VIJAY NAGAR AND BAHMANI

19 KINGDOM

VIJAYNAGAR EMPIRE

• The foundation of the Vijayanagara state towards the middle of the 14th
century is generally attributed to a group of five brothers, namely, Bukka,
Harihara, Kampana, Mudappa and Marappa.
• The founding figures of the kingdom are also known as the Sangamas, after
their father’s name. The kingdom takes its name from its capital
Vijayanagara, ‘the city of victory’, which was built on the southern bank of
the river Tungabhadra.
• Four dynasties – Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva and Aravidu – ruled Vijayanagar
from A.D. 1336 to 1672. The sources for the study of Vijayanagar are varied
such as literary, archaeological and numismatics.

• Krishnadevaraya’s Amukthamalyada, Gangadevi’s Maduravijayam and

Allasani Peddanna’s Manucharitam are some of the indigenous literature
of this period. Many foreign travelers visited the Vijayanagar Empire and
their accounts are also valuable.
• The Moroccan traveler, Ibn Battuta, Venetian traveler Nicolo de Conti,
Persian traveler Abdur Razzak and the Portuguese traveler Domingo
Paes were among them who left valuable accounts on the socio-economic
conditions of the Vijayanagar Empire.

• The copper plate inscriptions such as the Srirangam copper plates of

Devaraya II provide the genealogy and achievements of Vijayanagar rulers.
The Hampi ruins and other monuments of Vijayanagar provide information
on the cultural contributions of the Vijayanagar rulers. The numerous coins
issued by the Vijayanagar rulers contain figures and legends explaining their
tittles and achievements.

Political History

• Vijayanagar was founded in 1336 by Harihara and Bukka of the Sangama

dynasty. They were originally served under the Kakatiya rulers of Warangal.
Then they went to Kampili where they were imprisoned and converted to
Islam.
• Later, they returned to the Hindu fold at the initiative of the saint Vidyaranya.
They also
proclaimed
their
independence
and founded a
new city on
the south
bank of the
Tungabhadra
river.
• It was called
Vijayanagar
meaning city
of victory. The
decline of the
Hoysala
kingdom
enabled
Harihara and
Bukka to
expand their
newly founded kingdom. By 1346, they brought the whole of the Hoysala
kingdom under their control. The struggle between Vijayanagar and
Sultanate of Madurai lasted for about four decades. Kumarakampana’s
expedition to Madurai was described in the Maduravijayam.
• He destroyed the Madurai Sultans and as a result, the Vijayanagar Empire
comprised the whole of South India up to Rameswaram. The conflict between
Vijayanagar Empire and the Bahmani kingdom lasted for many years.
• The dispute over Raichur Doab, the region between the rivers Krishna and
Tungabhadra and also over the fertile areas of Krishna-Godavari delta led to
this long- drawn conflict. The greatest ruler of the Sangama dynasty was
Deva Raya II. But he could not win any clear victory over the Bahmani
Sultans.
• After his death, Sangama dynasty became weak. The next dynasty, Saluva
dynasty founded by Saluva Narasimha reigned only for a brief period (1486-
1509).
 Krishna Deva Raya (1509 – 1530)

