper Oxide (CuO) 8 120 0.1 g/l 25 ÿC 150–500 200 rpm Kondabey et al. (2019)
min nm
Cr -Rice husk biochar 6.5 20–30 1 g/L 30 ÿC <0.125 160 rpm (Sanka et al., 2020; Rahman et al., 2016; Sajjad et al.,
min mm 2017)
-Corn husk biochar 6 20–30 1 g/L 30 ÿC <2 nm 160 rpm
min

-Chelating ligands of poly(hydroxamic acid)- 6 30 min 1.5 g/ 25 ÿC 0.45 ÿm 200 rpm

poly(amidoxime) from acacia cel-lulose grafted with L

poly(methyl acrylate-co-acrylonitrile)

3 30 ÿC –
-Activated carbon (AC) 60 min 2 g/L 6.5 60 150 rpm
(tCr) total -Mixture of solid waste (RS) with min 0.011 30 ÿC 10 ÿm 150 rpm Aljerf (2018)
chromium Clinoptilolite (CL) modified in a 10:1 ratio g/L

Faith -Activated carbon extracted from pineapples 6 180 3 g/L 25 ÿC 0.54–2.95 250 rpm (Saleh Ibrahim et al., 2022; Kose et al., 2015)
min nm

-Mangifera seed shell substrate 4.5 30 min 5 g/L 5 60 min 1 g/L 1 30 ÿC 425 ÿm 100 rpm
Faith -Palm cellulose copolymer g/L 28 ÿC 150 ÿm 300 rpm (Rahman et al., 2016, 2020; Sanka et al., 2020)
-Rice husk biocarbon 6.5 20–30 30 ÿC <0.125 160 rpm
min mm

-Chelating ligands of poly (hydroxamic acid)- 5 60 min 1 g/L 25 ÿC 0.45 ÿm 200 rpm
poly(amidoxime) from acacia cel-lulose grafted with
poly(methyl acrylate-co-acrylonitrile)

5.4 198 0.05 25 ÿC 12 nm –

Co (II) -Carbonized gum Arabic (Shalikh,2022; Rahman et al., 2016, 2020)
min g/L
-Palm cellulose copolymer 6.5 60 min 1 g/L 6.5 30 min 1 g/L 28 ÿC 150 ÿm 300 rpm
-Chelating ligands of poly (hydroxamic acid)- 25 ÿC 0.45 ÿm 200 rpm
poly(amidoxime) from acacia cel-lulose grafted with
poly(methyl acrylate-co-acrylonitrile)

-Mulberry leaf powder 7 60 min 0.8 g/L 25 ÿC 300 rpm Mangood et al. (2023)

´
Mn (II) -Coffee pulp 4 90 min 20 g/L 20 ÿC 60 min 1 g/L 30 180 ÿm 100 rpm (Gomez Aguilar et al., 2020; Hussain et al., 2022;
5 50 nm –
-Flocculant porous particles from coal fly ash residues ÿC Kose et al., 2015)
(MFCA)
-Mangifera seed shell substrate -Chelating 4.5 30 min 5 g/L 30 min 1.5 g/ 6 L 30 ÿC 425 ÿm 100 rpm
25 ÿC –
ligands of poly (hydroxamic acid)-poly (amidoxime) 200 rpm Rahman et al. (2016)
derived from acacia cellulose grafted with poly
(methyl acrylate-co-acrylonitrile)

Zn (II) -Biofilm of Escherichia coli (E. coli) placed on zeolite. 6 14400 1 g/L 28 ÿC 213.90 nm 150 rpm (Khosravi et al., 2020; Rahman et al., 2016)
min

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Table 3 (continued )

Heavy metals Type of adsorbent Factors influencing adsorption Authors

removed
pH t D T Tp Goes

-Chelating ligands of poly (hydroxamic acid)-poly 6 60 min 1.5 g/L 25 ÿC 0.45 ÿm 200 rpm
(amidoxime) derived from acacia cellulose
grafted with poly (methyl acrylate-co-
acrylonitrile).
-Iranian sepiolite 5–9 120 2–16 20–40 ÿC 20–50 ÿm 200 rpm (Hojati and Landi, 2015)
min g/L
7 120 0.05 25 ÿC 200 nm –
Hg (II) -Bentonite clay (Maleki et al., 2019; Li et al., 2019)
min g/L
150 0.08 25 ÿC –
-Porous carbon derived from bio-species 6 800 rpm
min g/L
You -Porous biocarbon from watermelon rinds 6.5 30 min 0.5 g/L 25 ÿC 3,419 nm 200 rpm (Li et al., 2019)

23 ÿC –
-Green algae from eutrophic water 5–6 60 min 1.11 350 rpm (Birungi and Chirwa, 2015)
sources g/L
Ace (V) -Adsorption technique (ADS) with plant ashes 9 180 5 g/L 28 ÿC 0.053 mm 180 rpm Jin et al. (2019)
min
-Adsorption technique (ADS) with plant ashes 9 180 5 g/L 28 ÿC 0.053 mm 180 rpm
and dielectrophoresis (DEP) (ADS/ min
RIP)
Th (IV) -Humic acid on a silica gel surface coated with 3.5 120 2.5 g/ 30 ÿC 400 nm 100 rpm Prasetyo and Toyoda (2023)
cross-linked chitosan (SiChiHA) min L
U (VI) -Humic acid on a silica gel surface coated with 5 120 3 g/L 30 ÿC 400 nm 100 rpm Prasetyo and Toyoda (2023)
cross-linked chitosan (SiChiHA) min

process to ensure the quality of the review of the articles selected for this study, thereby articles were selected for the systematic review.
discarding those that do not meet the established standards: Articles that are not related to In Fig. 1, a diagram of the article search process for this systematic review is presented, showing those
industrial wastewater should be excluded. Articles that do not address the research questions that were selected after undergoing a process of searching, identifying, and filtering, using the PRISMA

should be excluded. Articles that are not related to adsorption technology should be excluded. statement. The application of studies conducted in different countries was considered with the aim of
expanding knowledge on various adsorption technologies for the removal of heavy metals from industrial

wastewater.

By applying the above criteria, the combination of search terms was refined as follows:
(TITLE-ABS-KEY (“Removal of heavy metals” AND (adsorption OR sorption) AND “Industrial
wastewater”)) AND (LIMIT-TO (KEYWORD, “Adsorption”, “Heavy metals”, “Industrial
wastewater”, “pH”, “Adsorption isotherms”, “Contact time”, “Adsorbents”, “Temperature”, 3. Results and discussion
“Sorption”, “Concentration (parameter)”) AND (LIMIT-TO (LANGUAGE, “English”) AND
(LIMIT-TO (DOCTYPE, “Article”) AND (LIMIT-TO (SUBJECT AREA, “Environmental 3.1. P1. What are the factors that influence the adsorption of heavy metals in industrial
Science”) AND PUBYEAR >2015 AND PUBYEAR <2024. wastewater?

Table 2 lists the main materials used in various studies for the
This refinement reduced the number of documents in Scopus to 396 articles. After removal of heavy metals from industrial wastewater. Tejada-Tovar et al. (2015) mention that
reviewing the titles of the selected articles, 92 documents remained. Subsequently, by microbial biomasses (fungi, bacteria, and algae) and agro-industrial wastes (coconut shells,
reading the abstracts, the selection was further narrowed down to 39 articles. orange peels, lemon peels, cassava peels, apple peels, tamarind peels, among others) have
been the materials used for adsorption and are the most studied set to date, according to the
publication of their article.

2.7. Selection of articles

Table 2 highlights a variety of materials that can be used as adsor-bents and
bioadsorbents for the removal of heavy metals from waste-water. The materials are divided
To carry out the systematic review on the removal of heavy metals from industrial
into six categories: (1). Living organisms: This category includes bacteria, algae, and other
wastewater using adsorption technology, the search was initiated in the Scopus digital
microorganisms that can absorb metals due to their cellular properties. How-ever, they may
database. The search strategy was structured using keywords and Boolean operators such
require specific conditions to maintain their viability and effectiveness. (2). Biomasses: This
as AND and OR, with the combination "heavy metals" AND (adsorption OR sorption) AND
category includes plant derivatives and agricultural waste, which are currently sustainable
"Industrial wastewater," resulting in a total of 1484 articles. Subse-quently, inclusion and
and low-cost options. Their efficiency depends on the structure and composition of the
exclusion criteria were applied to refine the results. Keywords were set to "Heavy metals"
material. (3). Biopolymers: Materials that can be natural or chemi-cally modified to improve
AND (adsorption OR sorption) AND "Industrial wastewater" AND adsorbent AND isotherm.
their adsorption capacity, thereby showing affinity for heavy metals, are included. (4).
Activated Carbon: This category includes materials with high specific surface area and
porosity, which have been widely used in adsorption processes due to their high porosity and
Additionally, the search was restricted to articles in "English," classified as "Article" and with
adsorption capacity. (5). Chemical Modification: This category includes materials that have
publication dates between "2015 and 2024." This filtering resulted in a total of 239 articles
been nano-modified to enhance their adsorption capacity, thereby facilitating the separation
for analysis.
of the adsorbent from the aqueous medium. This category can be expensive.
After reviewing the articles, 157 were discarded for not meeting the established criteria,
leaving 239 articles for the next stage. The abstracts of the remaining 239 articles were then
analyzed, excluding 147 because they were not related to industrial wastewater, did not
address the research questions, and were not connected to adsorption technology.

(6). Other Materials: This category includes a wide range of synthetic and natural adsorbents
This resulted in the selection of 92 articles for a more detailed evaluation. Finally, a thorough
with diverse properties.
review of the 92 articles was conducted, and 39

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Table 4
Efficiency of Different Materials Used as Adsorbents in the Removal of Heavy Metals from Industrial Wastewater. Where; Ce: Initial concentration of the adsorbate, R: Percentage of heavy metal removal,
qe: Maximum adsorption capacity.

