SUBJECT: MCO-3 RS:250. PAPER : Research Methodology and Statistical Analysis Notes Available for 8, 9 , 10% ,12*, B.A, B.SC, B.COM, BCA,157 Year, 2™ year, 3, M.A., B.Ed., K.U., MANOU, IGNOU, ETC CLASSES FROM 12™ TO ONWARDS FOR THOSE WHO CHOOSE THE BEST COME TO VISIT AGAIN AND AGAIN B= Selected & Expected Questions. m= Easy to Remember. @=- Best Guarantee of Success. B= Planned with superior experience & high quality.1. (a) Explain various methods of collecting primary data along with the merits and eachof them. Ans. For collecting primary data, the investigator may choose any one of the following methods: 1. Observation method 2. Interview method 3. Through locel reporters and correspondents 4. Through que: 5. Through schedules, 1. Observation Method: The observation method is the most commonly used, specially in studies relating tobehavioural sciences, Under the observation method, the information is sought by way of investigator's own direct observation without asking from the respondent. But this sort of observation is not scientific observation. Observationbecomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection for the researcher, when it serves a formulated research purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is, subject to checks and controls on validity and reliability. Merits 1. The researcher is enabled to record the natural behaviour of the group. 2. The researcher can even gather information which could not easily be obtained if he observes in a dis-interested fashion. 3. The researcher can even verify the truth of statements made by informants in the context of a questionnaire ora schedule. Demerits naires The information provided by this method is very limited. ‘Sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the observation task. At times, the fact that some people arerarely accessible to direct observation creates obstacle for this method to collect data effectively. 2. Interview Method: The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli andreply in terms of oral-verbal responses. This method can be used through: (i) Direct personal interview, and (i) Indirect oral interview. (@ Direct Personal Interview: Under this method of collecting data, there is a face-to-face contact with the persons from whom the information is to be obtained (known as informants). The interviewer asks them questionspertaining to the survey and collects the desired information. Thus, ifa person wants to collect data about the working conditions of the workers of the Birla Textile Mill, Delhi, he would go to the Mill, contact the workers and obtain thedesired information. The information thus obtained is first- hand or original in character. This method is adopted: 1, Where greater accuracy is required 2. Where confidential data are to be collected. 3. Where intensive study is needed.4, Where sufficient time is available. Merits 1 al first-hand information) data are collected. 2. True and reliable data can be had. 3. Response will be more encouraging, because of personal approach. 4. A high degree of accuracy can be aimed. 5 6 The investigator can extract correct information. Misinterpretations, if any, on the part of the informant can be avoided. 7. Uniformity and homogeneity can be maintained. Demerits 1. Its unsuitable where the area is large. 2, Itis expensive and time-consuming. | 3. The chances of bias are more. ' 4 5. . An untrained investigator will not bring good result. i ‘One has to collect information according to the convenience of the informant. | (ii) Indirect Oral Interview: When the informant is reluctant to supply information, the method of | indirect oralinvestigation can be followed. Under this method the investigator approaches the witnesses or third parties, who arein touch with the informant. The enumerator interviews the people, who are directly or indirectly connected with theproblem under study, | This system is more suitable, where the area to be studied is large. It is used when direct information | cannot beobtained. The system is generally adopted by governments, Merits 1. Itis simple and convenient. It saves time, money and labour. | . It can be used in the investigation of a large area. ‘The information is unbiased. ‘Adequate information can be had. As the information is collected from different parties, a true account can be expected and all aspects of theproblem can be ascertained, | i Demerits 1. Absence of direct contact is there; the inform-ation cannot be relied. 2. Interview with an improper man will spoil the results. | 3. In order to get the real position, a sufficient number of persons are to be interviewed. 4 5. . The careless attitude of the informant will affect the degree of accuracy. Witnesses may colour the information according to their interests. 3. Information through local agents or correspondents: As the name indicates, local agents or correspondentsare appointed to collectth office or person. They dothis according to their own ways and tastes. This system is adopted by | newspapers, periodicals, agencies, etc, whenthe information is needed in different fields, for examples, formation. They collect the information and transmit itto the | riots, strikes, accidents, share markets, sports, politics, ete. The informants are generally calledcorrespondents. Merits . Extensive Cheap and economical method. ‘Speedy information is available. . Itis useful where information is needed regularly, Demerits formation can be had. | 1. The information may be biased. | 2. Degree of accuracy cannot be maintained. 3. Uniformity cannot be maintained. 4. Data may not be original. 4, Mailed Questionnaire Method: Under this method, a list of questions pertaining to the survey | (known as questionnaire) is prepared and sent to the various informants by post. The questionnaire | contains questions and provides space for answers. Arequest is made to the informants through a covering | letter to fill up the questionnaireand send it back within a specified time. Merits | 1. This method of collecting data can be easily adopted where the field of investigation is very vast and theinformants are spread over a wide geographical area. 2. Itis also relatively cheap and expeditious provided the informants respond in time. On topics which might be embarrassing this method is generally superior to either personal interviews ortelephone method. Limitations | 1. This method can be adopted only where the informants are literate people so that they can understand writtenquestions and send the answers in writing. | It involves some uncertainty about the response. Co-operation on the part of informants may difficult topresume. 3. The information supplied by the informants may not be correct and it may be difficult to verify the accuracy. i 5. Schedules sent through Enumerators: It is the most widely used method of collection of primary | data. A number of enumerators are selected and trained. They are provided with standardized questionnaires. Specific training and instructions are given to them for filling up schedules. Each enumerator will be in charge of a certain area. The investigator goes to the informants along with the | questionnaire and gets replies to the questions in the schedule andrecords their answers. He explains | clearly the object and the purpose of the enguiry. The difference between the former and this method is that in the former method, the questionnaire is sent to the informants, whereas in this method the investigator carries the schedule to the informant. This method is used by public organizations and research | institutions. Merits 1. This method is very useful in extensive enquiries. 2. It yields reliable and accurate results, because the enumerators are educated and trai. The scope of the enquiry can also be greatly enlarged. . Even if the respondents are illiterate, this technique can be widely used. ‘As the enumerators personally obtain the information, there is less chance of non-response. Demerits 1. This is a very costly method, as the enumerators are trained and paid for. This method is time-consuming, because the enumerators go personally to obtain the information. . Personal bias of the enumerators may lead to false conclusion. |. The quality of the collected data depends upon the personal qualities of the enumerator. It isnot suited to all persons due to its costliness. (b) Describe sampling and non sampling errors that may crop up in conducting a research. With thehelp of hypothetical figures, elaborate how would you determine the sample size for your research study.Ans. Sampling and Non-Sampling Errors: To appreciate the need for sample surveys, it is necessary to understand clearly the role of sampling and non-sampling errors in complete enumeration and sample surveys. Theerror arising due to drawing inferences about the population on the basis of few observations (sampling) is termedsampling error. Clearly, the sampling error in this sense is non-existent in complete enumeration survey, since thewhole population is surveyed. However, the error mainly arisingat the stage of ascertainment and processing of data, which are termed non-sampling errors, are common both in complete enumeration and sample surveys. Determination of Sample Size After deciding the degree of precision and confidence level, the next step is to determine the sample size. Theformulas to determine sample size are based on results of the sample responses. The important formulas are: 1. If the results are reported as proportions of the sample responses, then following formula is used:p = Estimated percentage of the population A= Accuracy desired, usually expressed as a decimal e.g. 0.01, 0.05 etc. 2 = level of significance e.g. 2=1.96 at 95% confidence level and Z = 2.56 at 99% confidence level.N = population size 2. If the results are reported as means of sample responses, the formula is: af mB 2 gf 2*n desiredz = Confidence level N -opulation size = Standard deviation of the attribute of interest. 3. If the researcher wishes to report result in a variety of ways, the following formula may be more useful Nz? x0.25 a 2 9 a2 pf