• The Tuluva dynasty was founded by Vira

Narasimha. The greatest of the Vijayanagar
rulers, Krishna Deva Raya belonged to the
Tuluva dynasty.
• He possessed great military ability. His
imposing personality was accompanied by
high intellectual quality. His first task was
to check the invading Bahmani forces.
• By that time the Bahmani kingdom was replaced by Deccan Sultanates. The
Muslim armies were decisively defeated in the battle of Diwani by Krishna
Deva Raya.
• Then he invaded Raichur Doab which had resulted in the confrontation with
the Sultan of Bijapur, Ismail Adil Shah. But, Krishna Deva Raya defeated
him and captured the city of Raichur in 1520. From there he marched on
Bidar and captured it.
• Krishna Deva Raya’s Orissa campaign was also successful. He defeated the
Gajapathi ruler Prataparudra and conquered the whole of Telungana.
• He maintained friendly relations with the Portuguese. Albuquerque sent his
ambassadors to Krishna Deva Raya. Though a Vaishnavaite, he respected all
religions. He was a great patron of literature and art and he was known as
Andhra Bhoja.
• Eight eminent scholars known as Ashtadiggajas were at his royal court.
Allasani Peddanna was the greatest and he was called Andhrakavita
Pitamaga. His important works include Manucharitam and Harikathasaram.
• Pingali Suranna and Tenali Ramakrishna were other important scholars.
Krishna Deva Raya himself authored a Telugu work, Amukthamalyadha and
Sanskrit works, Jambavati Kalyanam and Ushaparinayam. He repaired most
of the temples of south India. He also built the famous Vittalaswamy and
Hazara Ramaswamy temples at Vijayanagar.
• He also built a new city called Nagalapuram in memory of his queen
Nagaladevi. Besides, he built a large number of Rayagopurams. After his
death, Achutadeva and Venkata succeeded the throne.
• During the reign of Rama Raya, the combined forces of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar,
Golkonda and Bidar defeated him at the Battle of Talaikotta in 1565. This
battle is also known as Raksasa Thangadi. Rama Raya was imprisoned and
executed. The city of Vijayanagar was destroyed. This battle was generally
considered to mark the end of the Vijayanagar Empire.
• However, the Vijayanagar kingdom existed under the Aravidu dynasty for
about another century. Thirumala, Sri Ranga and Venkata II were the
important rulers of this dynasty. The last ruler of Vijayanagar kingdom was
Sri Ranga III.
Sri Lakshminarasimha Swamy Temple

• Also know as Yadagirigupta or Yadadri in Telangana is a popular Hindu

temple dovoted to Lord Narasimha Swamy, An incarnation of Lord Vishnu.
• In 15th Century, the Vijayanagara King Sri Krishnadevarayalu always visited
the temple praying the lord for victory.
RELIGION AND POLITICS UNDER VIJAYNAGAR EMPIRE
Religion and religious classes played an important role in the political, social
and economic life of the Vijaynagar empire.
Ritual Kingship

• It is generally emphasized that the principle of strict adherence to dharma

was the chief constituent and distinguishing feature of the Vijaynagar state.
But very often it was the Hindu rulers against whom the Vijaynagar rulers
had to fight, e.g. the Gajapatis of Odisha.
• The most strategically placed contingents of the Vijaynagar army were under
the charge of Muslim commanders. The Muslim archers were employed by
King Deva Raya II. These Muslim contingents played an important role in the
victory of Vijaynagar against its Hindu rivals. The successful military deeds
of the Vijaynagar rulers led them to assume the title of digvijayans.
• Vijaynagar kingship was symbolic in the sense that the Vijaynagar rulers
exercised their control through their overlords over a region beyond the prime
centre of their authority. This symbolism was manifested through the
instrument of religion which was used to ensure loyalty from the people. For
example, ritual kingship is best exemplified in the Mahanavami festival.
• This was an annual royal ceremony lasting for nine days between 15
September and 15 October. It culminated in the Dusserah festival on the
tenth day. 33Important personages (e.g. military commanders) from the
peripheral parts participated in the festival.
• Through this festival, recognition of the sovereignty of Vijaynagar rulers by
peripheral parts of the empire was strengthened. Though the Brahmans
participated in the festival, their role was not predominant. The ritual rites
of the festival were largely performed by the king himself.
Political Role of the Brahmans