Heavy metals Adsorbents EC R what Authors

Cr (VI) - Natural moss 1000 mg/L - 54.5% 41.2 mg/g (Ozeken et al., 2023; Akar et al., 2019; Prakash et al., 2017;
Powder from modified bark of Platanus orientalis 86.39 mg/L - Powder from 90.7% 19,920 mg/g Sayyaf et al., 2016)
unmodified bark of Platanus 86.39 mg/L orientalis 89.6% 13,423 mg/g

- Modified clinoptilolite (a type of zeolite) 81.4 mg/L 75.4% 37 mg/g

- Powdered filamentous green algae Spirogyra porticalis 39.26 mg/L 70% 27.48 mg/g

- Vermiculite mixed with chitosan 670 mg/L 59.2% 1071.86 mg/g

Cr - Rice husk biochar 1.82 mg/L 65% 0.06 mg/g (Sanka et al., 2020; Rahman et al., 2016; Sajjad et al., 2017)
- Corn leaf biochar 1.82 mg/L 20% 0.03 mg/g
- Chelating ligands of poly(hydroxamic acid)-poly (amidoxime) 24.53 mg/L 99.8% 102.96 mg/g
from acacia cellulose grafted with poly(methyl acrylate-co-
acrylonitrile)
- Activated carbon (AC) 5 mg/L 70% 0.17 mg/g
Cr (III) - Copper oxide (CuO) 50 mg/L, 225 mg/ 57.24%, 105.68 mg/g, Kondabey et al. (2019)
L, 450 mg/L 89.14% and 147.49 mg/g,
99.99% 197.56 mg/g
(tCr) in the - Solid waste (SW) mixture with modified 100 mg/L 90% 37 mg/g Aljerf (2018)
ammoniacal Clinoptilolite (CL) in a 10:1 ratio
phase
Cu (II) - Natural moss 50 mg/L 70% 22.7 mg/g (Ozeken et al., 2023; Mangood et al., 2023; Hussain
- Mulberry leaf powder 1000 mg/L 85% 2.88 mg/g et al., 2022; Maleki et al., 2019; Gupta et al., 2018; Sun et
- Flocculant porous particles from coal fly ash 100 mg/L 95.88% 0.4341 mg/g al., 2022)
residues (MCFA)
- Bentonite clay - 3000 mg/L 99% 1000 mg/g
Sugarcane bagasse (SG) 52.4 mg/L 88.9% 4.84 mg/g
- Sugarcane bagasse modified with acid (ASG) 52.4 mg/L 96.9% 5.35 mg/g
- Sugarcane bagasse modified with base (BSG) 52.4 mg/L 94.8% 2.06 mg/g
- Activated carbon (AC) 52.4 mg/L 98.5% 5.62 mg/g
- Nanocellulose modified with polyethyleneimine (PEI) 100 mg/L 86.79% 757.45 mg/g
crosslinked with magnetic bentonite
Cu - Palm cellulose copolymer 4000 mg/L - Escherichia coli (E. coli) biofilm placed on 95% 260 mg/g (Rahman et al., 2020; Khosravi et al., 2020; Rahman
zeolite 40 mg/L - Chelating ligands of poly (hydroxamic acid)-poly 5.19 mg/L 54.61% 3.29 mg/g et al., 2016; Arbabi et al., 2018; Mohd Salim et al., 2016)
(amidoxime) from acacia cellulose grafted with poly (methyl acrylate-co-acrylonitrile) 99.8% 184.29 mg/g

- Wax residues with magnetite nanoparticles - Banana 100 mg/L 2 99.73% 49.75 mg/g
peel - Magnetic mg/L 140 66% 5,720 mg/g
Cd (II) biocarbon (MBN3) mg/L 87.6% 47.9 mg/g (Noor et al., 2023; Maleki et al., 2019; Yang et al., 2018;
- Bentonite clay Prakash et al., 2017; Iqbal et al., 2017)
-Kaolin modified by calcination with NaOH
- Shoe waste (polyurethane ethylene - Type I footwear 305 mg/L 66.66% 180.222 mg/g
material)
- Shoe waste (vinyl acetate - Type II footwear material) 402 mg/L 94.66% 396.312 mg/g

- Vermiculite mixed with chitosan - 670 mg/L 71.5% 563.09 mg/g

CD Carbonized gum Arabic - 50 mg/L 90.7% 41.88 mg/g (Shalikh and Majeed, 2022; Rahman et al., 2016; Sajjad et
Chelating ligands of poly (hydroxamic acid)-poly (amidoxime) 0.084 mg/L 94.7% 149.51 mg/g al., 2017)
from acacia cellulose grafted with poly (methyl acrylate-co-
acrylonitrile)
- Activated carbon (AC) 5 mg/L 79.8% 0.11 mg/g
Co - Carbonized gum Arabic - Palm 50 mg/L 68.75% 31.3 mg/g (Shalikh and Majeed, 2022; Rahman et al., 2016, 2020)
cellulose copolymer - Chelating 4000 mg/L 95% 168 mg/g
ligands of poly (hydroxamic acid)-poly (amidoxime) from acacia 0.290 mg/L 99.9% 113.14 mg/g
cellulose grafted with poly (methyl acrylate-co-acrylonitrile)

- Powdered mulberry leaves - 1000 mg/L 50 100% 1.15 mg/g (Mangood et al., 2023)
Pb Carbonized gum Arabic - Palm mg/L 4000 80% 36.4 mg/g (Shalikh and Majeed, 2022; Rahman et al., 2020; Sanka et
cellulose copolymer - Rice husk mg/L 1.59 mg/ 95% 272 mg/g al., 2020; Rahman et al., 2016; Sajjad et al., 2017;
biochar - Corn leaf L 1.59 mg/L >90% 0.11 mg/g Malakootian et al., 2016; Mohd Salim et al., 2016)
biochar - Chelating 1.188 mg/g >35% 0.03 mg/g
ligands of poly (hydroxamic acid)-poly (amidoxime) from acacia 99.2% 103.6 mg/g
cellulose grafted with poly (methyl acrylate-co-acrylonitrile)

- Activated carbon (AC) 5 mg/L >78% 0.19 mg/g

- Biosorption with Spirulina platensis - Banana 150 mg/L 4 84.32% 40 mg/g
peel - Powdered mg/L 80% 89.286 mg/g
Pb (II) mulberry leaves - Flocculant porous 1000 mg/L 69% 0.50 mg/g (Mangood et al., 2023; Hussain et al., 2022; Maleki et
particles from coal fly ash 100 mg/L 99.91% 12.1957 mg/g al., 2019; Yang et al., 2018; Jeong et al., 2019)
residues (MCFA)
- Bentonite clay 3000 mg/L 99% 900 mg/g
-Kaolin modified by calcination with NaOH 200 mg/L 80.59% 161.84 mg/g

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Table 4 (continued )
Heavy metals Adsorbents EC R what Authors

- Floating biofilm of Methylobacterium hispanicum 800 mg/L 96% 79.84 mg/g

strain (EM2)
´
Mn Coffee pulp 46.6 mg/L 53.40% 8.01 mg/g (Gomez Aguilar et al., 2020; Hussain et al., 2022; Kose et
- Flocculant porous particles from coal fly ash 100 mg/L 94.26% 558.9219 mg/g al., 2015)
residues (MCFA)
- Mangifera indica seed hull substrate 40 mg/L 82% 5.2 mg/g
- Chelating ligands of poly (hydroxamic acid)-poly (amidoxime) 9.8 mg/L 99.9% 538.91 mg/g Rahman et al. (2016)
from acacia cellulose grafted with poly (methyl acrylate-
co-acrylonitrile)
Neither (II) - Mulberry leaf powder 1000 mg/L 80% 1.14 mg/g (Mangood et al., 2023; Hussain et al., 2022; Beidokhti
- Flocculating porous particles from coal fly ash 100 mg/L 71.04% 210.9737 mg/g et al., 2019; Maleki et al., 2019; Iqbal et al., 2017)
residues (MCFA)
- Pistachio shell powder (PHP) 1000 mg/L 75% 14 mg/g
- Bentonite clay 2600 mg/L 92% 900 mg/g
- Ethylene and polyurethane (PES) 299 mg/L 64.7% 171.99 mg/g
- Vinyl acetate (VAS) 402 mg/L 92.7% 388.08 mg/g
Neither
- Palm cellulose copolymer 4000 mg/L 95% 172 mg/g (Rahman et al., 2016, 2020; Akar et al., 2019)
- Chelating ligands of poly(hydroxamic acid)-poly (amidoxime) 35.56 mg/L 99.8% 124.41 mg/g
derived from acacia cellulose graf-ted with poly(methyl
acrylate-co-acrylonitrile)
- Modified bark powder of Platanus orientalis 556.4 mg/L 56.5% 126.58 mg/g
- Unmodified bark powder of Platanus orientalis 556.4 mg/L 74.5% 285.714 mg/g
Faith (II) - Activated carbon extracted from pineapples 60 mg/L 99.55% 39.72 mg/g (Saleh Ibrahim et al., 2022; Kose et al., 2015)
(ACPC)
- ango seed shell substrate (Mangifera indica) 6.55 mg/L 81% 1.1 mg/g
Faith - Palm cellulose copolymer 4000 mg/L 95% 210 mg/g (Rahman et al., 2016, 2020; Sanka et al., 2020)
- Rice husk biochar 9.28 mg/L 90% 0.76 mg/g
- Chelating ligands of poly(hydroxamic acid)-poly (amidoxime) 6.722 mg/L 99.8% 164.97 mg/g
derived from acacia cellulose graf-ted with poly(methyl
acrylate-co-acrylonitrile)
Zn - Escherichia coli biofilm placed on zeolite 40 mg/L 57.35% 3.43 mg/g (Khosravi et al., 2020; Rahman et al., 2016)
- Chelating ligands of poly(hydroxamic acid)-poly (amidoxime) 75.86 mg/L 99.8% 130.47 mg/g
derived from acacia cellulose graf-ted with poly(methyl
acrylate-co-acrylonitrile)
Zn (II) - Sepiolite 285.5 mg/L 95% 13.1 mg/g (Hojati and Landi, 2015)
Hg (II) - Bentonite clay 2600 mg/L 5 92% 875 mg/g (Maleki et al., 2019; Li et al., 2019b),
- Porous carbon derived from bio-species mg/L 15 96.8% 9.8 mg/g
Ace (V) - Adsorption technique (ADS) with plant ash mg/L 15 91.4% 2.5 mg/g Jin et al. (2019)
- Adsorption technique (ADS) with plant ash and mg/L 94.7% 3.1 mg/g
dielectrophoresis (DEP) (ADS/DEP)
Tl - Green algae Chlorella vulgaris 250–500 mg/ 100% 1000 mg/g (Birungi and Chirwa, 2015)
L
Th (IV) - Humic acid on a chitosan-crosslinked silica gel surface 12.34 mg/L 47.1% 30.6 mg/g Prasetyo and Toyoda (2023)
(SiChiHA)
U (VI) - Humic acid on a chitosan-crosslinked silica gel surface 33.45 mg/L 56.13% 75.4 mg/g Prasetyo and Toyoda (2023)
(SiChiHA)