1.96 1 (c) The duty hours per week of 10 workers, selected randomly were found to be: 6.6, 7.2, 6.8, 9.2, 6.9, 6.2, 6.7, 7.2, 9.7, 10.4 Compute 95% and 99% Confidence intervals for the average hours of workper week per worker. | Since |zo| < 1.96, we accept Ho, it means sample can be regarded as a truly sample. ‘Ans. Computation of mean and standard Deviation Total B® 66 72) 68 | 92 69 62] 67) 72) 97 | 104) 764 BH 43.56 51.84 46.24| 84.64] 47.61 38.44] 44.89 51.84 94.09) 108.16 611.3 1 x611.31 2E so applying test 5, Write an explantory note on conclusion and generalisation. Ans. Conclusion: After analyzing the data, the next step is to evaluate findings in the form of conclusion. itis astatement of relationship which is based on collected data and findings. Itis @ summary of the research study. Generalization: After concluding the research study, if we believe that what is true of the observed data will also be true of the un-observed instances, it can be extended to the entire class. This process is. called generalization.Generalization comes under the category of propositions. A proposition is simply a statement about two or more concepts and variables. Generalization is not limited to a particular events or phenomenon. Itrelates to a group of events, concepts andtheir variables. These concepts should be operationally defined which means all variables coming within their ambit must be enumerated. After generalization, the researcher completes the field-work on all other stages of his study. Then he starts toprepare the research report to complete his project work. After analyzing the data, researcher can evaluate findings in the form of generalizations in statements or in theform of concepts. There are two methods for generalization |. Logical Method 2, Statistical Method. Logical Method: This method serves the purpose of discovering casual connections. There are five categoriesof logical methods: 1, The Method of Agreement: The method of agreement states that if two or more instances of a phenomenonunder investigation have only one circumstance in common, the circumstance is the cause or the effect of the phenomenon. 2. The Method of Difference: In this method, only two instances are required. The two instances resemble each other in every other respect, but differ in the absence or presence of the phenomenonobserved. 3. Joint Method of Agreement and Differences: This is a combination of the method of agreement and the method of difference. 4. The method of Residues: This method is based on the principle of elimination. The statement of this methodis that, subtract from any phenomenon such part as is known by previous inductions to be the effect of certain antecedents, and residue of the phenomenon is the effect of the remaining antecedents. 5. The method of Concomitant Variation: This method can be stated as-whatever phenomenon varies in anymanner, whenever another phenomenon varies in some particular manner, is either the cause or the effect of that phenomenon or is connected with it. 2, Statistical Method: This method involves four stages (a) Collection of data: The first step of an investigation is the collection of data. Careful collection is needed, because further analysis is based on this. There are different methods of collection of data (census, sampling, primary,secondary etc.) and they must be reliable. If the collected data are faulty, results will also be faulty. Therefore, the investigator must take special care in collection. (b) Presentation of data: The collected data are to be presented in tabular or diagrammatic or graphic form. The data presented in a systematic order will facilitate further analysis. (©) Analysis of data: After the presentation of data, the next step is to analyse the presented data. ‘Analysis includes condensation, summarization, conclusion, etc, through the means of measures of central tendencies, dispersion, skewness, kurtosis, correlation, regression, ete. (a) Interpretation of data: Figures do not speek for themselves. The duty of the statistician is not complete withmere collection and analysis of data. But, valid conclusions must be drawn on the basis, of analysis. A high degree of skill and experience is necessary for the interpretation. Correct interpretation leads to valid conclusion. conclusion is an inference based on the data while a generalization is a statement, the scope which is wider thanthe available evidence.Q. 1. What is Business Research Process? Describe the various stages involved in the business research process. Ans, Like any other organized work, research requires proper planning. Planning of research means deciding the question or issue to be studied, setting the objectives of the study and determining the means of achieving these objectives. It isan intellectual process. ‘The following are the major steps in doing research 1. Formulation of Problem: At the outset, the researcher has to decide the area or aspects of a subject matter in which he is interested. There are no principles which can guide an investigation to pose significant problems for research. A careful study of literature will guide him and his sensibility, experience direct him to formulate the problem. 2. Formulation of Hypothesis: The suggested explanation or solution to the problem formulated as prepositions are called hypothesis. Such tentative explanations, i.e. hypothesis may be the solution to the problem, 3.Analysis of Concepts: The researcher needs to define the concepts which would be used in organizing the data. Such definitions include formal definitions that are designed to convey the general, nature of the process, He has to translate them into observable events. He has to formulate his problem in terms so general and abstract as to make clear its relation to other knowledge and permit replication of study in other concrete situations. 4, Research Design: The process of working out a research design involves, making decisions about the techniques to beemployed for collection of relevant data, the safeguards to be employed to safeguard the validity, reliability and precision, themode of drawing the sample, analysing the data, interpreting the results. Through designing the research, the investigator achieves his research objective with the economy of amount, time and energy. 5.Collection of Data: After designing the research assignment, the researcher turns to the implementation part of it. He attends to the formulation of the instruments such as the questionnaire, interview schedule, etc., keeping in view the techniques of analysis he is going to implement. He selects the representative sample basing on sampling techniques and collects the data. 6. Data analysis: The purpose of data analysis is to summarise the completed observations in such‘a way that they yield answers to the research questions. The analysis consists specific sub-tasks such as coding, tabulation and drawing of statistical inferences ete. 7.Conclusions or generalization: In this stage the hypothesis is compared with the conclusions drawn on the basis of data. In case a hypothesis fits the findings, the theory which suggested the hypothesis would be proved. Ifthe hypothesis is disproved the blow of disproof will pass on to theory which originated the hypothesis. 8. Reporting: Reporting the research requires an order of skills some what different from those needed in the earlier phases of research. The chief purpose of a report is communication with the audience. It should contain the following aspects: (a)_the problem of research (o) the research procedures (o) the results or outcomes, and (a) theimportance of findings. ‘The branches of business research are as follows: 1. Management Research: It focuses on planning, organizing, staffing, communicating, co- ordin \g, motivating. For example: A research study through correl n analysis of profit and dividend helps to predict and decide probable dividends for future years. 2.Accounting Research: Financial forecasts, break-even analysis, etc. are parts of Accounting Research. Thisis used asa basis for reports to management, shareholders, investors, tax authorities and other interested parties. 3. Marketing Research: Before a product islaunched, the market research team of an organization, through a pilot survey, makes use of various techniques of statistics to analysis data on population, purchasing power, consumer behaviour, competitions and a hoard of other aspects. Analysis of sales volume in relation to the purchasing power and concentration of population is helpful in establishing sales territories, routing of salesman, and advertising strategies to improve sales. 4. Personnel Management Research: In the process of manpower planning, a personnel department makes research studies of wage rates, incentive plans, cost ofliving, labour turnover rates, employment-trends, training and development programmes.5. Research in Government Department: In the context of Government, research as a tool of | ‘economic policy has three distinct phases of operation, viz: | () investigation of economic structure through continual compilation of facts. i) diagnosis of events that are taking place and the analysis of the forces underlying them; and the prognosis, ie. the prediction of future development. (iti) Research in social sciences: Research in social sciences is concerned both with knowledge for its own sake and with knowledge for what it can contribute to practical concerns. Q.2. Mean examination marks in mathematics in three sections are 68, 75 and 72, the number of student being 32,43 and 45 respectively in these sections, Find the mean examination marks in mathematics for all the three sections takentogethers. Ans. — Mean (7) examination marks in One Section = 68 jumber of Students = 32 Mean (7) = | total marks total number of students ‘Total Marks in One Section = 68 x | 32 = 2176Simularly total marks in Second | Section = 75 x 43 = 3225Total Marks in Third | Section = 72 x 45 = 3240Marks in (One Section + 2nd + 3rd Mean (x) for All three Section together Section Total No. of Students in all three sections 2176 +3225 + 3240 32443445 Q. 3. What do you mean by index number? Explain the procedure for contruction and uses of index number inresearch work. Ans. An Index Number is a number which is used to measure the level of a certain phenomenon as compared to the level ofthe same phenomenon at some standard period. An Index Number is a statistical device for comparing the general level of gnitude ofa group of related variables in two or more situations. If we want to compare the price level of 1983 with whatit was in 1980, we may have look into a group of variables-prices of rice, wheat, vegetables, clothes, rent ete. If the changes are in the same ratio and in the same direction, we face no difficulty to find out the general price-level. But practically, if we think changes in different variables are different and that too, upward or downward, then the price is quoted in Aiffferent units milk for liter, rice or wheat for kilogram, rent for square feet etc. We want one figure (o indicate the change of different commodities as a whole, This is called an Index Number. Index Number is a number which indicates the changes in magnitude. ‘The period for which the analysis is made is called the ‘current period’, Index number for the base period is always taken as 100, ifthe indexnumber for the current period is more than 100 then it shows upward change. Ifthe index number for the currentperiod is less than 100 it implies a downward change in relation to base period. Uses: Index numbers are today one of the most widely used statistical devices. They are particularly useful in measuring relative changes. In brief, the uses of index numbers are shown below: 1. They help in framing suitable policies in economics and business. 