• A distinct feature of the Vijaynagar state was the importance of the

Brahmans as political and secular personnel rather than ritual leaders. Most
of the durga dannaiks (in-charge of forts) were Brahmans.
• Literary sources substantiate the theory that fortresses were significant
during this period and were placed under the control of the Brahmans,
especially of Telugu origins. During this period, the majority of educated
Brahmans desired to become government servants as administrators and
accountants which offered them good career prospects.
• The Imperial Secretariat was totally manned by the Brahmans. These
Brahmans were different from the other Brahmans: they belonged to a sub-
caste called the Telugu Niyogis.
• They were not very orthodox in performing religious rites. They also worked
as potential legitimizers. The Brahman Vidyaranya and his kinsmen were the
ministers of the Sangama brothers: they provided legitimacy to their rule by
accepting them back into the Hindu fold.
• The Brahmans also played an important role as military commanders in the
Vijaynagar army. For example, under Krishnadeva Raya Brahman Timma
received economic support as he was an integral part of the political system.
Thus, Brahmans constructed and commanded fortresses in different parts of
the empire for which they were assigned revenue of some crown villages,
bhandaravada.
• Differentiation was made between crown villages and amaram villages (whose
income was under the charge of the local military chiefs).
LOCAL ADMINISTRATION UNDER THE VIJAYNAGAR EMPIRE
During the Vijaynagar period, the institutions of nadu (territorial assembly)
sabha and ur (village assemblies) did not completely disappear when the
nayaka and ayagar systems came into prominence.
The Nayankara System

• The nayankara system was an important characteristic of the Vijaynagar

political organization. The military chiefs or warriors held the title of nayaka
or amaranayaka.
• It is difficult to classify these warriors on the basis of definite office, ethnic
identity, set of duties or rights and privileges. The institution of nayaka was
studied in detail by two Portuguese – Fernao Nuniz and Domingo Paes, who
visited India during the reigns of Krishnadeva Raya and Achyut Raya of
Tuluva dynasty during the sixteenth century.
• They regard the nayakas simply as agents of Rayas (central government). The
evidence by Nuniz for the payments made by the nayakas to the Rayas brings
up the question of feudal obligations.
• The Vijaynagar inscriptions and the later Mackenzie manuscripts refer to the
nayakas as territorial magnates with political aspirations which at times
conflicted with the aims of the rulers
The Ayagar System

• During the Vijaynagar period, autonomous local institutions, especially in

the Tamil country, suffered a set-back. In pre-Vijaynagar days, in Karnataka
and Andhra, local institutions possessed lesser autonomy as compared to
Tamil country.
• During Vijaynagar period, in Karnataka too, local territorial divisions
underwent a change but the ayagar system continued and became widely
prevalent throughout the macro-region. It spread in the Tamil country during
15th -16th century as a result of the declining power of nadu and nattar. The
ayagars were village servants or functionaries and constituted of groups of
families.
• These were headmen (reddi or gauda, maniyam), accountant (karnam
senabhova) and watchmen (talaiyari). They were given a portion of or plot in
 a village. Sometimes they had to pay a fixed rent, but generally these plots
were manya or tax-free as no regular customary tax was imposed on their
agricultural income. In exceptional cases, direct payments in kind were made
for services performed by village functionaries.
• Other village servants who performed essential services and skills for the
village community were also paid by assigning plots of land (like washerman
and priest).
• The village servants who provided ordinary goods and services were leather
workers whose products included leather bag used in lift-irrigation devices
(kiapila or mohte), potter, blacksmith, carpenter and waterman (niranikkar:
who looked after the maintenance of irrigation channels and supervised
bankers and money-lenders).
• The distinguishing feature of the ayagar system is that special allocation of
income from land and specific cash payments were for the first time provided
to village servants holding a particular office.