In Table 3, the factors influencing the adsorption of heavy metals from U (VI), with Cu (II) being the most studied metal.
wastewater are detailed, including pH, contact time, adsorbent dose, The results obtained in Table 3 indicate that 72% of the studies (28 out
temperature, particle size, and stirring speed. In this systematic review, of 39) achieved a pH in the range of 3–6.9. This suggests that adsorption
"Removal of Heavy Metals from Industrial Wastewater Through Adsorption reaches equilibrium at an acidic pH. On the other hand, only 28% of the
Technology," the main heavy metals recorded are Cu (II), Cu, Pb (II), Pb, Cd studies (11 out of 39) reported a pH range of 7–9, implying that in these
(II), Cd, Ni (II), Ni, Cr (VI), Cr (III), Cr (total Cr), Fe (II), Fe, Co (II), Co, Mn cases, adsorption reaches equilibrium at a basic pH. According to Tejada-
(II), Mn, Zn (II), Zn, Hg (II), Ti (I), Ti, As (V), Th (IV), and Tovar et al. (2015), pH is an important parameter that controls metal
adsorption processes on different adsorbents, as hydrogen ions act as a
strongly competitive adsorbate. In other words, the adsorption of metal ions
depends on the nature of the adsorbent surface as well as the distribution of
the metal's chemical species in the aqueous solution. The authors who report
basic pH levels between 7 and 9 include (Mangood et al., 2023; Maleki et
al., 2019; Hojati and Landi, 2015; Jeong et al., 2019; Kondabey et al., 2019;
Jin et al., 2019; Arbabi et al., 2018; Sosun et al., 2022; Yayayürük and
Erdem Yayayürük, 2016; Malakootian et al. , 2016;

Contact time determines how long the adsorbent is in contact with the
heavy metal to reach adsorption equilibrium. In the studies cited in Table 4,
contact time varies significantly depending on the type of adsorbent and the
heavy metal being removed. The times range from 10 min to 14,400 min.
Generally, this is because the adsorption rate in the initial stage is rapid and
there is a high availability of active sites on the
Fig. 2. Type of Isotherm used in each study.

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Table 5
Most commonly used adsorption isotherm for the removal of heavy metals from industrial wastewater.

Heavy Adsorbent Iso Cin. R R2 Authors

metal

Cr(VI) - Natural moss Langmuir Pseudo-second 0.990 Ozeken et al. (2023)

order
Cr - Rice and corn husk biochar Freundlich Pseudo-second order 0.99 (Sanka et al., 2020; Sajjad et al., 2017; Elboughdiri et al., 2021)

– 0.97
- Activated carbon (AC) Langmuir
- Steam-activated sawdust Friendly Pseudo-second 0.99
order
tCr - Solid waste (SW) mixed with modified Clinoptilolite (CL) Friendly Pseudo-second 0.905 Aljerf (2018)
in a 10:1 ratio order
Cr VI Friendly –
- Modified Platanus orientalis bark powder 0.998 (Akar et al., 2019; Prakash et al., 2017)
- Vermiculite mixed with chitosan Friendly Pseudo-second 0.99
order
Cu – 0.97
- Activated carbon (AC) Langmuir (Sajjad et al., 2017; Khosravi et al., 2020; 0.99
–
- Banana peel Langmuir Mohd et al., 2016; Rahman et al., 2020)
- Palm cellulose copolymer Freundlich Pseudo-first order 0.99
- Escherichia coli biofilm placed on zeolite Langmuir Pseudo-second 0.968
order
Cu(II) - Natural moss Langmuir Pseudo-second 0.994 (Ozeken et al., 2023; Mangood et al., 2023; Hussain et al., 2022; Sun
order et al., 2022; Yayayürük and Erdem Yayayürük, 2016)
- Mulberry leaf powder Friendly Pseudo-second 0.98
order
- Porous flocculating particles from ash residues Friendly Pseudo-second 0.99
order
- Nanocellulose modified with polyethyleneimine (PEI) Friendly Pseudo-second 0.983
cross-linked with magnetic bentonite order
- Macroporous terpolymer of glycidyl methacrylate Langmuir Pseudo-second 0.99
(GMA), methyl methacrylate (MMA), and order
divinylbenzene (DVB)
CD – 0.97
- Activated carbon (AC) Langmuir Sajjad et al. (2017)
Cd(II) - Magnetic biochar (MBN3) Langmuir Pseudo-second 0.985 (Noor et al., 2023; Prakash et al., 2017; Sosun et al., 2022; Iqbal et al.,
order 2017)
- Vermiculite mixed with chitosan Friendly Pseudo-second 0.99
order
- Magnetite nanoparticles Freundlich Pseudo-first order 0.998
- Shoe waste (vinyl acetate - type I shoe material) Freundlich Pseudo-second order 0.99

Co - Palm cellulose copolymer Freundlich Pseudo-first order 0.99 Rahman et al. (2020)
Co(II) - Powdered mulberry leaves Langmuir Pseudo-second 0.99 Mangood et al. (2023)
order
Hg - Porous carbon derived from biospecies Freundlich Pseudo-second order 0.98 (Li et al., 2019)

´
Mn (II) - Coffee pulp Langmuir Ho and McKay's pseudo- 0.994 (Gomez Aguilar et al., 2020; Hussain et al., 2022; Kose et al., 2015)
second order

- Porous flocculating particles from ash residues Friendly Pseudo-second 0.99

order
- Mangifera indica seed shell substrate Freundlich Pseudo-first order 0.99
Pb - Palm cellulose copolymer Freundlich Pseudo-first order 0.99 (Rahman et al., 2020; Sanka et al., 2020; Sajjad et al., 2017;
- Rice and corn husk biochar Freundlich Pseudo-second order 0.99 Malakootian et al., 2016; Mohd et al., 2016)

– 0.97
- Activated carbon (AC) Langmuir
- Microalgae Spirulina platensis Langmuir Pseudo-second 0.99
order
– 0.99
- Banana peel Langmuir
Pb (II) - Powdered mulberry leaves Langmuir Pseudo-second 0.99 (Mangood et al., 2023; Hussain et al., 2022; Jeong et al., 2019)
order
- Flocculating porous particles from fly ash waste Friendly Pseudo-second 0.99
order
- Floating biofilm of Methylobacterium hispanicum (EM2) Friendly Pseudo-second 0.98
strain order
Neither (II) - Powdered mulberry leaves Langmuir Pseudo-second 0.99 (Mangood et al., 2023; Hussain et al., 2022; Beidokhti et al., 2019;
order Rahman et al., 2020; Sosun et al., 2022)
- Flocculating porous particles from ash waste Freundlich Pseudo-second order 0.99

- Pistachio shell powder (PHP) Freundlich Pseudo-second order 0.98

- Palm cellulose copolymer Freundlich Pseudo-first order 0.99

- Magnetite nanoparticles Freundlich Pseudo-first order 0.998
Faith - Palm cellulose copolymer Freundlich Pseudo-first order 0.99 (Rahman et al., 2020; Sanka et al., 2020)
- Rice and corn cob biochar Friendly 0.99
Friendly – 0.97
Faith (II) - Activated carbon extracted from pineapples (ACPC) (Saleh Ibrahim et al., 2022; Kose et al., 2015)
- Mangifera indica seed shell substrate Freundlich Pseudo-first order 0.99

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Table 5 (continued )

Heavy Adsorbent Iso Cin. R R2 Authors

metal

Tl - Green algae Langmuir Pseudo-second 0.99 (Birungi and Chirwa, 2015)

order
Pseudo-second –
Th(IV) - Humic acid bound on silica gel modified with chitosan Langmuir Prasetyo and Toyoda (2023)
order
Pseudo-second –
U(VI) - Binding of humic acid on silica gel modified with Langmuir Prasetyo and Toyoda (2023)
chitosan order
Zn (II) - Biofilm of Escherichia coli placed on zeolite Langmuir Pseudo-second 0.97 Khosravi et al. (2020)
order

Where; Iso = Adsorption isotherm, Cin. R = Reaction kinetics, and R2 = Model fit.

Fig. 3. Reaction kinetics used in each of the investigations for their respective fitting.

adsorbent surface. As time progresses, the adsorption rate decreases increase in temperature can cause changes in the texture of the sorbent
because the active sites become saturated until equilibrium is reached. and deterioration of the material, leading to a loss of sorption capacity.
In the study conducted by Yayayürük and Erdem Yayayürük (2016) In this systematic review, the studies examined align with the findings of
´
Using nanocellulose modified with polyethyleneimine (PEI) crosslinked with Tejada-Tovar et al. (2015), with the exception of the study by Gomez
magnetic bentonite, the contact time for removing Cu (II) is 10 min. Aguilar et al. (2020), which mentions that for the removal of Mn (II) using
This indicates the time required to reach adsorption equilibrium for Cu (II) coffee pulp as an adsorbent, the optimal temperature is 20 ÿC. At this
and a rapid saturation of active sites. While Khosravi et al. (2020) temperature, the adsorption process is efficient as there is a balance
report that the contact time to remove Cu and Zn using Escherichia coli (E. between the mobility of the molecules and kinetic energy. Additionally, the
coli) biofilm placed on zeolite is 14,400 min, due to the adsorbent requiring study by Birungi and Chirwa (2015) indicates that for the removal of Ti using
a relatively long time to reach equilibrium, whether due to its structure or green algae from eutrophic water sources as a sorbent, the optimal
surface characteristics. For the removal of Pb, Pb (II), Cd, Cd (II), Ni (II), Ni, temperature is 23 ÿC. For the removal of Cu (II), Pb (II), Cd (II), Cd, Ni (II),
(tCr), Fe, Co (II), and Ti, the most commonly used contact time among Cr (III), Fe (II), Fe, Co, Co (II), Mn, Zn, Hg (I), and Ti (I), the optimal
various adsorbents is 60 min. For Cr (III), Cr (VI), Co (II), Zn (II), Hg (II), As temperature is 25 ÿC. For the metals Cu, Ni (II), Ni, Fe, Zn, and As (V), the
(V), Th (IV), and U (VI), the contact time ranges from 120 to 360 min. optimal temperature is 28 ÿC. For the metals Cr (VI), Cr, (tCr), Fe (II), Fe,
Finally, for the metals Fe (II), Mn (II), and Ti (I), the most commonly used Mn (II), Th (IV), and U (IV), the optimal temperature is 30 ÿC.
contact time is 30 min. On the contrary, the results obtained in Table 4 demonstrate the importance
The dosage of adsorbent or bioadsorbent used in a solution ensures of particle size, as it is essential for achieving good results that show the
that there are sufficient active sites to absorb heavy metals. This factor is adsorption capacity or the removal percentage of heavy metals. Among the
essential as it determines the availability of active sites for metal adsorption. reviewed studies, the particle size varies according to the type of adsorbent
In the studies presented in Table 4, the adsorbent dosage varies depending used by each author, ranging from nanometers (nm) to micrometers (ÿm).
on the type of adsorbent and the heavy metal being removed, ranging from The small particle size provides active sites for adsorption; However, it can
a dosage as low as 0.011–20 g/L. However, it is important to note that a cause greater internal diffusion resistance, especially in adsorbents with
low dosage may result in a lower total adsorption capacity, as there are very small pores. In contrast, larger particle sizes offer a lower specific
fewer active sites available to capture metal ions, although it may be surface area, resulting in a lower adsorption capacity but facilitating better
sufficient if the metal concentration is relatively low. Conversely, a high diffusion of metal ions within, due to lower diffusion resistance. Therefore,
adsorbent dosage increases the adsorption capacity but may reach a it is essential to find a balance between the specific surface area and the
saturation point where adding more adsorbent does not lead to significantly diffusion resistance, which involves selecting a particle size that maximizes
higher adsorption (Kumar et al., 2019). adsorption efficiency without introducing significant limitations in adsorption
kinetics.
According to Tejada-Tovar et al. (2015), temperature is one of the It is worth mentioning that some reviewed studies do not report the particle
factors that most influences adsorption, as it affects the adsorption rate and size used in their research.
the maximum adsorption capacity. A temperature around 25–30 ÿC is Finally, agitation speed is another factor that influences adsorption.
considered optimal for the adsorption of heavy metals, since an From the review of the articles, the results obtained for agitation speed

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Table 6
Adsorption mechanisms of different materials for the removal of heavy metals from industrial wastewater.