2. They are important in forecasting future economic activity. They are used in time-series www facebook.com/ianou.bookssanalysis to study long-term trend, seasonal variations and cyclical developments. 3. Index numbers are very useful in deflating i.e., they are used to adjust the original data for price changes and thustransfer nominal wages into real wages. 4. An economist uses the ‘Index Number of stock prices’. These are also used by speculators and other financial institutions. 5. Wholesale price index number indicates the changes in the value of money. 6. ‘index number of industrial production’ reveals the comparative position in productivity and is useful for planners. 7. Cost of living index numbers measures changes in the cost of living over a given period. 8. Formulation of good policies for future depends upon past trends. Behaviours of the index numbers are studied carefullymaking any policies. An index number is a statistical measure used to compare the average level of magnitude of a group of distinet but related variables in two or more situations. As an average of data is its representative summacy figure. In a similar way, in index number isalsoan average, often a weighted average, computed for a group. It is a specialized average because index number is often usedto average a characteristic expressed in different units for different items of a group e.g. the price of wheat may be quoted as Rs/ kg, price of milk as Rsllitre, etc. Secondly, it is used to measure the changes in characteristics which is not capable of being directly measured. For example, it is not possible to measure business activity in a direct way, however, relative changes in a business activity can be measured the direct measurement of changes in some factors that affect it Another important feature of index mumber is that the changes in magnitude of a group are expressed in terms of percentageswhich are independent of unit of measurement. This facilitates the comparison of two or more index numbers in different situation, Uses of Index Numbers L.Index Numbers as Economic Barometers: Index numbers are indispensable tools for the idual business concern and in bus management personnel of any government organization or in less. planning and formulation of executive decisions. Theindices of prices (wholesale and retail), output(volume of trade, import and export, industrial and agricultural production) and bank deposits, foreign exchange and reserves etc., throw light on the nature of, and variation in the general economic and business activity of the country. 2. Index Numbers Help in Studying trends and Tendencies: Since the index numbers study the relative changes in thelevel of a phenomenon at different periods of time, they are specially useful for the study of the general trend for a group phenomena in a time series data. The indices of output (industrial and agricultural production), volume of trade, import and export, ete., are extremely useful for studying the changes in the level of phenomenon due to the various components of a time series, viz., secular trend, seasonal and cyclical variations and irregular components and reflect upon thegeneral trend of production and business activity. As a measure of average change in extensive group, the index number can be used to forecast future events. For instance, if a businessman is interested in establishing a new industry, the study of the trend of changes in the prices, wages and incomes in different industriesis extremely helpful to him to frame a general idea of the comparative courses which the futureholds for different undertakings. 3. Index Numbers Helps in Formulating Decisions and Policies: Index numbers of the data relating to prices, production, profits, imports and exports, personnel and financial matters are indispensable for any organization in efficient planning and formulation of executive decisions. For example, the cost of living index numbers are used by the government and the industrial and business concerns for the regulation of dearness allowance (D.A.) or grant of bonus to the workers so as to enable them to meet the increased cost of living from time to time. 4, Helps in deflating various values: Index numbers are very helpful in deflating national income on the basis of constant prices, to enable us to find out whether there is any change in the real income of the people. Figures of national income at current prices very often give misleading notions about the income level of the people and unless they are deflated the effects of inflationary or deflationary policies cannot be understood. Similarly the nominal sales can be deflated to give an idea about the real sales, and nominal wages can be deflated to give an idea about the real wages. 5.Price Indices Measure the Purchasing Power of Money: The cost of living index numbersdetermine whether the real wages are rising or falling, money wages remaining unchanged. In other words, they help us in computing the real wages which are obtained on dividing the money wages by the corresponding price index and multiplying by 100. Real wages help us in determining the purchasing power of money. 6.Useful to Politicians: The analysis of index number helps politicians to know about the actual economic condition of the country. Accordingly, they offer constructive criticism tothe government and make useful suggestions for improvement. 7. Useful in Contract Escalation: The study of index numbers (i.e. past behaviour or trends) help in adjusting price in contracts extending over long periods of time. 8. Index numbers indicate the state of balance between aggregate supply and demand at the primary market level. 9, Index numbers of stock price are used by economists, speculators and other financial institutions. Q. 4A survey of 320 families with 5 children each revealed the following distribution, No.ofboys 6 Pf kit No. of girls| ft p kh 6 No. of, i466 foi families Is the result consistent with hypothesis the male and female birth are equally probable?Ans. No. of Boys | No.of Girls ] No. of Families &,) @) no af f 3 1 70 p 4 h 56 aa 6 3 b 110 330 20 2 88 176 hea 1 40 0 ho 0 12 loo Total 320 340 [roo ‘Total No, of children = 320 = 5 children= 1600 Probability of boy birth = xif No. of Children 840 = 1600 10.525 Probability of Girl birth = x2r No. of Children 760 | = 1600As per the results the hypothesis b/w boy and female birth are not equally probable as the probability of boy birth is 0.525 and probability of gic! birth is 0.475. Q. 5. Distinguish between the following: (@ Bibliography Footnote should contain all those works which the researcher has consulted. ‘The bibliography should be arranged alphabetically. ‘The purpose of bibliography is to give a list of material relating to the topic under study, as a ready | Ans. Bibliography is a list of books in some way pertinent to the research which has been done. Itreference to the reader. While the bibliography gives a list of material relating to the topic understudy as a ready reference to the reader, the footnotes, found at the bottom of the respective pages or at the end of a section/chapter, specifically cite the exact source and pages where quoted or paraphrased, materials are found, (i Oral Reporting and Written Reporting, Ans, Oral report i s generally prepared for the consumption of special type of audience like where policy recommendation are indicated by project report. It provide an opportunity for give-and-take decisions which generally lead to better understanding of the findings and their implications, Oral report is sometimes supplemented by various visual devices like slides, wall charts and black boards Whereas a written report is used whenever a full written report of the study is required whether for record keeping or for public dissemination, It is a formal long report covering all the aspects of the research process; a description of the problem studied, the objectives of the study, methods and techniques used, a detailed account of sampling and analysis, detailed findings and conclusions and suggestions,1, What is Survey Research? How it different from Observation Research? ‘Ans:- Survey research is a commonly used method of collecting information about a population of interest. There are many different types of surveys, several ways to administer them, and many methods of sampling. There are two key features of survey research: Questionnaires ~ a predefined series of questions used to collect information from individuals Sampling ~ a technique in which a subgroup of the population is selected to answer the survey questions; the information collected can be generalized to the entire population of Questionnaire Design The two most common types of survey questions are closed-ended questions and open-ended questions. Closed-Ended Questions The respondents are given a list of predetermined responses from which to choose their answer The list of responses should include every possible response and the meaning of the responses should not overlap ‘An example of a close-ended survey question would be, "Please rate how strongly you agree or disagree with the following statement: ' feel good about my work on the job." Do you strongly agree, somewhat agree, neither agree nor disagree, somewhat disagree, or strongly disagree?" A Likert scale, which is used in the example above, is a commonly used set of responses for closed-ended questions Closed-ended questions are usually preferred in survey research because of the ease of counting the frequency of each response Open-Ended Questions Survey respondents are asked to answer each question in their own words Responses are usually categorized into a smaller list of responses that can be counted by the study team for statistical analysis Considerations for Designing a Questionnaire It Is important to consider the order in which questions are presented. Sensitive questions, such as questions about income, drug use, or sexual activity, should be put at the end of the survey. This allows the researcher to establish trust