Land and Income Rights

• Rice was the staple crop. Both black and white variety of rice was produced
from Coromandel to Pulicat. Besides, cereals like gram and pulses were also
cultivated. Spices (specially black pepper), coconut and betel-nuts were other
important items of production.
• Land-revenue was the major source of state’s income. Rate of revenue
demand varied in different parts of the empire and in the same locality itself
according to the fertility and regional location of the land.
• It was generally 1/6th of the produce, but in some cases it was even more
ranging up to 1 /4th.
• But on Brahmans and temples it was 1/20th to 1/30th respectively. It was
payable both in cash and kind. We find references to three major categories
of land tenure: amara, bhandaravada and manya. These indicate the way
in which the village income was distributed. The bhandarvada was a crown
village comprising the smallest category.
• A part of its income was utilised to maintain the Vijaynagar forts. Income
from the manya (tax-free) villages was used to maintain the Brahmans,
temples, and mathas.
• The largest category was of the amara villages given by the Vijaynagar rulers
to the amaranayakas. Their holders did not possess proprietary rights in land
but enjoyed privileges over its income only. The amara tenure was primarily
residual in the sense that its income was distributed after deductions had
been made for support of the Brahmans and forts.
• Three-quarters of all the villages came under this category. The term
amaramakni is considered by most historians as referring to an ‘estate’ or a
‘fief’, but it literally means one-sixteenth share (makani).
• Thus, it points to the fact that the amaranayakas could claim only a limited
share of village income. The manya rights underwent a transformation during
this period.
 • Land tenures continued to be given by the state to individual (ekabhogam)
Brahmans and groups of Brahmans as well as to mathas including the non-
Brahman Saiva Siddhanta and Vaishnava gurus.
• But there was a great increase in devadana grants (conferred on temples)
made by the state as compared to other grants. Besides land-tax, many
professional taxes also were imposed. These were on shopkeepers, farm-
servants, shepherds, washermen, potters, shoemakers, musicians etc. There
was also tax on property.
• Grazing and house taxes were also imposed.
• Villagers were also supposed to pay for the maintenance of the village officers.
Besides, sthala dayam, marga dayam and manula dayam were three major
transit dues. Another category of land right through which income was
derived was a result of investment in irrigation.
• It was called dasavanda in Tamil country and KattuKodage in Andhra and
Karnataka. This kind of agrarian activity concerning irrigation was
undertaken in semi-dry areas where hydrographic and topographic features
were conducive for carrying out developmental projects.
• The dasavanda or Kattu-Kodage was a share in the increased productivity of
the land earned by the person who undertook such developmental work (e.g.
construction of a tank or channel). This right to income was personal and
transferable.
• A portion of income accruing from the increased productivity also went to
the cultivators of the village where the developmental work was undertaken.
SOCIAL LIFE

• Allasani Peddanna in his Manucharitam refers the existence of four castes –

Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras - in the Vijayanagar society.
• Foreign travelers left vivid accounts on the splendour of buildings and
luxurious social life in the city of Vijayanagar. Silk and cotton clothes were
mainly used for dress. Perfumes, flowers and ornaments were used by the
people.
• Paes mentions of the beautiful houses of the rich and the large number of
their household servants.
• Nicolo Conti refers to the prevalence of slavery. Dancing, music, wrestling,
gambling and cock-fighting were some of the amusements.
• The Sangama rulers were chiefly Saivaites and Virupaksha was their family
deity. But other dynasties were Vaishnavites. Srivaishnavism of Ramanuja
was very popular. But all kings were tolerant towards other religions.
• Borbosa referred to the religious freedom enjoyed by everyone. Muslims were
employed in the administration and they were freely allowed to build mosques
and worship.
• A large number of temples were built during this period and numerous
festivals were celebrated. The Epics and the Puranas were popular among the
masses. The position of women had not improved.
• However, some of them were learned. Gangadevi, wife of Kumarakampana
authored the famous work Maduravijayam. Hannamma and Thirumalamma
were famous poets of this period.
• According to Nuniz, a large number of women were employed in royal palaces
as dancers, domestic servants and palanquin bearers.
• The attachment of dancing girls to temples was in practice. Paes refers to the
flourishing devadasi system.
• Polygamy was prevalent among the royal families. Sati was honoured and
Nuniz gives a description of it.