Type of Material Precursor Adsorption mechanism

Adsorbent

Living room Natural moss (Ozeken et al., 2023). The adsorption mechanism of natural moss involves processes such as
Organisms complexation, adsorption, diffusion, chelation and precipitation, depending on the specific
characteristics of the biomass used. These processes allow moss to act as an effective adsorbent
for the removal of heavy metal ions from water.
Escherichia coli (E. coli) (Khosravi et al., 2020). The adsorption mechanism of Escherichia coli (E. coli) is based on electrostatic interactions
due to its negatively charged surface, complex formation with metals through functional groups,
physical adsorption, production of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) that increase
the adsorption surface, and ion exchange where metal cations replace other cations on the
surface.
Methylobacterium hispanicum (Jeong et al., 2019). The adsorption mechanism of Methylobacterium hispanicum EM2 for the removal of Pb(II) is
based on the electrostatic attraction between the negative charge of its surface and the positive
Pb(II) ions, as well as on chemical interactions through functional groups on the surface of the
microorganism.
Microalgae Spirulina platensis (Malakootian et al., 2016). The adsorption mechanism of the microalgae Spirulina platensis for lead removal is based on
electrostatic and chemical interactions, where lead ions are attracted to the surface of the algae.
Adsorption follows the Langmuir model and second-order kinetics, indicating that it occurs at specific
sites. The structure and functional groups of the biomass also contribute to its adsorption capacity,
although efficiency decreases when the available sites become saturated.

Green micro-algae (Birungi and Chirwa, 2015) The adsorption mechanism of green microalgae for thallium removal involves the interaction of
functional groups such as carboxyls and phenols on their surface with metal ions, through ionic
and coordination bonds.
Filamentous green algae Spirogyra porticalis (Sayyaf et al., 2016). The adsorption mechanism of Spirogyra porticalis involves biosorption, where metal ions
form complexes with biomaterials using their ligands or functional groups. These functional
groups, such as amino, hydroxyl, carboxyl and sulfate, act as binding sites for metal ions on the
surface of the algal cell wall. This process is based on physicochemical reactions such as
electrostatic attraction.
´
Biomasses Coffee pulp (Gomez Aguilar et al., 2020). The adsorption mechanism consists of a combination of electrostatic interactions and chemical
bonds between the functional groups of the coffee pulp and the manganese cations, which
allows for effective removal of this contaminant from
toilet.
Mulberry leaf (Mangood et al., 2023). The adsorption mechanism of berry leaves involves chemical interactions, physical characteristics
of the surface, and environmental conditions such as pH, which together facilitate the capture
of metal ions from contaminated water.
Pistachio hull (Beidokh ti et al., 2019). The adsorption mechanism of Pistachio Hull Waste for the removal of nickel ions involves
complex interactions that depend on the pH, the nature of the functional groups on the adsorbent
surface and the kinetics of the adsorption process.
Rice and corn husk (Sanka et al., 2020). The adsorption mechanism of rice and corn biochars involves a combination of physical and
chemical interactions that allow the effective capture of metal ions in
wastewater.
Watermelon rind (Li et al., 2019a). The adsorption mechanism of watermelon peel-derived biochar for Tl(I) removal involves the
formation of complexes on the adsorbent surface, especially under alkaline conditions, where
hydroxyl groups interact with Tl(I) ions. Although electrostatic interactions were also present.

Porous carbon derived from biospecies (Li et al., 2019b). The hierarchically porous adsorbent uses a combination of physical and chemical adsorption to
achieve a high removal capacity of mercury ions from aqueous media.
Platanus orientalis bark (Akar et al., 2019). The adsorption mechanisms of Platanus orientalis include chemical interactions with functional
groups, a porous surface that increases binding sites, the influence of pH, and observable
changes in the surface of the material upon adsorption of heavy metals.

Sugarcane bagasse (Gupta et al., 2018). The adsorption mechanism of sugarcane bagasse involves the chemical interaction between the
functional groups of the material and the Cu(II) ions, influenced by the modification of the
adsorbent and the pH of the solution.
Pine sawdust (Elboughdiri et al., 2021). The adsorption mechanism prevailing in the pine sawdust adsorbent is chemisorption,
evidenced by the fitting of the kinetic data to the pseudo-second order model.

Banana peel (Mohd et al., 2016). The adsorption mechanism prevailing on banana peel is the electrostatic interaction between
carboxylic functional groups, which are deprotonated and become negative at pH above
4, and positively charged metal ions, such as lead (Pb) and copper (Cu). This interaction
increases the availability of binding sites for the adsorption of toxic metals in solution.

Mangifera seed shell (Kose et al., 2015). According to the study, the adsorption occurred through physical and chemical interactions,
where the seed shell acts as an adsorbent due to its surface rich in functional groups that can
interact with metal ions. These interactions may include ionic bonds, Van der Waals forces and
hydrogen bonds.
Corn cobs (Jin et al., 2019). The adsorption mechanism prevailing in corncob is mainly based on physical adsorption,
which includes interactions such as Van der Waals forces and hydrogen bonding. The porous
structure and high specific surface area of corncob facilitate the capture of As(V) through these
mechanisms. Furthermore, heat treatment of corncob to carbonize it can increase its adsorption
capacity by creating more available sites for contaminant binding.

Biopolymers Gum arabic (Shalikh and Majeed, 2022). The adsorption mechanism of carbonized gum arabic includes three stages: first, the transport of
the adsorbate to the surface by film diffusion; then, diffusion within the

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Table 6 (continued )

Type of Material Precursor Adsorption mechanism

Adsorbent

pores; and finally, adsorption on the internal surfaces. This process is affected by pH and contact time,
which influences the interaction with heavy metals.
Palm cellulose copolymer (Rahman et al., 2020). The adsorption mechanism of the palm cellulose copolymer adsorbent is based on the formation of
chemical bonds between the amidoxime functional groups of the polymer and metal ions. This process
involves the transfer or exchange of electrons between the polymer and metals, resulting in a strong
chemical interaction.
Chelating ligand of poly (hydroxamic acid) - poly (amidoxime) from acacia cellulose The adsorption mechanism of poly(hydroxamic acid)-poly(amidoxime) chelating ligands is based on
grafted with poly (methyl acrylate-co-acrylonitrile) ( the formation of stable complexes between the functional groups of the ligands and the metal ions,
Rahman et al., 2016). facilitated by the dissociation of the proton from the hydroxyl group. This coordination is more efficient
at a pH of around 6, where the adsorption capacity increases, especially towards metal ions such as
copper.
Polyethyleneimine (PEI) modified nanocellulose cross-linked with magnetic The adsorption mechanism of nanocellulose-modified Polyethyleneimine (PEI) and magnetic bentonite
bentonite (Sun et al., 2022). for Ag(I) removal is based on chemical interactions between the amino groups of PEI and metal ions,
as well as electrostatic attractions.
Activated Activated carbon extracted from pineapples (Saleh Ibrahim et al., 2022). Physisorption was used for the removal of contaminants such as heavy metals and dyes, where
Carbons physical interactions allowed the molecules to adsorb onto the surface of the activated carbon.
Chemisorption also played a role, especially in the removal of metal ions, where stronger chemical
bonds were formed between the contaminants and the activated carbon, increasing the
adsorption efficiency.
Activated carbon (Sajjad et al., 2017). The adsorption mechanism of activated carbon involves physical interaction through Van der
Waals forces and hydrogen bonding, where contaminants adhere to the carbon surface.

Activated carbon from mixed waste (ALOthman et al., 2016). The adsorption mechanism that prevailed in the activated carbon adsorbent is physical adsorption,
which is based on electrostatic interactions between metal ions (Cu(II) and Pb(II)) and adsorption sites
on the carbon surface.
Chemical Kaolin modified by calcination with NaOH NaOH (Yang et al., 2018). The adsorption mechanism that prevailed in the modified kaolin adsorbent was chemical adsorption,
Modification evidenced by the best fit of the data to the pseudo-second-order kinetic equation. This indicates
that the interaction between metal ions and modified kaolin is predominantly chemical. Furthermore,
the adsorption process was observed to be heterogeneous, suggesting the involvement of multiple
adsorption sites on the surface of the material.

Sugarcane bagasse modified with acid (ASG) Gupta et al. (2018). The adsorption mechanism of acid-modified bagasse sugar (ASG) involves the interaction of
metal ions, such as Cu(II), with acidic functional groups present on the surface of the adsorbent.
These groups, such as carboxyls and hydroxyls, facilitate the formation of bonds between the
metal and the adsorbent, thus increasing the adsorption capacity.

Sugarcane bagasse modified with base (BSG) Gupta et al. (2018). The adsorption mechanism of base-modified bagasse sugar (BSG) is based on the interaction of metal
ions with functional groups generated by the alkaline modification. This treatment increases
the number of active sites on the surface of
the adsorbent, improving its capacity to attract and retain metal ions such as Cu(II).
Nanocellulose modified with polyethyleneimine (PEI) cross-linked with magnetic bentonite The adsorption mechanism of the polyethyleneimine-magnetic bentonite modified nanocellulose
(Sun et al., 2022). composite (PNMBC) is based on chemisorption, where the main interaction comes from the
chelation of functional groups and electrostatic forces.
Other materials Magnetic biochar (MBN3) (Noor et al., 2023). The adsorption mechanism of Magnetic biochar adsorbent includes internal sphere complexation,
surface precipitation, electrostatic attraction and physical adsorption. Cd2+ ions attach
directly to the surface of magnetic biochar or to the active functional groups present on its surface.