before asking questions that might embarrass respondents, Researchers also recommend putting routine questions, such as age, gender, and marital status, at the end of the questionnaire WhatsApp-7503867488Double-barreled questions, which ask two questions in one, should never be used in a survey. An example of a double barreled question is, Please rate how strongly you agree or disagree with the following statement: ' feel good about my work on the job, and | get along well with others at wark."" This question is problematic because survey respondents are asked to give one response for two questions Researchers should avoid using emotionally loaded or biased words and phrases Visit the following websites for more information about questionnaire design: A Brief Guide to Questionnaire Development Survey Design Glossary terms related to questionnaire design: Double-Barreled Question Pretesting Questionnaire Survey Administration Surveys can be admininistered in three ways: Through the mall Advantage: Low cost Disadvantage: Low response rate By telephone Advantages: Higher response rates; responses can be gathered more quickly Disadvantage: More expensive than mail surveys Face-to-face Advantages: Highest response rates; better suited to collecting complex information Disadvantage: Very expensive Visit the following website for more information about survey administration: What is a Survey? Glossary terms related to survey administration: WhatsApp-7503867488Attrition Completion Rate Cooperation Rate Refusal Rate Response Categories Response Rate Sampling Procedures One of the primary strengths of sampling is that accurate estimates of a population's characteristics can be obtained by surveying a small proportion of the population. Four sampling techniques are described here: ‘Simple Random Sampling. Simple random sampling is the most basic form of sampling Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected This sampling process is similar to a lottery: the e but only a few are chosen at random population of interest could be selected for the survey, Researchers often use random-digit dialing to perform simple random sampling. In this procedure, telephone numbers are generated by a computer at random and called to identify individuals to participate in the survey Cluster Sampling Cluster sampling is generally used when it is geographically impossible to undertake a simple random sample Cluster sampling requires that adjustments be made in statistical analyses For example, in a face-to-face interview, it is difficult and expensive to survey households across the nation. Instead, researchers will randomly select geographic areas (for example, counties), then randomly select households within these areas. This creates a cluster sample, in which respondents are clustered together geographically Stratified Sampling Stratified samples are used when a researcher wants to ensure that there are enough respondents with certain characteristics in the sample The researcher first identifies the people in the population who have the desired characteristics, then randomly selects a sample of them WhatsApp-7503867488Stratified sampling requires that adjustments be made in statistical analyses For example, a researcher may want to compare survey responses of African-Americans and Caucasians. To ensure that there are enough Afrian-Americans in the survey, the researcher will first identify the African- Americans in the population and then randomly select @ sample of African-Americans. Nenrandom Sampling, Common nonrandom sampling techniques include convenience sampling and snowball sampling Nonrandom samples cannot be generalized to the population of interest. Consequently, itis problematic to make inferences about the population In survey research, random, cluster, or stratified samples are preferable Observational research (or field research) is a type of correlational (ie., non-experimental) research in which a researcher observes ongoing behavior. There are a variety of types of observational research, each of which has both strengths and weaknesses. These types are organized below by the extent to which an experimenter intrudes upon or controls the environment. Observational research is particularly prevalent in the social sciences and in marketing. It is @ social research technique that involves the direct observation of phenomena in their natural setting. This differentiates it from experimental research in which a quasi-artificial environment is created to control for spurious factors, and where at least one of the variables is manipulated as part of the experiment. It Is typically divided into naturalistic (or “nonparticipant”) observation, and participant observation. Cases studies and archival research are special types of observational research, Naturalistic (or nonparticipant) observation has no intervention by a researcher. It is simply studying behaviors that occur naturally in natural contexts, unlike the artificial environment of a controlled laboratory setting. Importantly, in naturalistic observation, there is no attempt to manipulate variables. It permits measuring what behavior is really ike, However, its typical limitations consist in its incapability exploring the actual causes of behaviors, and the impossibility to determine if a given observation is truly representative of what normally occurs. 2. What do you mean by editing of data? Explain the guidelines to be kept in mind while editing the statistical data. ‘Ans:- Data should be edited before being presented as information. This action ensures that the information provided is accurate, complete and consistent. No matter what type of data you are working with, certain edits are performed on all surveys. Data editing can be performed manually, with the assistance of computer programming, or a combination of both techniques. It depends on the medium (electronic, paper) by which the data are submitted There are two levels of data editing—micro- and macro-editing. WhatsApp-7503867488Micro-editing corrects the data at the record level. This process detects errors in data through checks of the individual data records. The intent at this point is to determine the consistency of the data and correct the individual data records Macro-editing also detects errors in data, but does this through the analysis of aggregate data (totals). The data are compared with data from other surveys, administrative files, or earlier versions of the same data, This process determines the compatibility of data. We might ask the question "Why are there errors in our files?" There are several situations where errors can be introduced into the data, and the following list gives some of them: A respondent could have misunderstood a question, A respondent or an interviewer could have checked the wrong response. An interviewer could have miscoded or misunderstood written response. An interviewer could have forgotten to ask a question or record the answer. A respondent could have provided inaccurate responses. Always keep in mind the objectives of data editing: © toensure the accuracy of data; + toestablish the consistency of data; * todetermine whether or not the data are complete; + toensure the coherence of aggregated data; and. '* to obtain the best possible data available. Applying editing rules So, how do we edit? The first step is to apply ‘rules' (or factors to be taken into consideration) to the data. These rules are determined by the expert knowledge of a subject-matter specialist, the structure of the questionnaire, the history of the data, and any other related surveys or data. Expert knowledge can come from a variety of sources. The specialist could be an analyst who has extensive experience with the type of data being edited. An expert could also be one of the survey sponsors who is familiar with the relationships between the data, WhatsApp-7503867488The layout and structure of the questionnaire will also impact the rules for editing data. For exemple, sometimes respondents are instructed to skip certain questions if the questions do not apply to them or their situation. This specification must be respected and incorporated into the editing rules. Data editing types There are several types of data edits available: They include Validity edits look at one question field or cell at a time. They check to ensure the record identifiers, invalid characters, and values have been accounted for; essential fields have been completed (e.g., no quantity field is left blank where a number is required); specified units of measure have been properly used; and the reporting time is within the specified limits. Range edits are similar to validity edits in that they look at one field at a time. The purpose of this type of edit, to ensure that the values, ratios and calculations fall within the pre-established limits. Duplication edits examine one full record at a time. These types of edits check for duplicated records, making certain that ¢ respondent or a survey item has only been recorded once. A duplication edit also checks to ensure that the respondent does not appear in the survey universe more than once, especially if there has been a name change. Finally, it ensures that the data have been entered into the system only once. Consistency edits compare different answers from the same record to ensure that they are coherent with one another. For example, if a person is declared to be in the 0 to 14 age group, but also claims that he or she is retired, there is a consistency problem between the two answers. Inter-field edits are another form of a consistency edit. These edits verify that if a figure is reported in one section, a corresponding figure is reported in another. Historical edits are used to compare survey answers in current and previous surveys. For example, any dramatic changes since the last survey will be flagged. The ratios and calculations are also compared, and any percentage variance that falls outside the established limits will be noted and questioned. Statistical edits look at the entire set of data. This type of edit is performed only after all other edits have been applied and the data have been corrected. The data are compiled and all extreme values, suspicious data and outliers are rejected. Miscellaneous edits fallin the range of special-reporting arrangements; dynamic edits particular to the survey; correct classification checks; changes to physical addresses, locations and/or contacts; and legibility edits (i.e., making sure the figures or symbols are recognizable and easy to read), Data editing is influenced by the complexity of the questionnaire. Complexity refers to the length, as well as the number of questions asked. It also includes the detail of questions and the range of subject matter that the questionnaire may cover. In some cases, the terminology of a question can be very technical. For these types of surveys, special reporting arrangements and industry-specific edits may occur. Data errors WhatsApp-7503867488Data editing should detect and minimize errors, such as: * unasked questions; * unrecorded answers; * inappropriate responses, {An inaccurate response can occur as a result of carelessness or a deliberate effort to give misleading answers. It can also occur if some of the answers require mathematical calculations. For example, converting days into hours or annual income into weekly income increases the possibilty of making mistakes. 