ECONOMIC CONDITION
• According to the accounts of the foreign travelers, the Vijayanagar Empire was
one of the wealthiest parts of the world at that time. Agriculture continued to
be the chief occupation of the people.
• The Vijayanagar rulers provided a stimulus to its further growth by providing
irrigation facilities. New tanks were built and dams were constructed across
the rivers like Tunghabadra.
• Nuniz refers to the excavation of canals. There were numerous industries and
they were organized into guilds. Metal workers and other craftsmen flourished
during this period.
• Diamond mines were located in Kurnool and Anantapur district. Vijayanagar
was also a great centre of trade. The chief gold coin was the varaha but weights
and measures varied from place to place.
• Inland, coastal and overseas trade led to the general prosperity. There were a
number of seaports on the Malabar coast, the chief being Cannanore.
• Commercial contacts with Arabia, Persia, South Africa and Portugal on the
west and with Burma, Malay peninsula and China on the east flourished.
• The chief items of exports were cotton and silk clothes, spices, rice, iron,
saltpeter and sugar. The imports consisted of horses, pearls, copper, coral,
mercury, China silk and velvet clothes. The art of shipbuilding had developed.
CULTURAL CONTRIBUTIONS

• The temple building activity further gained momentum during the Vijayanagar
rule. The chief characteristics of the Vijayanagara architecture were the
construction of tall Raya Gopurams or gateways and the Kalyanamandapam
with carved pillars in the temple premises.
• The sculptures on the pillars were carved with distinctive features. The horse
was the most common animal found in these pillars. Large mandapams
contain one hundred pillars as well as one thousand pillars in some big
temples.
• These mandapams were used for seating the deity on festival occasions. Also,
many Amman shrines were added to the already existing temples during this
period.
• The most important temples of the Vijayanagar style were found in the Hampi
ruins or the city of Vijayanagar. Vittalaswamy and Hazara Ramaswamy
temples were the best examples of this style. The Varadharaja and
 Ekamparanatha temples at Kanchipuram stand as examples for the
magnificence of the Vijayanagara style of temple architecture. The Raya
Gopurams at Thiruvannamalai and Chidambaram speak the glorious epoch of
Vijayanagar. They were continued by the Nayak rulers in the later period.
• The metal images of Krishna Deva Raya and his
queens at Tirupati are examples for casting of metal
images. Music and dancing were also patronized by
the rulers of Vijayanagar.
• Different languages such as Sanskrit, Telugu,
Kannada and Tamil flourished in the regions. There
was a great development in Sanskrit and Telugu
literature.
• The peak of literary achievement was reached during
the reign of Krishna Deva Raya.
Elephant Chariot – Hampi Ruins
• He himself was a scholar in Sanskrit and Telugu. His famous court poet
Allasani Peddanna was distinguished in Telugu literature.
• Thus the cultural contributions of the Vijayanagar rulers were many-sided and
remarkable.
BAHMANI KINGDOM

• The founder of the

Bahmani kingdom was
Alauddin Bahman Shah
also known as Hasan
Gangu in 1347.
• Its capital was Gulbarga.
• There were a total of
fourteen Sultans ruling
over this kingdom. Among
them, Alauddin Bahman
Shah, Muhammad Shah I
and Firoz Shah were
important. Ahmad Wali
Shah shifted the capital
from Gulbarga to Bidar.
• The power of the Bahmani
kingdom reached its peak
under the rule of
Muhammad Shah III.
• It extended from the
Arabian sea to the Bay of
Bengal. On the west it extended from Goat to Bombay.
• On the east, it extended from Kakinada to the mouth of the river Krishna. The
success of Muhammad Shah was due to the advice and services of his minister
Mahmud Gawan.
MAHMUD GAWAN