Porous flocculant particles from coal fly ash residues (MFCA) (Hussain et al., 2022). The adsorption mechanism of porous materials obtained from modified coal ash (MCFA) involves
both physical and chemical adsorption. The modification increases the surface area and the amount of
oxygen-containing groups, thus improving the chelation capacity of heavy metals (HMs). This allows
the HMs to adhere to the active sites on the surface of the adsorbent, facilitating their removal from
contaminated water.

Bentonite clay (Maleki et al., 2019). The adsorption mechanism of bentonite clay is based on its high specific surface area and cation
exchange capacity, which allows it to attract and retain metal ions and contaminants in its structure.
The interaction occurs mainly through electrostatic forces, chemical bonds and the
formation of complexes between metal ions and functional groups present on the surface of the clay.

Iranian sepiolite (Hojati and Landi, 2015). The adsorption mechanism of Iranian sepiolite for Zn2+ ions is physical adsorption on sepiolite
particles, complemented by chemical precipitation of Zn2+ ions from solution.

Copper oxide (CuO) (Kondabey et al., 2019) The adsorption mechanism is physical adsorption, where chromium ions (Cr(III)) bind to the active
sites on the CuO surface. This process is influenced by the availability of active sites and
competition with hydroxide ions (OH) in the solution, which affects the adsorption efficiency. Saturation
of the active sites leads to an equilibrium state after a specific time, in this case, 24 h.

Plant ashes (Jin et al., 2019). The adsorption mechanism of plant ash adsorbent is mainly based on the physical and chemical
interaction between As(V) and the material surface. The porous structure and spherical shape of
plant ash particles facilitate a larger surface area, which increases the adsorption capacity.

Mixture of solid waste (RS) with Clinoptilolite (CL) modified in a 10:1 ratio (Aljerf, 2018). The adsorption mechanism that prevailed in the modified zeolite (clinoptilolite) is mainly ion exchange.
In this case, the cations present in the solution are exchanged by cations on the surface of the modified
clinoptilolite, facilitating the adsorption of contaminants such as bromocresol purple (BCP) dye and
heavy metals. In addition, this process is complemented by chemisorption.

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Table 6 (continued )

Type of Material Precursor Adsorption mechanism

Adsorbent

Vermiculite mixed with chitosan (Prakash et al., 2017). The adsorption mechanism of the chitosan-mixed vermiculite adsorbent involves three
steps: (1) diffusion of ions to the external surface of the adsorbent; (2) diffusion
of ions into the pores of the adsorbent; and (3) adsorption of ions on the internal surface
of the adsorbent. This process is favored by the structure of the material and the
presence of intramolecular hydrogen bonds.
Ethylene and polyurethane sorbent (PES) (Iqbal et al., 2017). The adsorption mechanism of ethylene and polyurethane adsorbent (PES and VAS) is
controlled by several factors, including the interaction between heavy metal ions (such
as Ni(II)) and functional groups available on the surface of the adsorbent.
Magnetite nanoparticles (Sosun et al., 2022). The adsorption mechanism of the adsorbent is based on the interaction between
metal ions and the surface of iron oxide nanoparticles, functionalized with trioctyl
phosphine oxide (TOPO).
Humic acid on a chitosan-crosslinked silica gel surface (SiChiHA) ( The adsorption mechanism of the humic acid adsorbent on the chitosan-crosslinked
Prasetyo and Toyoda, 2023). silica gel surface (SiChiHA) is based on the formation of peptide bonds between the
amino groups of chitosan and the carboxylate groups of humic acid. This process
allows an effective modification of the surface, increasing the adsorption capacity of the
material. In addition, the presence of basic functional groups in chitosan favors the
attraction of negatively charged species.
Macroporous terpolymer of glycidyl methacrylate (GMA), methyl The adsorption mechanism of the macroporous terpolymer of glycidyl methacrylate
methacrylate (MMA), and divinylbenzene (DVB) (Yayayürük and Erdem (GMA), methyl methacrylate (MMA) and divinylbenzene (DVB) is based on the
Yayayürük, 2016). formation of complexes between the functional groups of diethylenetriamine
tetraacetic acid (DTTA) and metal ions, such as Cu(II). This process includes
electrostatic interactions and coordinate bonds that allow the capture of the ions on the
polymer surface.
Sand and Jacobi activated carbon (Arbabi et al., 2018). The adsorption mechanism of the sand-activated carbon adsorbent involves two main steps: first,
solids are adsorbed by Van der Waals forces and dipole moments on the external surfaces of the
activated carbon; second, solids are allowed to move into the cavities of the carbon. This process
enables the decomposition of organic materials in the wastewater.

range from 100 rpm to 800 rpm. Agitation speed is crucial in the adsorption process as it is 24.53 mg/LAAdditionally, the same author conducted studies for metals such as Zn
affects the diffusion of heavy metals towards the surface of the adsorbent, thereby concentration, Ni, Pb, Cd, Mn, and Cu with removal percentages of 99.8%, 99.8%, 99.2%,
improving the efficiency of the process. 94.7%, 99.9%, and 99.8%, respectively. However, Sajjad et al. (2017) mention in their
In general, a higher agitation speed can increase the adsorption rate by reducing the study that activated carbon (AC) achieved a maximum chromium removal of 70% at pH =
resistance to mass transfer in the liquid film surrounding the adsorbent particles. However, 6. However, when the pH was reduced to 3, the removal increased to 82.8%. Therefore,
it must be optimized along with other factors such as pH, contact time, adsorbent dose, they emphasize that the removal of potentially toxic elements from aqueous solutions
temperature, and particle size to achieve the best results in the removal of heavy metals largely depends on the pH. However, AC can be used for the removal of metals such as
from industrial wastewater. Cd and Pb, with removal percentages of 79.8% and 78%, respectively. On the other hand,
Sanka et al. (2020) found in their study that rice husk biochar exhibited a higher chromium
removal capacity compared to corn husk biochar, with 65% and 20%, respectively.

3.2. P2. What is the efficiency of different materials and used as adsorbents in
the removal of heavy metals from industrial wastewater?

Industrial effluents from tanneries, rich in heavy metals and basic dyes like
The main materials used as adsorbents are classified into organic and inorganic types
bromocresol purple (BCP), pose an economic problem and a serious environmental
that remove various heavy metals from different in-industrial effluents. Table 4 shows the
hazard. Therefore, in the research conducted by Aljerf (2018), the importance of the
removal efficiency, initial concentration of the contaminant, and the maximum adsorption
adsorption properties of a modified clinoptilolite (CL) (a type of zeolite) for the removal of
capacity of the adsorbent. Therefore, the study by Cordova Llacsahuache and Torres
´ total chromium (tCr) in the ammoniacal phase was evaluated. This study achieved a
Odar, 2020 mentions that organic wastes contain structures such as proteins,
removal of 90%, with a maximum adsorption capacity of 37 mg/g. The adsorption was
polysaccharides, carboxyl groups, hydroxyls, and amine or amide groups, which offer
spontaneous and endothermic, with an increase in entropy.
better removal efficiency because the dis-solved ions bond through electrostatic attraction.

Gupta et al. (2018) investigated the adsorption potential of sugar-cane bagasse

Ozeken et al. (2023), Akar et al. (2019), Prakash et al. (2017), and Sayyaf et al.
(SG), acid-modified sugarcane bagasse (ASG), base-modified sugarcane bagasse (BSG),
(2016) used different adsorbents such as: natural moss, powdered Platanus orientalis
and activated carbon (AC) as adsorbents for the removal of Cu (II) from synthetic effluents
bark, modified Clinoptilolite, powdered filamentous green algae Spirogyra porticalis, and
and in-industrial wastewater in a batch process. Thus, the following removal efficiencies
vermiculite mixed with chitosan for the removal of Cr (VI). Therefore, powdered modified
were obtained: SG = 88.9%, ASG = 96.9%, BSG = 94.8%, and AC = 98.5%, respectively.
Pla-tanus orientalis bark demonstrated a removal efficiency of 90.7%, with a maximum
The morphology and functionality of the adsorbents' surfaces were identified using
adsorption capacity of 19.920 mg/g and an initial adsorbate concentration of 86.39 mg/L.
scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR),
In contrast, natural moss is identified as the adsorbent that removes the least Cr (VI), with
respectively.
an efficiency of 54.5%.

Additionally, bentonite clay demonstrated high performance, removing 99% of Cu (II) with
However, Ozeken et al. (2023) mention in their study that REB is an abundant, cost-
an initial concentration of 3000 mg/L and a maximum adsorption capacity of 1000 mg/g.
effective, and efficient adsorbent for the removal of heavy metals from aqueous solutions.
For the removal of Cd (II), a removal percentage of 96% was achieved, with an initial
concentration of 2600 mg/L and a maximum adsorption capacity of 850 mg/g. For Pb (II),
In the study conducted by Rahman et al. (2016), it was demonstrated that chelating
the removal percentage was 99%, with an initial concentration of
ligands derived from grafted acacia cellulose have the ability to remove 99.8% of chromium
when the initial contaminant

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FG Avila et al.