3. Briefly comment on the following: {a) Visual presentation of statistical data has become more popular Ans:- Data visualization is a general term that describes any effort to help people understand the significance of data by placing it in a visual context, Patterns, trends and correlations that might go undetected in text-based data can be exposed and recognized easier with data visualization software. Today's data visualization tools go beyond the standard charts and graphs used in Microsoft Excel spreadsheets, displaying data in more sophisticated ways such as infographics, dials and gauges, geographic maps, sparklines, heat maps, and detailed bar, pie and fever charts. The images may include interactive capabilities, enabling users to manipulate them or drill nto the data for querying and analysis, Indicators designed to alert users when data has been updated or predefined conditions occur can also be included, Importance of data visualization Data visualization has become the de facto standard for modern business intelligence (BI). The success of the two leading vendors in the Bl space, Tableau and Qlik ~- both of which heavily emphasize visualization ~ has moved other vendors toward a more visual approach in their software. Virtually all BI software has strong data visualization functionality Data visualization tools have been important in democratizing data and analytics and making data-driven insights available to workers throughout an organization. They are typically easier to operate than traditional statistical analysis software or earlier versions of 81 software. This has led to a rise in lines of business implementing data visualization tools on their own, without support from IT. Data visualization software also plays an important role in big data and advanced analytics projects. As businesses accumulated massive troves of data during the early years of the big data trend, they needed a way to quickly and easily get an overview of their data. Visualization tools were a natural fit. WhatsApp-7503867488Visualization is central to advanced analytics for similar reasons. When a data scientist is writing advanced predictive analytics or machine learning algorithms, it becomes important to visualize the outputs to monitor results and ensure that madels are performing as intended. This is because visualizations of complex algorithms are generally easier to interpret than numerical outputs. Examples of data visualization Data visualization tools can be used in a variety of ways. The most common use today is as a BI reporting tool. Users can set up visualization tools to generate automatic dashboards that track company performance across key performance indicators and visually interpret the results Many business departments implement data visualization software to track their own initiatives. For example, a marketing team might implement the software to monitor the performance of an email campaign, tracking metrics like open rate, click-through rate and conversion rate. ‘As data visualization vendors extend the functionality of these tools, they are increasingly being used as front ends for more sophisticated big data environments. In this setting, data visualization software helps data engineers and scientists keep track of data sources and do basic exploratory analysis of data sets prior to or after more detailed advanced analyses. Data visualization software allows the user to select the best way of presenting the data, but, increasingly, software automates this step. Some tools automatically interpret the shape of the data and detect correlations between certain variables and then place these discoveries into the chart type that the software determines is optimal. Typically, data visualization software has a dashboard component that allows users to pull multiple visualizations of analyses into a single interface, generally a web portal. {b) Decision makers use index numbers as part of intermediate computations. Ans: Decision makers use index numbers 2s part of intermediate computations to understand other information better. Nominal incame can be transformed into real income. Similarly, nominal sales into real sales & so on .., through an appropriate index number. Consumer price index, also index, is arrived at for a specified group of consumers in respect of prices of specific commodities and services which they usually purchase. This index serves as an indicator the consumers. For example, an individual earns Rs. 100/- in the in the year 1980. if during this period, consumer price index increases from 100 to 400 then the consumer is not able to purchase the same quantity , which he was able to purchase in the year 1970 with his . This means the real income has WhatsApp-7503867488declined. Thus real income can be calculated Real income in 1980 = Actual income in 1980 + Consumer price index of 1980 with respect to 1970 as base year. as compared to his income of the year 1970. Our world is full of statistics. Just turn on the news and you are bombarded with statistics. You might hear them say that the cost of goods has increased by 4 points from last year or you might hear them say that the stock market is down by 42 points, As it turns out, these numbers that you hear are index numbers, numbers used in statistics and economics to show changes in various fields We have just mentioned two of these fields: stocks and cost of goods. Both of these fields are broad, The stock market has numerous companies and the cost of goods includes the cost of many different unique items. What exactly does this index number mean then? This index number is a useful number that helps us quantify changes in our field. It is easier to see one value than a thousand different values for each item in our field. Take the stock market, for example. It is comprised of thousands of different public companies. We could, of course, look at the stock value of each of these companies to see how the companies are doing as a whole, or we can look at just one number, the stock index, to get a general feel for how the companies are doing. The same goes for the cost of goods. We could look at the cost of each item and compare it to its cost from last year. But that would mean looking at the cost of millions of items. Or we could look at the cost of goods index, just one number, to see whether prices have increased or decreased over the past year. We can say that the index number is one simple number that we can look at to give us a general overview of what is happening in our field, Let's take a look at two real world index numbers. {c) While testing hypothesis one is likely to commit two type errors. ‘Ans:- No hypothesis test is 100% certain. Because the test is based on probabilities, there is always a chance of making an incorrect conclusion. When you do a hypothesis test, two types of errors are possible: type | and type Il. The risks of these two errors are inversely related and determined by the level of significance and the power for the test. Therefore, you should determine which error has more severe consequences for your situation before you define their risks. Type lerror When the null hypothesis is true and you reject it, you make a type | error. The probability of making a type ! error is a, which is the level of significance you set for your hypothesis test. An a of 0.05 indicates that you are willing to accept a 5% chance that you are wrong when you reject the null hypothesis. To lower this risk, you must use a lower value for a. However, using @ lower value for alpha means that you will be less likely to detect a true difference if one really exists. Type ll error When the null hypothesis is false and you fail to reject it, you make a type Il error. The probability of making a type Il error is B, which depends on the power of the test. You can decrease your risk of committing a type Il WhatsApp-7503867488error by ensuring your test has enough power. You can do this by ensuring your sample size is large enough to detect a practical difference when one truly exists. The probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is false is equal to 1-B. This value is the power of the test, Truth about the population Decision based on |Hs is true Hb is false ‘sample Fail to reject He |Correct Decision (probability = 1-a) Type ll Error - fail to reject Hy when it is false (probability = ) Reject Ho ‘Type | Error - rejecting He when itis Correct Decision (probability = 1 - 8) [true (probability = a) To understand the interrelationship between type | and type Il error, and to determine which error has more severe consequences for your situation, consider the following example, ‘A medical researcher wants to compare the effectiveness of two medications. The null and alternative hypotheses are: Null hypothesis (HO): i= 2 The two medications are equally effective. Alternative hypothesis (H1): 14 12 The two medications are not equally effective. A type | error occurs if the researcher rejects the null hypothesis and concludes that the two medications are different when, in fact, they are not. If the medications have the same effectiveness, the researcher may not consider this error too severe because the patients still benefit from the same level of effectiveness regardless of which medicine they take. However, ifa type Il error occurs, the researcher fails to reject the null hypothesis when it should be rejected. That is, the researcher concludes that the medications are the same when, in fact, they are different. This error is potentially life-threatening if the less-effective medication is sold to the public instead of the more effective one. WhatsApp-7503867488AAs you conduct your hypothesis tests, consider the risks of making type | and type Il errors. If the consequences of making one type of error are more severe or costly than making the other type of