• The Bahmani kingdom reached its peak under the guidance of Mahmud
Gawan. He was a Persian merchant. He came to India at the age of forty two
and joined the services of Bahmani kingdom.
• Slowly he became the chief minister due to his personal qualities. He remained
loyal to the kingdom. He lived a simple life and was magnanimous.
• He was also a learned person. He possessed a great knowledge of mathematics.
He made endowments to build a college at Bidar which was built in the Persian
style of architecture. He was also a military genius.
• He waged successful wars against Vijayanagar, Orissa and the sea pirates on
the Arabian sea. His conquests include Konkan, Goa and Krishna-Godavari
delta. Thus he expanded the Bahmani Empire through his conquests.
ADMINISTRATION IN BAHMANI KINGDOM

• His administrative reforms were also important. They were aimed to increase
the control of Sultan over the nobles and provinces.
• Royal officers were appointed in each province for this purpose. Most of the
forts were under the control of these officers.
• Allowances were reduced to the nobles who shirked their responsibility. This
wasdisliked by the nobles.
• So, the Deccani nobles organised a plot against Gawan. They induced the
Sultan to punish him with death sentence.
• After the execution of Gawan, the Bahmani kingdom began to decline.
Muhammad Shah was succeeded by weak Sultans.
• The Bahmanis have copied the administrative structure of the Delhi Sultans.
The king was at the helm of affairs, followed by wakil, wazir, bakhshi and qazi.
• Besides, there were pabir (secretary), mufti (interpreter of law), kotwal,
muhtasib (censor of public morals). Munihians (spy) were appointed not only
in every corner of their kingdom, but we are told that during Muhammad's
reign, munihians were posted at Delhi, too.
• During Mutiammad I's reign, the Bahmani kingdom was divided into four atraf
or provinces, i.e. Daulgltabad, Berar, Bidar and Gulbarga each ruled by a
tarafdar.
• Since Gulbarga was the most
important province, only the most
trusted nobles were appointed of other
provinces who were called hater on, as
mir naib (viceroy)-distinct from the
governor (tarafdars) of other provinces.
• Later on as the boundaries of the
kingdom expanded, Mhmud Gawan
divided the empire into eight provinces.
Certain parts of the empire were - put under the direct control of the Sultan
(khassrr-i Sultani).
ARMY ORGANISATION

• The amir-ul umara was the commander of the army.

• The army mainly consisted of, soldieis and cavalry. Elephants were also
employed. The rulers maintained a large number of bodyguards known as
khassakhel.
• Muhammad I is stated to have had four thousand bodyguards. Besides, there
were silahdars who were incharge of the 'personal armoury of the king.
• In times of need, barbardan were asked to mobilize troops. Another
characteristic feature of the Bahmani army was the use of gunpowder that
gave them military advantage.

ECONOMY
• Mahmud Gawan ordered for systematic measurement of land fixing the
boundaries of the villages and towns.
• Thus, in this regard he was the forerunner of Raja Todar Mal. All this greatly
helped the exchequer. First, the income of the empire was ensured and became
known in advance; secondly, it also curbed the corruption of the nobles to the
minimum, thereby increasing the state’s income.
• In the Bahmani kingdom, trade and commerce was in a flourishing state.
Nikitin, a Russian traveler, who was in the Deccan during 1469-74, provides
ample information regarding the commercial activities of Bidar.
• He says that horses, cloth, silk, and pepper were the chief merchandise.
• He adds that at Shikhbaludin Peratyr and at aldinand bazar people assembled
in large numbers where trade continued for ten days. & also mentions the
Bahmani seaport Mustafabad-Dabul as a centre of commercial activity.
• Dabul was well connected not only with the Indian but also with the African
ports. Horses were imported from Arabia, Khurasan and Turkestan.
• Trade and commerce was mostly in the hands of the Hindu merchants.
• Musk and fur were imported from China