3000 mg/L and a maximum adsorption capacity of 900 mg/g. For Hg (II), isotherm is the most employed. Out of a total of 26 reviewed articles, 16
the removal percentage was 92%, with the initial concentration being the studies used the Freundlich isotherm, while the remaining 10 studies used
same as for Cd (II). This was demonstrated by Maleki et al. (2019) in their the Langmuir isotherm, as shown in Fig. 2 through a bar chart.
study. Regarding Table 5, the studies conducted by Saleh Ibrahim et al.
According to the study conducted by Jin et al. (2019), adsorption (ADS) (2022), Beidokhti et al. (2019), Rahman et al. (2020), Sanka et al.
and dielectrophoresis (DEP) techniques were combined (ADS/-DEP) to (2020), Jeong et al. (2019), Li et al. (2019), Aljerf (2018), Sun et al.
efficiently remove As(V) from industrial wastewater. The maximum removal (2022), Sosun et al. (2022), Elboughdiri et al. (2021), Iqbal et al. (2017),
efficiency of As(V) was 91.4%. To achieve this removal, fly ash, activated Kose et al. (2015), and Akar et al. (2019) use the Freundlich isotherm
carbon, corn cobs, and plant ash were tested to determine the best model because it has demonstrated greater reliability in the results for the
adsorbent based on its adsorption capacity. adsorption of heavy metals. Additionally, it has the ability to explain
Plant ashes showed the highest adsorption capacity compared to the adsorption behavior on a heterogeneous (multilayer) surface of the
others. On the other hand, Birungi and Chirwa (2015) focused on the use adsorbent and presents adsorption sites with different energies.
of green algae Chlorella vulgaris to determine the sorption potential and The Langmuir isotherm is the second most used model for adsorption
recovery of Tl. It was found that removal efficiency reached 100% for lower studies (Sosun et al., 2022; Khosravi et al., 2020). This model assumes
concentrations of ÿ150 mg/L of Tl. At higher concentrations, in the range that adsorption is homogeneous across all sites on the adsorbent surface
of 250–500 mg/L, the algae performance was even better, with a sorption and that its maximum adsorption corresponds to a saturated monolayer,
capacity (q_max) between 830 and 1000 mg/g. Prasetyo and Toyoda further preventing interactions between the adsorbed species (Ozeken et
(2023) in their research prepared a low-cost adsorbent by immobilizing al., 2023; Yayayürük and Erdem Yayayürük, 2016; Mohd et al., 2016;
humic acid on a surface of silica gel coated with cross-linked chitosan Noor et al., 2023).
(SiChiHA). The adsorbent was developed to selectively remove Th (IV) On the other hand, it can be observed that in reaction kinetics, the
and U (VI) from an aqueous solution. pseudo-second-order model is the most used for fitting within the models
Consequently, the removal was 47.1% and 56.13%, respectively, with an according to the studies conducted (Fig. 3).
initial concentration of 12.34 mg/L and a maximum adsorption capacity of The results show that the isotherm model can vary according to the
30.6 mg/g for Th (IV), and an initial concentration of 33.45 mg/L and a type of adsorbent, the correlation coefficient fit, and the type of heavy
maximum adsorption capacity of 75.4 mg/g for U (VI). metal being treated. For example, studies such as (Ozeken et al., 2023;
Mangood et al., 2023; Hussain et al., 2022; Sun et al., 2022; Yayayürük
3.3. P3. What is the most used adsorption isotherm for the removal of and Erdem Yayayürük, 2016) address Cu (II) using different adsorbents
heavy metals in industrial wastewater, and what are the advantages and like mulberry leaves powder, porous particles, nanocellulose modified with
limitations of its application in different industrial contexts? polyethyleneimine (PEI) crosslinked with magnetic bentonite, and
macroporous terpolymer of glycidyl methacrylate (GMA), methyl
The results regarding the most used isotherm for the adsorption of methacrylate (MMA), and divinylbenzene (DVB). Additionally, in terms of
heavy metals from industrial wastewater show that the Freundlich correlation coefficient fits, the Freundlich isotherm predominates in

Fig. 4. Kinetics and isotherms in the adsorption process.

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Table 7
Adsorbent used in the removal of heavy metals from industrial wastewater concerning the total surface area. Where As = Total surface area of the adsorbent.

Heavy Surface morphology of the Adsorbent Ace Authors

metal adsorbent

Cr(VI) - Natural moss 5.15 m2/ g

Ozeken et al. (2023)

Cr - Steam-activated sawdust 795.68

Elboughdiri et al. (2021)
m2/ g

Cu(II) - Natural moss 5.15 m2/ g (Ozeken et al., 2023; Hussain et al., 2022;

Sun et al., 2022)

- Flocculant porous particles from ash residues 32.011

m2/ g

- Nanocellulose modified with polyethyleneimine (PEI) cross- 14.24

linked with magnetic bentonite m2/ g

Cd(II) - Magnetic biochar (MBN3) 63.5 m2/ g

Noor et al. (2023)

Hg - Porous carbon derived from biospecies 350.8

Li et al. (2019a)
m2/ g

Mn (II) - Flocculating porous particles from ash residues 32.011

Hussain et al. (2022)
m2/ g

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Table 7 (continued )

Heavy Surface morphology of the Adsorbent Ace Authors

metal adsorbent

Pb (II) - Flocculating porous particles from ash residues 32.011

Hussain et al. (2022)
m2/ g

Neither (II) - Flocculating porous particles from ash residues 32.011

Hussain et al. (2022)
m2/ g

most studies, demonstrating a good fit with pseudo-second-order reaction kinetics (R2 > kinetics model that best describes the process under study. The Lang-muir and Freundlich
0.9). It also highlights that the adsorption occurs on a heterogeneous, multilayer surface. adsorption isotherms, by analyzing their slopes and intercepts, offer valuable information
In contrast, natural moss shows a better fit with the Langmuir isotherm, which indicates about the adsorption affinity, the mean free energy and the nature of the process (whether
that the adsorp-tion occurs on a homogeneous, monolayer surface (Ozeken et al., 2023). it is phys-isorption or chemisorption, as well as whether it is a monolayer or multilayer
process).
In some of the reviewed studies, both the Freundlich and Langmuir models were
applied and analyzed using determination coefficients (R2 ), according to which model Therefore, both the adsorption kinetics and the revised isotherms are essential tools
provided a better fit. For example, the study by Mangood et al. (2023) evaluated the to understand in depth the adsorption process, allowing to optimize applications in water
adsorption capacities of various heavy metals using the same adsorbent. In this case, the treatment and in various industries where the removal of contaminants is critical; this
reaction kinetics model used was the Pseudo-second-order model, which showed a better relationship can be represented by Fig. 4.
fit for the Langmuir model (R2 = 0.99) for the metals Ni II, Pb II, and Co II. However, for
Cu II, the Freundlich isotherm matched the fit of the Langmuir isotherm (R2 = 0.98), In Table 7, it is shown that adsorbents such as porous carbon derived from bio-
indicating that adsorption occurs on a homogeneous and monolayer surface, while for Cu species and steam-activated sawdust have larger surface areas, with 350.8 m2 /g and
II, it highlights the complex mechanism of the chemical or physical adsorption taking place. 795.68 m2 /g, respectively. Following these, magnetic biochar (MBN3) has a surface area
of 63.5 m2 /g, porous flocculating particles from ash residues have a surface area of
32.01 m2 / g, PEI-modified nanocellulose crosslinked with magnetic bentonite has 14.24
Ozeken et al. (2023), Noor et al. (2023), and Hussain et al. (2022) in their studies m2 /g, and natural moss has a much smaller surface area compared to the other
used both Freundlich and Langmuir isotherms, where the correlation coefficients were adsorbents, with 5.15 m2 /g. These findings align with the research conducted by Cordova
greater than 0.9. These were acceptable for expressing the adsorption mechanisms of Llacsahuache and Torres Odar, 2020, which states that the surface area of the adsorbent
´
each heavy metal they studied, revealing an external surface with some active sites increases the
distributed homo-geneously and others distributed heterogeneously on the adsorbent.
adsorption capacity. Therefore, a larger surface area means more available sites for the
Table 6 presents a variety of adsorbents and the associated adsorp-tion mechanisms, adsorbate molecules to adhere to. Additionally, a larger surface area of the adsorbent
allowing for an in-depth understanding of how different substances can be used for the speeds up the adsorption process.
removal of contaminants, especially heavy metals, from water. This table discusses And an adsorbent with a large surface area can be more efficient, reducing the amount of material needed

various ad-sorbents, such as living organisms, biomass and activated carbon, highlighting and, therefore, the operational costs.
their adsorption mechanisms, which include electro-chemical interactions, chemical
complexation and physical adsorption. In Table 8, the advantages, regeneration cycles, and limitations of some adsorbents
that are very useful for adsorption processes are presented. Although the studies do not
Environmental conditions, such as pH and contact time, influence their effectiveness. The provide solid information regarding regeneration cycles and costs, further research is
use of natural materials and waste offers sustainable solutions for the removal of needed.
contaminants from water.
The authors of the reviewed studies indicate that adsorption kinetics describes the
rate at which a solute is adsorbed on the surface of an 3.4. Technical-economic analysis and a feasibility study of the adsorbent
adsorbent, as well as the time that adsorbates remain at the solid-liquid interface. This
phenomenon is crucial to understanding how the adsorption process takes place under Table 9 presents a variety of natural and recyclable adsorbents that show high
different conditions. Adsorption isotherms play a fundamental role in characterizing the efficiency in removing heavy metals, such as Copper Oxide and Banana Peel. These
interaction be-tween adsorbate and adsorbent, as well as in determining the optimal materials are effective in wastewater treatment, contributing to the improvement of water
adsorption capacity of the adsorbent. The most common models, such as Langmuir and quality.
Freundlich, provide information on the nature of the adsorbent surface and the behavior The reusability of many adsorbents, such as Escherichia coli and Spirulina platensis,
of the system. reduces operating costs and promotes sustainability.
The use of natural adsorbents and agricultural waste, such as Mango Seed Peel and
The adsorption kinetics equation can be represented graphically, where the shape of Coffee Pulp, promotes sustainable practices and the circular economy.
the straight line allows determining key parameters, such as the adsorption capacity of
the adsorbent, the rate constant, the adsorption rate, and the intraparticle diffusion. The Furthermore, the implementation of these adsorbents improves water quality and
correlation coeffi-cient obtained from these graphs is essential to identify the adsorption offers significant environmental benefits. The technological and economic feasibility of
many of them is supported by studies that demonstrate their effectiveness, making them
promising options for

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Table 8
Comparison of the different adsorbents regarding their advantages, regeneration cycles, and limitations.

Adsorbent Advantages Regeneration cycles Limitations Authors

Natural moss (REB) - Economical and sustainable for reducing - Up to 5 cycles can be used. - The presence or increase in salt Ozeken et al.
environmental pollution. No regeneration (Cr (VI) and Cu (II) concentration causes a decrease in the (2023)
- Greater adsorption capacity for Cr (VI) and ions could not be desorbed number of ions adsorbed, possibly due to the increased
Cu (II). from REB). ionic strength in the presence of foreign ions. These
ions can competitively saturate the active sites of
REB, leading to reduced adsorption efficiencies.

- Low adsorption capacity of natural REB.

Magnetic Biocarbon - The slow heating process of pyrolysis helps the volatile - The surface of the magnetic biocarbon is Noor et al.
(MBN3) matter to break down, forming more surface pores, heterogeneous, which means that only certain (2023)
thus having a higher efficiency capacity to absorb sites are active, restricting its adsorption
or retain metals. capacity for different types of metal ions.

- The results obtained are from a laboratory

under controlled conditions, whereas further research
is needed at an industrial level.
- At temperatures above 500 ÿC, the metal
adsorption efficiency decreases. Specifically, an
overdose would occur at 700 ÿC, reducing porosity and
surface area.
´
Coffee pulp - The use of coffee pulp as an adsorbent can help - Coffee pulp may have limitations. (Gomez
contribute to Sustainable Development Goal No. 3 - Further research is needed regarding the use of coffee Aguilar
(Good Health and Well-being) and Goal No. 6 pulp as an adsorbent, with or without chemical et al., 2020)
(Clean Water and Sanitation) of the 2030 Agenda for modification, to verify its effectiveness and applicability.
Sustainable Development.