error, then choose a level of significance and a power for the test that will reflect the relative severity of those consequences. {d) Data collection through a sample method is one of the issues ‘Ans:- Sampling is a tool that is used to indicate how much data to collect and how often it should be collected. This tool defines the samples to take in order to quantify a system, process, issue, or problem. To illustrate sampling, consider a loaf of bread. How good is the bread? To find out, is it necessary to eat the ‘whole loaf? No, of course not. To make a judgment about the entire loaf, itis necessary only to taste a sample of the loaf, such as a slice. In this case the loaf of bread being studied is known as the population of the study. The sample, the slice of bread, is a subset or a part of the population. Now consider a whole bakery. The population of interest is no longer a loaf, but all the bread that has been made today. A sample size of one slice from one loaf is clearly inadequate for this larger population. The sample collected will now became several loaves of bread taken at set times throughout the day. Since the population is larger, the sample will also be larger. The larger the population, the larger the sample required. In the bakery example, bread is made in an ongoing process. That is, bread was made yesterday, throughout today, and will be made tomorrow. For an ongoing process, samples need to be taken to identify how the process is changing over time. Studying how the samples are changing with control charts will show where and how to improve the process, and allow prediction of future performance. For example, the bakery is interested in the weight of the loaves. The bakery does not want to weigh every single loaf, as this would be too expensive, too time consuming, and no more accurate than sampling some of the loaves. Sampling for improvement and monitoring is a matter of taking small samples frequently over time, The questions now become: How many loaves to weigh each time a sample is taken? How often to collect a sample? These two questions, “how much?” and “how often?" are at the heart of sampling, ‘Sampling is used any time data is to be gathered. Data cannot be collected until the sample size (how much] and sample frequency (how often) have been determined. WhatsApp-7503867488Sampling should be periodically reviewed, When data is being collected on a regular basis to monitor a system or process, the frequency and size of the sample should be reviewed periodically to ensure that itis still appropriate. 4. Write short notes on the following: {a) One dimensional bar diagrams ‘Ans:- A diagram in which the size of only one dimension i.e. length is fixed in proportion to the value of the data is called one dimensional diagram. Such diagrams are also popularly called bar diagrams. These diagrams can be drawn in both vertical and horizontal manner. The related different bar diagrams differ from each other only in respect of their length dimension, while they remain the same in respect of their other two dimensions i.e. breadth and thickness. The size of breadth of each of such diagrams is determined taking into consideration the number of diagrams to be drawn, and the size of the paper at one’s end. They may take the form of a line, or a thread if they are to be drawn in large numbers on the surface of a paper. However, their breadth should neither be too large nor too small for that in both the cases they look ugly. The dimension of thickness does not look prominent in such diagrams. The examples of such diagrams are given on the next page. Techniques of drawing bar diagrams The following are the techniques of drawing the bar diagrams : {i) First, draw the base line, preferably horizontally, and divide it into a number of equal parts keeping in view the number of diagrams to be drawn. {ii) Then, draw the scale line preferably vertically, and divide into a number of equal parts keeping in view the maximum value to be represented. {ii) Then, fix the width of the bar uniformly keeping in view the number of bars to be drawn and the gaps to be provided in between each two of them. {iv) Then, fix the size of gaps to be provided between each of the two bars uniformly. {v) Then, fix the lengths of the different bars in proportion of the value of the data. {vi) Then, draw the different bars in accordance with their length, and width thus fixed, and arranged in order 0 their length, or time of occurrence. {vii) Then, decorate the bars with similar or different colours, or shades according to the similarly or dissimilarity in the nature of the data respectively. {vili) Give a description of the data in short at the bottom of respective bars. WhatsApp-7503867488{vix) Put the respective figures at the top of each bar to read out the exact value at a glance without looking at the scale, Advantages The chief advantages of a bar diagram can be outlined as under: * Iris very simple to draw and read as well. © _Itis the only form of diagram which can represent a large number of data on a piece of paper. * Itcan be drawn both vertically and horizontally. © Itgives a better look and facilitates comparison, Disadvantages * It cannot exhibit a large number of aspects of the data. The which of the bars are fixed arbitrarily by a drawer. {b) Graphic presentation Ans:- Graphic presentation represents a highly developed body of techniques for elucidating, interpreting, and analyzing numerical facts by means of points, lines, areas, and other geometric forms and symbols. Graphic techniques are especially valuable in presenting quantitative data in a simple, clear, and effective manner, as well as facilitating comparisons of values, trends, and relationships. They have the additional advantages of succinctness and popular appeal; the comprehensive pictures they provide can bring out hidden facts and relationships and contribute to a more balanced understanding of a problem The choice of a particular graphic technique to present 2 given set of data is a difficult one, and no hard and fast rules can be made to cover all circumstances. There are, however, certain general goals that should always be kept in mind. These include completeness, clarity, and honesty; but there is often conflict between the goals. For instance, completeness demands that all data points be included in a chart, but often this can be done only at some sacrifice of clarity. Such problems can be mitigated by the practice (highly desirable on other grounds as well) of indicating the source of the data from which the chart was constructed so that the reader himself can investigate further. Another problem occurs when it is necessary to break an axis in order to fit all the data in a reasonable space; clarity is then served, but honesty demands that attention be stronaly called to the break In graphic presentation, three different basic geometrical forms can be utilized for purposes of comparing magnitudes of coordinate items: (1) linear or one-dimensional, (2) areal or two-dimensional, and (3) cubic or three-dimensional. The simplest and most exact comparisons are those made on a linear basis; comparison of, relative sizes of areas is more difficult and of volumes most difficult. Accordingly, where possible, the use of areal and cubic forms should be avoided in graphic presentation. (ce) False Base line WhatsApp-7503867488Ans:- One of the fundamental rules while constructing graphs is that the scale on the Y-axis should begin from zero. Where the lowest value to be plotted on the ¥ scale is relatively high and a detailed scale is required to bring out he variations in all the data, starting the ¥ scale with zero introduces difficulties. For example, if we have a series of production figures over a number of years ranging from 15000 units to 25000 units, then starting with 2 zero origin would have one of two undesirable consequences: elther (i) the necessarily large intervals (say 5000 units) on the Y scale would make us lose sight of the extent of fluctuations in the curve : (ii) a necessarily large graph to permit small intervals (say 1000 units) would entail a waste of a large part of the graph, in addition to poor visual communication. The solution is to break the ¥ scale : If the zero origin is the shown then the scale is broken by drawing a horizontal wavy line (also called kinked or zig-zag line) or a vertical wavy line between zero and the first unit on the Y scale which in our illustration would be 15000 units. These lines are drawn to make the reader aware of the fact that false base has been used. Three important objects of false base line are : 1. Variations in the data are clearly shown 2. Allange part of the graph is not wasted or space is saved by using false base 3. The graph provides a better visual communication {d) Histogram Ans:- A histogram is a plot that lets you discover, and show, the underlying frequency distribution (shape) of a set of continuous data. This allows the inspection of the data for its underlying distribution (e.g., normal distribution), outliers, skewness, etc. An example of a histogram, and the raw data it was constructed from, is shown below: 50" 2 30 Frequency 20 10 o 2 30 49 50 60 70 80 9 100 Age 2 386 42208 WhatsApp-7503867488To construct a histogram from a continuous variable you first need to split the data into intervals, called bins. In the example above, age has been split into bins, with each bin representing a 10-year period starting at 20 years. Each bin contains the number of occurrences of scores in the data set that are contained within that bin, For the above data set, the frequencies in each bin have been tabulated along with the scores that contributed to the frequency in each bin 5. Distinguish between the following (a) Primary Data and Secondary Data Ans:- Data collection plays a very crucial role in the statistical analysis, in research, there are different methods used to gather information, all of which fall into two categories, i.e. primary data, and secondary data. As the ame suggests, primary data is one which is collected for the first time by the researcher while secondary data is the data already collected or produced by others, There are many differences between primary and secondary data, which are discussed in this article. But the most important difference is that primary data is factual and original whereas secondary data is just the analysis and interpretation of the primary data. While primary data is collected with an aim for getting solution to the problem at hand, secondary data is collected for other purposes BASIS FOR COMPARISON PRIMARY DATA SECONDARY DATA Meaning Primary data refers