SOCIETY AND CULTURE

• The social structure of the Bahmanis was cosmopolitan in character. There
were Muslims, Hindus, Iranians, Transoxonians, lraqis and Abyssinians
(Habshis). The Portuguese came during the early 16th century.
• This heterogeneous character becomes more prominent at its linguistic
pattern: Persian, Marathi, Dakhni (proto-Urdu) Kannada and Telugu
languages were widely spoken in various parts of the kingdom.
• The sufis were great& venerated by the Bahmani rulers. Initially, they
migrated to the Deccan as religious auxiliaries of the Khaljis and the
Tughluqs. The infant Bahmani kingdom required the support of the sufism
for popular legitimization of their authority.
• The sufis who migrated to the Bahmani kingdom were chiefly of the Chishti,
Qadiri and Shattari orders.
• Bidar emerged as one of the most important centres of the Qadiri order.
Shaikh Sirajuddin Junaidi was the first sufi to receive the royal favour. The
Chishti saints enjoyed the greatest honour.
• Syed Muhammad Gesu Daraz, the famous Chishti saint of Delhi, migrated to
Gulbarga in 1402-3. Sultan Feroz granted a number of villages as inam for
the upkeep of his khanqsh. But during the later period of his reign
dissensions between the two developed on account of the sufi's support for
the Sultan's brother Ahmad as his successor.
• It finally led to the expulsion of Gesu Daraz from Gulbarga.
• With the large influx of the Afaqis in the Bahmani kingdom, the Shias also
found their place under Fazullah's influence.
• Ahmad first act of sending 30,000 silver tankas for distribution among the
Saiyyids of Karbala in Iraq shows his inclination for the Shia doctrine.
• The most influential wazir of Ahmad III was also a Shia.
• Hindu traditions and culture also influenced the Bahmani court. Sultan
Feroz's (1397-1422) marriage with a daughter of the royal family of Vijaynagar
helped greatly in the Hindu-Muslims cultural harmony.
• There is a legend that Feroz even once went to Vijaynagar in the guise of a
Hindu faqir. Even in the most important ceremony like the celebration of urs,
Hindu influences are to be seen.
• During the urs celebrations, the Janprn (the head of the Lingayats of
Madhyal in Gulbarga district) would perfom the ceremony in typical Hindu
fashion-conch-blowing, flower offerings, etc.

THE BREAK-UP OF BAHMANI KINGDOM

• Then the Bahmani kingdom was divided into four independent kingdoms
namely Bijapur, Ahmednagar, Berar, and Golconda.
• Last and fifth kingdom formed in Bidar.
• After some time, Bijapur emerged as a strong kingdom. Then Bidar, Berar
was joined to Bijapur.
• In the battle of Talikota or Rakshashi-Tangradi in 1565, all the five
Bahmani Kingdoms fought against the Vijaya Nagar Kingdom.
• The result is the Vijayanagar Kingdom defeated brutally.
• But after the Talakota war, all the Deccan sultanates were annexed with
the Mughal emperor.
 20 BHAKI AND SUFI TRADITIONS