- It can be effective in the removal of the

heavy metal Mn(II).
Mulberry leaf powder -They are cheap and easy to obtain. - pH can be a very important factor to Mangood
- It can be effective in the adsorption of heavy metals consider, as it needs to be adjusted for each metal et al. (2023)
such as Pb2 ÿ, Ni2 ÿ, Co2 ÿ, and Cu2 ÿ, which that needs to be removed.
indicates that it may also be used to adsorb other - The maximum adsorption capacity for metals might not
heavy metals present in be sufficient for high concentrations of
wastewater. heavy metals in wastewater, leading to a
decrease in adsorption effectiveness.

- Competition for adsorption sites among ions when there

are more heavy metals present.
- The study does not mention whether the adsorbent
is regenerable, which can be crucial and
potentially expensive.
Activated carbon - Ozone pumping is a good activating factor to increase - The efficiency of heavy metal removal at (Saleh
extracted from efficiency in the adsorption process. high concentrations can decrease adsorption efficiency Ibrahim
pineapples because active sites become saturated and et al., 2022)
adsorption starts occurring in less active or lower-
energy areas.
Palm cellulose - The synthesized polymeric ligand absorbs heavy - The ligand can be recycled Rahman
copolymer metals from electroplating wastewater for at least 10 cycles with no et al. (2020)
with up to 95% efficiency. significant loss in its initial
adsorption capacity.
Escherichia coli biofilm - Rapid removal in the initial hours. - At high pH, the adsorption capacity for heavy Khosravi
placed on zeolite -They are low-cost and abundant, as well as being very metals may decrease. et al. (2020)
eco-friendly and sustainable for the environment. - High concentrations of the contaminant
significantly reduces the efficiency of metal adsorption.

Magnetite nanoparticles - Non-toxic. - Increasing the contact time, the number of available Sosun et al.
- Abundant presence on Earth makes its use feasible active sites on the adsorbents becomes occupied (2022)
and cost-effective. by heavy metal ions, resulting in surface saturation
- Targeting specific contaminated areas of the sorbent and reducing the diffusion of ions into the
through magnetic support.
- The adsorption process occurs on the pores.
external surface of the iron oxide, ensuring shorter
adsorption times (higher kinetic rates).

- Iron oxide nanoparticles are reusable.

Humic acid on a surface - Low-cost adsorbent. At least five cycles without a - Efficiency can be affected by the pH parameter. Prasetyo and
of silica gel coated with Increasing the concentration of NaCl does not affect the significant loss of capacity. Toyoda
cross-linked chitosan efficiency of heavy metal removal. (2023)
(SiChiHA)

wastewater treatment. Overall, these adsorbents are viable and 3.5. Applicability of the findings from the review
environmentally friendly options for water treatment, aligning with current
sustainability needs. Industrial wastewater contains a variety of contaminants such as heavy
metals, organic compounds, chemicals, and nutrients that can be

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Table 9

Comparative analysis of adsorbents for heavy metal removal in industrial wastewater: Efficiency, sustainability, and economic feasibility.

Type of Adsorbent Technical Aspects Economic Aspects Feasibility Study Justification

Adsorption Reusability Sustainability Material Cost Operating Cost Environmental Technical Economic Environmental Efficiency and Cost Reduction

efficiency Benefit feasibility Viability Impact Sustainability

Natural moss ( High in Cr(VI) and Can be used Natural material, you Low and Decreased by Improving High efficiency in Low material It contributes to High in Cr(VI) and Low material
Ozeken et al., Cu(II). multiple reduce waste. abundant reusability public health and the removal of and operation waste reduction and Cu(II). Natural and operating
2023) times without reducing Cr(VI) and Cu (II). cost, high improves public material, reusable costs due to its

regeneration. pollutants. reusability. health. several times. reusability.

Contributes to Improves
waste reduction. public health by
reducing
pollution.
Escherichia coli ( Effective in It can be Abundant Low (easy Maintenance Generating Validated in Low Sustainable Effective in Low
Khosravi et al., Cu2ÿ and Zn2ÿ. reused. microorganisms, cultivation) and condition income from studies for the cultivation processes and removing Cu2ÿ cultivation
2020) sustainable control metal recovery. removal of costs and improvement of and Zn2ÿ. costs, potential
processes. heavy metals. potential for water quality. Abundant and income from
income from sustainable metal recovery.
metal microorganism.
recovery.
Methylobacterium 96% in Pb(II). Reusable Sustainable, Cultivation and Infrastructure for Improve water High Pb(II) Competitive Eco-friendly High adsorption Competitive
hispanicum EM2 under contributes to maintenance treatment quality, avoid adsorption production solution that capacity of Pb(II) production
(Jeong et al., controlled waste reduction. costs penalties. capacity, costs, contributes to (96%). costs,
2019) conditions. resistant to high economic sustainability. Sustainable and improved
concentrations. benefits from environmentally water quality
19

metal friendly. avoids

reduction. penalties.
Spirulina platensis Up to 36.01% in Reusable. Sustainable Relatively low Nutrients and Generation of Proven in Low Promotes High adsorption Low
(Malakootian et heavy production, low labor additional studies with production sustainable capacity for heavy cultivation
al., 2016) metals. resource income. high adsorption cost and practices and metals. costs,
consumption. capacity. potential for improves water Sustainable possibility of
additional quality. production. additional
income. income from

marketing.
´
Coffee Pulp (Gomez Up to 53.40% Can be used Contributes to the Low Transport and Savings in Effective in Low It uses Efficiency of up to Savings in
Aguilar et al., Mn(II). ace circular (agricultural by- processing treatment, removing collection agricultural 53.40% in Mn(II). wastewater
2020) agricultural economy. product) reduction of contaminants, costs, savings on waste, Recyclable and treatment by
waste. waste. easy to prepare. chemicals contributing to the sustainable using a
Cleaner
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treatments. circular material. recyclable 100879

economy. material.

Mango Seed Husk ( 81–82% in Fe Reusable. Abundant, low Low (industry Minimal Improvement in waste Good Low Contributes to High efficiency in Low collection
Kose et al., 2015) (II) and Mn (II). cost. residue) processing adsorption harvesting the reduction of adsorption of costs, reduced
management. capacity for and agricultural waste. heavy metals. effluent

heavy metals. processing Abundant and low treatment

costs. cost. costs.

Filamentous green 27.48 mg/g for Reusable Natural material, Low (abundant in Maintenance Sustainability and High adsorption Relatively low Improves water Adsorption Low

algae Spirogyra Cr(VI). after contributes to aquatic and collection waste capacity for Cr (VI) procurement and quality and uses a capacity of 27.48 mg/ production and
porticalis (Sayyaf et treatment. sustainability. environments) reduction. under natural g for Cr(VI). preparation
al., 2016) controlled preparation resource. Sustainable and costs,
conditions. costs. easy to obtain. improved
water quality.

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Table 9 (continued )

Type of Adsorbent Technical Aspects Economic Aspects Feasibility Study Justification

Adsorption Reusability Sustainability Material Cost Operating Cost Environmental Technical Economic Environmental Efficiency and Cost Reduction

efficiency Benefit feasibility Viability Impact Sustainability

´
Coffee pulp (Gomez Up to 53.40% Can be used Sustainable and Low Processing and Reduction of Efficient in Savings in It uses an Efficiency of up to Reduction of

Aguilar et al., Mn(II). ace recyclable. (agricultural by- storage pollutants and removing heavy wastewater agricultural by- 53.40% in Mn(II). treatment costs
2020) agricultural product) improvement of water metals. treatment. product, Sustainable and by using waste
waste. quality. contributing to recyclable. material.

sustainability.
Pistachio hull 14 mg/g for Ni. Reusable. Reduces Low (waste Prosecution Reduces Effective in Minimum Contribute to the Adsorption Low

(Beidokh ti et al., 2019) agricultural material) agricultural removing heavy acquisition circular capacity of 14 mg/ acquisition cost,
waste. waste. metals. costs, high economy by g for Ni. reduced wastewater

availability. reducing waste. Waste material,

contributing to treatment

sustainability. costs.
Rice and corn husk High metal Reusable. Sustainable and Low Processing and Improves water High adsorption Low and It uses High efficiency in metal Low

(Sanka et al., removal recyclable (agricultural storage quality, capacity and competitive agricultural removal. acquisition
2020) capacity. material. residues) contributes to easy production waste, Abundant and costs, reduced
sustainability. preparation. costs. contributing to sustainable treatment

sustainability. material. costs.

Watermelon rind ( High in Tl(I). Regenerable. Agricultural Low Production Contributes to High efficiency in Relatively low Reduces High efficiency in Savings in
Li et al., 2019a) waste, (agricultural by- costs sustainability and the removal of production costs. agricultural removing wastewater
contributes to product) soil heavy metals. waste and contaminants. treatment and

sustainability. improvement. improves water Sustainable and improvement in

quality. recyclable. water

20

quality.
Modified Kaolin ( High for Pb(II) and It can be Sustainable, Competitive Low operating costs Savings in High adsorption Competitive Contributes to High adsorption Competitive

Yang et al., 2018) Cd(II). reused. accessible. treatments and capacity for costs and sustainability and capacity for heavy metals. production costs,

improved water heavy metals. savings on improves water lower long-term

quality. long-term quality. Sustainable and operating costs.

treatments. accessible.

Copper Oxide 99.99% in Cr (III). Reusable. Recyclable Dependent on Maintenance Improve water High efficiency in Competitive Improves water High efficiency in Cr(III) Possibility of
(CuO) (Kondabey et material. synthesis and waste quality, avoid Cr(III) production quality and removal. reducing costs in
al., 2019) methods management penalties. removal. and operations reduces Sustainable if wastewater
costs. pollution. production costs are treatment.

optimized.
Modified Zeolite ( High in Reusable. Sustainable and Low (accessible for Competitive Improvement in waste High efficiency in Profitable due to Promotes High efficiency in Competitive
contaminants. its low cost and sustainable Cleaner
Engineering
and
Technology
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Aljerf, 2018) regenerable. operating costs removing removing operating 100879
implementation) management. contaminants. high practices and contaminants. costs, long-term
effectiveness. improves water Sustainable and cost

quality. regenerable. reduction.