to the first hand Secondary data means data collected. data gathered by the researcher by someone else earlier. himself. Data Real time data Past data Process Very involved Quick and easy Source Surveys, observations, experiments, _ Government publications, websites, questionnaire, personal interview, books, journal articles, internal etc. records etc, Cost effectiveness Expensive Economical Collection time Long Short Specific Always specific to the researcher's May or may not be specific to the WhatsApp-7503867488BASIS FOR COMPARISON PRIMARY DATA SECONDARY DATA. needs, researcher's need, {b) Parametric and non parametric test Ans:- In the literal meaning of the terms, a parametric statistical test is one that makes assumptions about the parameters (defining properties) of the population distribution(s) from which one's data are drawn, while a non- parametric test is one that makes no such assumptions. In this strict sense, "non-parametric" is essentially a null category, since virtually all statistical tests assume one thing or another about the properties of the source population(s). For practical purposes, you can think of “parametric as referring to tests, such as t-tests and the anal variance, that assume the underlying source population(s) to be normally distributed; they generally also assume that one's measures derive from an equal-interval scale. And you can think of "non-parametric" as referring to tests that do not make on these particular assumptions, Examples of non-parametric tests include {c) Close ended questions and open ended question ‘Ans:- na conversation, when completing a research survey, being interviewed for a job or working on a homework assignment, you might find yourself presented with a series of closed-ended or open-ended questions, Closed-ended questions are those which can be answered by a simple "yes" or "no," while open- ended questions are those which require more thought and more than a simple one-word answer. If you can answer a question with only a question, es" or "no" response, then you are answering a closed-ended type of, Examples of clased-ended questions are: Are you feeling better today? May | use the bathroom? Is the prime rib a special tonight? WhatsApp-7503867488Should | date him? Will you please do me a favor? Have you already completed your homework? Oper inded Questions Open-ended questions are ones that require more than one word answers. The answers could come in the form of a list, a few sentences or something longer such as a speech, paragraph or essay. Hete are some examples of open-ended questions: ‘+ What were the most important wars fought in the history of the United States? ‘+ What are you planning to buy today at the supermarket? * How exactly did the fight between the two of you start? + What is your favorite memory from childhood? How will you help the company if you are hired to work for us? {d)— Barand pie-chart ‘Ans:- A bar graph represents data using a series of bars across two axes. The x-axis (the horizontal) classifies the data by group, with one bar for each group. So for example, if you were displaying the number of beads of each color in a jar, the x-axis would have a section for each color, and each color would have its own bar. The y-axis {the vertical) shows the value for the category for each bar. In the bead example, this would be the number of beads, So the bar for green beads might extend up to five, for example, whereas the bar for red beads may extend up to only two. The y-axis can be many different values, though; for example, money, a growth rate, an average speed or even a percentage of the whole. Similarly, the x-axis values and bars could represent the same quantity at different points in time, and this capability shows a big difference between bar graphs and pie charts. Pie charts are circular graphs that display percentages of a whole as if they were slices of a pie. This is very similar to bar graphs in that the individual slices of pie mean that the data has to have the potential to be categorized. The “slices” of the pie have sizes to indicate the proportion of the whole they represent (although a legend beside the chart usually shows the precise figures), but unlike bar graphs, pie charts can’t be used to explicitly show absolute number values for each group, The shape is the most obvious difference between pie charts and bar graphs, but the restriction to proportions with pie charts is the most important. WhatsApp-75038674881. What do you mean by a hypothesis? What are the different types of hypotheses? ‘Ans:- The research begins with a problem or a felt need or difficulty. The purpose of research is to find a solution to the difficulty. It is desirable that the researcher should propose a set of suggested solutions or explanations of the difficulty which the research proposes to solve. Such tentative solutions formulated as a proposition are called hypotheses. The suggested solutions formulated as hypotheses may or may not be the real solutions to the problem. Whether they are or not is the task of research to test and establish. To understand the meaning of a hypothesis, let us see some definitions: “A hypothesis is a tentative generalization, the validity of which remains to be tested. In its most elementary stage the hypothesis may be any guess, hunch, imaginative idea, which becomes the basis for action or investigation”. (6.A.Lundberg) “It is a proposition which can be put to test to determine validity”. (Goode and Hatt). “A hypothesis is a question put in such a way that an answer of some kind can be forth coming” - (Rummel and Ballaine). These definitions lead us to conclude that a hypothesis is a tentative solution or explanation or a guess or assumption or a proposition or a statement to the problem facing the researcher, adopted on a cursory observation of known and available data, as a basis of investigation, whose validity is to be tested or verified. A hypothesis controls and directs the research study. When a problem is felt, we require the hypothesis to explain it. Generally, there is more than one hypothesis which aims at explaining the same fact. But all of them cannot be equally good. Therefore, how can we judge a hypothesis to be true or false, good or bad? Agreement with facts is the sole and sufficient test of a true hypothesis. Therefore, certain conditions can be laid down for distinguishing a good hypothesis from bad ones. The formal conditions laid down by thinkers provide the criteria for judging a hypothesis as good or valid. These conditions are as follows: i) A hypothesis should be empirically verifiable: The most important condition for a valid hypothesis is that it should be empirically verifiable, A hypothesis is said to be verifiable, if it can be shown to be either true or false by comparing with the facts of experience directly or indirectly. A hypothesis is true if it conforms to facts and itis false if it does not. Empirical verification is the characteristic of the scientific method. ii) A hypothesis should be relevant: The purpose of formulating a hypothesis is always to explain some facts. It must provide an answer to the problem which initiated the enquiry. A hypothesis is called relevant if it can explain the facts of enquiry. iii) A hypothesis must have predictive and explanatory power: Explanatory power means that a good hypothesis, over and above the facts it proposes to explain, must also explain some other facts which are beyond its original scope. We must be able to deduce a wide range of observable facts which can be deduced from a hypothesis The wider the range, the greater is its explanatory power. Types of Hypothesis Hypotheses can be classified in a variety of ways into different types or kinds. The following are some of the types of hypotheses: i) Explanatory Hypothesis: The purpose of this hypothesis is to explain a certain fact. All hypotheses are in a way explanatory for a hypothesis is advanced only when we try to explain the observed fact. A large number of hypotheses are advanced to explain the individual facts in life. & theft, a murder, an accident are examples. www facebook comjignou.hookssii) Descriptive Hypothesis: Some times a researcher comes across a complex phenomenon, He/ she does not understand the relations among the observed facts. But how to account for these facts? The answer is a descriptive hypothesis. A hypothesis is descriptive when it is based upon the points of resemblance of some thing. It describes the cause and effect relationship of a phenomenon eg,, the current unemployment rate of a state exceeds 25% of the work force. Similarly, the consumers of local made products constitute a significant market segment, ili) Analogical Hypothesis: When we formulate a hypothesis on the basis of similarities (analogy), it is called an analogical hypothesis e.g., families with higher earnings invest more surplus income on long term investments. iv) Working hypothesis: Some times certain facts cannot be explained adequately by existing hypotheses, and no new hypothesis comes up. Thus, the investigation is held up. In this situation, a researcher formulates a hypothesis which enables to continue investigation. Such a hypothesis, though inadequate and formulated for the purpose of further investigation only, is called a working hypothesis. Itis simply accepted as a starting point in the process of investigation. v) Null Hypothesis: It is an important concept that is used widely in the sampling theory. It forms the basis of many tests of significance. Under this type, the hypothesis is stated negatively. It is null because it may be nullified, if the evidence of a random sample is unfavourable to the hypothesis. It is 2 hypothesis being tested (HO). Ifthe calculated value of the test is less than the permissible value, Null hypothesis is accepted, otherwise it is rejected. The rejection of a null hypothesis implies that the difference could not have arisen due to chance or sampling fluctuations. vi) Statistical Hypothesis: Statistical hypotheses are the statements derived from a sample. These are quantitative in nature and are numerically measurable, For example, the market share of product x is 70%, the average life of a tube light is 2000 hours etc. 2. (a) What do you mean by an index number? Explain the uses of index number for analyzing the data. Ans:- An Index Number is a number which is used to measure the level of a certain phenomenon as compared to the level of the same phenomenon at some standard period. An Index Number is a statistical device for comparing the general level of magnitude of a group of related variables in two or more situations. If we want to compare the price level of 1983 with what it was in 1980, we may have look into a group of variables-prices of rice, wheat, vegetables, clothes, rent etc. If the changes are in the same ratio and in the same direction, we face no difficulty to find out the general price-level. But practically, if we think changes in different variables are different and that too, upward or downward, then the price is quoted in different units milk for liter, rice or wheat for kilogram, rent for square feet etc. We want one figure to indicate the change of different commodities as a whole. This is called an Index Number. Index Number is a number which indicates the changes in magnitude. The period for which the analysis is made is called the ‘current period’. Index number for the base period is always taken as 100. If the index number for the current period is more than 100 then it shows upward change. If the index number for the current period is less than 100 it implies a downward change in relation to base period. Uses: Index numbers are today one of www facebook comjignou.hookssthe most widely used statistical devices. They are particularly useful in measuring relative changes. In brief, the uses of index numbers are shown below: 1, They help in framing suitable policies in economics and business. 