Bentonite Clay ( High metal Reusable. Low cost, natural Low (natural Low operating costs Significant High adsorption Low cost of Contributes to High porosity and cation Low raw

Maleki et al., removal. resource. resource) savings in capacity for raw materials and sustainability and exchange capacity. material costs,

2019) treatment. heavy metals. improves water significant

operation. quality. Sustainable and savings in

abundant. wastewater

treatment.

Iranian Sepiolite ( More than Reusable. Local mineral, Generally low Waste Meets water High efficiency in Generally low Reduce your High efficiency in Zn2ÿ Reduced

Hojati and Landi, 2015) 95% Zn2+. contributes to management quality Zn2+ material cost. carbon footprint removal. operating
sustainability. standards. removal. costs, high

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Table 9 (continued )

´
Type of Adsorbent Technical Aspects Economic Aspects Feasibility Study Justification

Adsorption Reusability Sustainability Material Cost Operating Cost Environmental Technical Economic Environmental Efficiency and Cost Reduction

efficiency Benefit feasibility Viability Impact Sustainability

by using a local Sustainable and low efficiency

mineral. cost. reduces the
need for
additional
treatments.

Magnetic Biochar ( 47.9 mg/g for Regenerable. Agricultural Relatively low Optimized Contributes to Efficient in Low Contributes to High efficiency in Cd2ÿ Low
Noor et al., 2023) Cd2+. waste, production sustainability. removing heavy production costs sustainability and removal. production
sustainable. costs metals. due to the use of improves water Sustainable and costs,
agricultural quality. recyclable. reduction of

waste. operating costs in

water
treatment.
MCFA (Modified Coal 99.91% for Reusable. Reduces Relatively simple Low operating Contributes to High efficiency in Low Reduces High efficiency in Savings in
Fly Ash) ( Pb2ÿ and industrial waste. costs sustainability. the removal of production industrial waste and removing heavy operating and
Hussain et al., 95.88% for heavy metals. costs and improves water metals. treatment
2022) Cu2ÿ. reduced quality. Sustainable by costs,
operating using waste. possibility of
costs. income from

metal recovery.
Pine Sawdust (SAS) Effective in Reusable. Agricultural $52/kg (low cost) Favorable Improves water Effective in Lower Promotes Effective in Low

(Elboughdiri et removing waste promotes comparison quality, reduces removing heavy production sustainable removing heavy production
al., 2021) heavy metals. sustainability. pollutants. metals. costs than practices and metals. costs compared to
commercial improves water Sustainable and low commercial
adsorbents. quality. cost. adsorbents.
21

Banana peel (Mohd et Up to 89,286 mg/ Reusable. Reduce waste, Low or null Economical Reduces waste High adsorption Low Reduce waste High efficiency in lead Low
al., 2016) g of lead. sustainable. due to the use of and improves capacity for acquisition and contribute to removal. acquisition
NaOH water quality. lead. costs, uses a sustainability. Sustainable and low costs, reduced
by-product. cost. wastewater
treatment
costs.
Corncob (Jin et al., 2019) High capacity Reusable. Agricultural Low Processing Reduces High efficiency in Low and Reduces High efficiency in Low

after waste, (agricultural by- costs agricultural removing sustainable agricultural removing production
carbonization. contributes to product) waste. contaminants. production costs. waste and contaminants. costs, reduced

sustainability. improves water Sustainable and low operating

quality. cost. costs.

Gum Arabic ( Up to 90.7% for Reusable. Natural material, Low (available in large Processing Improves High efficiency in Low Improves High efficiency in the Competitive
Shalikh and Cd. improved quantities) costs sustainability in the removal of acquisition sustainability in removal of heavy production Cleaner
Engineering
and
Technology
(2025)
24
100879
Majeed, 2022) sustainability. treatment. heavy metals. costs, wastewater metals. costs,
potential for treatment. Sustainable and low improved
revenue from cost. water quality
secondary reduces

products. treatment
costs.
Palm Cellulose Up to 95% in Recyclable at Agricultural Low (abundant) Lower It contributes to the High efficiency in Low It contributes to High efficiency in Low raw

Copolymer ( heavy metals. least 10 waste, operating costs mitigation of the removal of production waste reduction and removing heavy material cost and

Rahman et al., times. biodegradable. heavy metals. cost and high improves water metals. high
2020) environmental reusability. quality. Sustainable and reusability

problems. recyclable. reduce

operating
costs.

Poly (hydroxamic acid)- Up to 99.9% of Reusable. Formation of Relatively pH adjustment and Generating High adsorption Competitive Contributes to High adsorption Operating costs
poly toxic metal stable, economical income from capacity of production sustainability capacity, up to justified by
(amidoxime) ( ions. maintenance metal recovery. metal ions. costs, 99.9% of metal high efficiency

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FG Avila et al. Cleaner Engineering and Technology 24 (2025) 100879

toxic or harmful to human health and aquatic ecosystems. Therefore, the

implementation of adsorption technology for treating industrial waste-water
in various industrial contexts is promising as it offers a sustainable and cost-

effectiveness.

Competitive
operations
production
Reduction

operating
removal.
effective solution by utilizing an agro-industrial waste (Jeong et al., 2019).

justified

costs,

costs.
costs,
metal

lower
long-
Cost

High

term
and
but

by
in Adsorption has been applied in industries such as manufacturing,
chemicals, as well as in mining, metallurgy, chemical production, and the
paper and pulp industry (for the removal of chemicals and dyes).
This wastewater treatment technology is found in countries like the United
Sustainability

Sustainable
Sustainable
Justification

accessible.
reactivated

adsorption
Efficiency

efficiency
removing

capacity.
States, Europe, China, India, and Brazil (Li et al., 2019b). How-ever, it has
reused.
metals.
heavy
ions.

High

High
use.

Can

and
and

and

limitations such as the proper selection of the adsorbent, operational

be
in

in

conditions, the safe disposal of adsorbents saturated with contaminants,

the requirement for conventional treatment prior to adsorption, and the
challenges in scaling up from laboratory tests to large-scale industrial
Environmental

environmental

sustainability
applications due to differences in conditions and the systems' capacity to
Contributes
managed
improves

improves

improves
properly.
quality.

quality,

greater

quality.
Impact

impact

handle large volumes of wastewater.

water

water

water
have
and

and
can
but

not

to
a
It

if

3.6. Knowledge gaps regarding the removal of heavy metals from

industrial wastewater using adsorption technology
Competitive

treatments.
Relatively
production
operating
Economic

economic

recovery.
benefits
Viability

savings
costs.

The present systematic review titled "Removal of Heavy Metals from

metal

costs
long-
term
from

high
and

and
on

Industrial Wastewater through Adsorption Technology" shows that the main

heavy metals found in industrial effluents are: copper, lead, cad-mium,
nickel, chromium, iron, cobalt, manganese, zinc, mercury, tita-nium,
arsenic, thorium, and uranium, these metal ions being considered potentially
adsorption
Feasibility

Technical

efficiency
feasibility

capacity
removal

devastating to human health and the environment.

metals.

metals.
heavy

heavy
Study

High

High
the

for

It is important to note that prolonged exposure to these heavy metals

of
in

can cause serious health problems, such as damage to the nervous,

respiratory, circulatory, and reproductive systems, as well as the
development of chronic diseases like cancer. Therefore, the need to reduce
sustainability,

treatments

their concentration in bodies of water, soil, and air has led to the
purposes.

improved
Improve

Savings
quality.
Benefit

water
avoid

implementation of techniques like adsorption, which have proven effective

and
in

in removing these contaminants.

Among adsorption techniques, the use of biomass has proven effi-cient
for the removal of heavy metals due to its easy availability, low cost, and
Environmental

high adsorption capacity, as seen in the use of rice husks, corn husks,
Potentially
operating
Operating

operating
costs

costs

sugarcane bagasse, pistachio shells, banana peels, and others.

High
Cost

low

However, a deeper understanding is still needed regarding how to modify

their physicochemical properties to increase active sorption sites efficiently.
Specifically, further study is required on the adsorption mechanisms and
how the functional groups present in biomass interact with different metal
Competitive
Economic

ions, in order to design and optimize adsorption processes more effectively.

Aspects

Material

$1000
$3000
Cost

per
ton
-

Regarding high concentrations of contaminants, the impact or effect on

the efficiency of adsorbents can be identified, such as variability in
adsorption capacity. Despite various studies on the application of different
adsorbents, there is a lack of research that provides a comparison to
Sustainability

Sustainable,
established,
sustainable
complexes.

sustainable

accessible.
process.

evaluate how high contaminant concentrations affect the adsorption

Well-

capacity of each metal ion.

Regarding low-concentration pollutants, which are also very common and important
in industry, recently, new adsorbent materials, such as nanomaterials and bioadsorbents,
have been developed, which show a higher capture capacity even at low concentrations
Reusability

reactivated

reused.

reused.

(Satyam and Patra, 2024). Furthermore, emerging technologies, such as adsorption in

and
can

can
be

be
It

It

combination with electrochemical and photocatalytic processes, are being explored, which
promise to improve the removal efficiency of pollutants in industrial wastewater (Abebe et
al., 2018; Twizerimana and Wu, 2024). For the future, a more integrated approach
combining different treatment technologies is envisaged, as well as the implementation of
Adsorption

adsorption
Technical

efficiency

capacity.
Aspects

Greater
metals.

real-time monitoring systems to detect and manage low-concentration pollutants, thus

heavy

High
90%
than
in

ensuring a more effective and sustainable treatment of industrial wastewater.

Regarding pH conditions, it has been reviewed that pH can significantly

Rahman

Ibrahim
Adsorbent

9
influence the adsorption capacity for heavy metals, where elevated pH or
Activated
Saleh

2022)
2016)

2018)
Modified

Yang
Carbon

al.,
al.,

Kaolin

al.,
et
et

et
Type

high concentrations of contaminants can decrease the efficiency of heavy

of

(
(

Table
metal adsorption. Additionally, it has been noted

22
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´ Cleaner Engineering and Technology 24 (2025) 100879

FG Avila et al.

that there are innovative adsorbent materials and natural and industrial sorbents with Declaration of competing interest
large surface areas and microporous characteristics, such as the use of agricultural
residues, zeolite, biomass, industrial by-products, and polymeric materials. The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal
relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Despite advances in adsorption technology for heavy metal removal from industrial
wastewater, there are significant gaps in knowledge regarding the costs associated with
its implementation. Many studies focus on the effectiveness of adsorbent materials but Data availability
lack a comprehensive analysis of the capital and operating costs required for large-scale
adsorption systems, including material procurement, equipment maintenance, and waste No data was used for the research described in the article.
treatment. Furthermore, there is a lack of comparative studies evaluating the costs of
adsorption versus other treatment technologies, such as coagulation-flocculation or References
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