2. They are important in forecasting future economic activity. They are used in time-series analysis to study long- ‘term trend, seasonal variations and cyclical developments. N 4 3, Index numbers are very useful in deflating i.e., they are used to adjust the original data for price changes and thus transfer nominal wages into real wages. 4, An economist uses the ‘Index Number of stock prices’. These are also used by speculators and other financial institutions, 5. Wholesale price index number indicates the changes in the value of money. 6. ‘Index number of planners. industrial production’ reveals the comparative position in productivity and is useful for 7. Cost of li 1g index numbers measures change: the cost of living over a given period. 8. Formulation of good policies for future depends upon past trends. Behaviours of the index numbers are studied carefully making any policies. An index number is a statistical measure used to compare the average level of magnitude of a group of distinct but related variables in two or more situations. As an average of data is its representative summary figure. In a similar way, in index number is also an average, often a weighted average, computed for a group. It is a specialized average because index number is often used to average a characteristic expressed in different units for different items of a group e.g. the price of wheat may be quoted as Rs/ kg, price of milk as Rs/litre, ete. Secondly, it is used to measure the changes in characteristics which is not capable of being directly measured, For example, it is not possible to measure business activity in a direct way, however, relative changes in a business activity can be measured the direct measurement of changes in some factors that affect it. Another important feature of index number is that the changes in magnitude of a group are expressed in terms of percentages which are independent of unit of measurement. This facilitates the comparison of two or more index numbers in different situation, Uses of Index Numbers Index Numbers as Economic Barometers: Index numbers are indispensable tools for the management personnel of any government organization or individual business concern and in business planning and formulation of executive decisions. The indices of prices (wholesale and retail), output (volume of trade, import and export, industrial and agricultural production) and bank deposits, foreign exchange and reserves etc., throw light on the nature of, and variation in the general economic and business activity of the country. wun facoboolcom/ignou,bookssIndex Numbers Help in Studying trends and Tendencies: Since the index numbers study the relative ‘changes in the level of a phenomenon at different periods of time, they are specially useful for the study of the general trend for a group phenomena in a time series data. The indices of output (industrial and agricultural production), volume of trade, import and export, etc., are extremely useful for studying the changes in the level of phenomenon due to the various components of a time series, viz., secular trend, seasonal and cyclical variations and irregular components and reflect upon the general trend of production and business activity. As a measure of average change in extensive group, the index number can be used to forecast future events. For instance, if a businessman is interested in establishing a new industry, the study of the trend of changes in the prices, wages and incomes in different industries is extremely helpful to him to frame a general idea of the comparative courses which the future holds for different undertakings Index Numbers Helps in Formulating Decisions and Policies: Index numbers of the data relating to prices, production, profits, imports and exports, personnel and financial matters are indispensable for any organization in efficient planning and formulation of executive decisions. For example, the cost of living index numbers are used by the government and the industrial and business concerns for the regulation of dearness allowance (D.A.) or grant of bonus to the workers so as to enable them to meet the increased cost of living from time to time. Helps in deflating various values: Index numbers are very helpful in deflating national income on the basis of constant prices, to enable us to find out whether there is any change in the real income of the people. Figures of national income at current prices very often give misleading notions about the income level of the people and unless they are deflated the effects of inflationary or deflationary policies cannot be understood, Similarly the nominal sales can be deflated to give an idea about the real sales, and nominal wages can be deflated to give an idea about the real wages. Price Indices Measure the Purchasing Power of Money: The cost of living index numbers determine whether the real wages are rising or falling, money wages remaining unchanged. In other words, they help us in computing the real wages which are obtained on dividing the money wages by the corresponding price index and multiplying by 100. Real wages help us in determining the purchasing power of money. Useful to Politicians: The analysis of index number helps politicians to know about the actual economic condition of the country. Accordingly, they offer constructive criticism to the government and make useful suggestions for improvement. Useful in Contract Escalation: The study of index numbers (i.e. past behaviour or trends) help in adjusting price in contracts extending over long periods of time. Index numbers indicate the state of balance between aggregate supply and demand at the primary market level. Index numbers of stock price are used by economists, speculators and other financial institutions. wun facoboolcom/ignou,bookss(b) What is reporting? What are the different stages in the preparation of a report? ‘Ans:- The report may be meant for the people in general, when the investigation has not been carried out at the instance of any third party. Research is essentially a cooperative venture and it is essential that every investigator should know what others have found about the phenomena under study. The purpose of a report is thus the dissipation of knowledge, broadcasting of generalizations so as to ensure their widest use. A report of research has only one function, “it must inform”. It has to propagate knowledge. Thus, the purpose of a report is to convey to the interested persons the results and findings of the study in sufficient detail, and so arranged as to enable each reader to comprehend the data, and to determine for himself the validity of conclusions. Research results must invariably enter the general store of knowledge. A research report is always an addition to knowledge. All this explains the significance of writing a report. In a broader sense, report writing is common to both academics and organizations. However, the purpose may be different. In academics, reports are used for comprehensive and application-oriented learning. Whereas in organizations, reports form the basis for decision making, Reporting can be done in two ways : a) Oral or Verbal Report : reporting verbally in person, for example; Presenting the findings in a conference or seminar or reporting orally to the superiors. b) Written Report : Written reports are more formal, authentic and popular. Written reports can be presented in different ways as follows. i) Sentence form reports : Communicating in sentence form i) Tabular reports Communicating through figures in tables iil) Graphic reports : Communicating through graphs and diagrams iv) Combined reports : Communicating using all the three of the above, Generally, this is the most popular Research reports vary greatly in length and type. In each individual case, both the length and the form are largely dictated by the purpose of the study and problems at hand. For example, business organizations generally prefer reports in letter form, that too short in length. Banks, insurance and other financial institutions generally prefer figure form in tables. The reports prepared by government bureaus, enquiry commissions etc., are generally very comprehensive on the issues involved. Similarly research theses/dissertations usually prepared by students for Ph.D. degree are also elaborate and methodical. 3. Briefly comment on the following : (a) Classification of data provides a basis for tabulation of data Ans:- Presentation of collected data in the tabular form is one of the techniques of data presentation. The two other techniques are diagrammatic and graphic presentation. Arranging the data in an orderly manner in rows and columns is called tabulation of data, Sometimes data collected by survey or even from publications of official bodies are so numerous that it is difficult to understand the important features of the data. Therefore it becomes necessary to summarize data through tabulation to an easily intelligible form. It may be noted that ‘there may be loss of some minor information in certain cases, but the essential underlying features come out more clearly. Quite frequently, data presented in tabular form is much easier to read and understand than the data presented in the text. In classification, as discussed in the previous section, the data is divided on the basis wun facoboolcom/ignou,bookss