By the mid-first millennium CE the landscape of the subcontinent was dotted

with a various religious structures – stupas, monasteries, temples. New
textual sources available from this period include compositions attributed to
poet-saints, most of whom expressed themselves orally in regional languages
used by ordinary people. These compositions, which were often set to music,
were compiled by disciples or devotees, generally after the death of the poet-
saint. What is more, these traditions were fluid – generations of devotees
tended to elaborate on the original message, and occasionally modified or even
abandoned some of the ideas that appeared problematic or irrelevant in
different political, social or cultural contexts. Using these sources thus poses
a challenge to historians. Historians also draw on hagiographies or
biographies of saints written by their followers (or members of their religious
sect). These may not be literally accurate, but allow a glimpse into the ways
in which devotees perceived the lives of these pathbreaking women and men.
• In medieval India it was caste structures that governed the lives of men and
the networks of relations that they could enter into.
• The structure of social divisions that arose thus was, as mentioned, a rigid,
inflexible and unequal one that created extremes of inequality, privileges and
disprivileges between men and social groups. Although this was an extremely
unfair system, little could be done or said against it as it was supported by
Hindu religious ideology, particularly the notions of high and pure birth and
occupation as against the low and impure. In other words, Hinduism was as
much a social system as it was a religion, and provided an ideological
framework on the basis of which Hindu society arose.
In other words, Hinduism was both religion and social framework and
governed the lives of Hindus. To be a Hindu meant that one's life was
goveorned by factors such as being born in a caste, being subject to ones'
actions or karma, to be a part of Brahman and aim at achieving moksha or
Liberation of ones soul or salvation.
Further, it must be remembered that Hinduism was not a revealed religion
that had just a single text. With every phase in the development of Hinduism
came new scriptures and texts. Thus we have the Veda, the Upnishad, the
Purana and the Bhagavad Gita.
• Even though we have stressed that the caste system was a system that formed
the basis of life in Hindu India and was rigid and unchangeable, there
nevertheless occured many anti-caste movements in the course of the
development of the religion. As Buddhism and Jainism in the 6th century B.C.
 that spoke up against caste divisions and social inequality. This struggle was
carried forward and saw its culmination in the rise of the medieval movement
of-bhakti or 'selfless' devotion to a single God, with which this unit is primarily
concerned.
• Hinduism was greatly criticised and faced many movements against it on
Hinduism which will provide a background). Of these, the bhakti movement
has great significance. This is so because even though the bhakti movement
was against some of the tenets of Hinduism, much of what is a part of
Hinduism in later ages developed as an outcome of the bhakti tradition. This
tradition was widespread, in fact from Northto South India. We will outline its
development in the South and North seprately.
• The term Bhakti is derived from the Sanskrit root “Bhaj” means to serve.
Dharma means the natural internal characteristics of a thing. The meaning
of “movement” is the practice that influences a large section of a society.
• In the early beginning, the word Bhakti is first mentioned in Rig-Veda as
worship to Indra and Surya Devata. It is also noted in the famous discourse
on Bhakti by Narad in Narad Bhakti Sutra. Similarly it also appears in
Vishnu-sookta.
• Later, Upanishads emphasized Para Bhakti. Bhakti and Upasana of Vishnu,
Shiv, Roodra, Narayan, Surya is also indicated in Upanishad. The great epic
Ramayana emphasized Pitra Bhakti and Guru Bhakti.

Principles of Bhakti Movement:

The main principles of Bhakti movement are:
1. God is one,
2. To worship God man should serve humanity,
3. All men are equal,
4. Worshipping God with devotion is better than performing religious
ceremonies and going on pilgrimages,
5. Caste distinctions and superstitious practices are to be given up. The
Hindu saints of the Bhakti Movement and the Muslim saints of the Sufi
movement became more liberal in their outlook. They wanted to get rid of
the evils which had crept into their religions. There were a number of such
saints from the 8th to 16th century A.D.

Paths and Pillars of Bhakti

From a modem historical standpoint the development of bhakti is the coming
together of considerably earlier theistic tendencies in three major religious
traditions of ancient India:
i. the sacrificial cult of the invading Aryans and the recitation of the
Brahmana priests that become the foundation of the Vedas;
ii. ii the practice of bodily mortification and groups known as Srarnanas
probably continuing traditions of earlier inhabitants of India but soon
ad- apted by some of the Aryans; and
 iii. the pre-Aryan cults of spirits and village goddesses inhabiting trees and
rocks and protecting special people or special groups.

HISTORY OF BHAKTI MOVEMENT

• The term bhakti is defined as “devotion” or passionate love for the Divine.
Moksha or liberation from rebirth was not in the following of rules, regulations
or societal ordering, but it was through simple devotion to the Divine. Within
the movement at large, useful distinctions have been made by contemporary
scholars between those poet saints who composed verses extolling God with
attributes or form, namely, “saguna” bhaktas, and, those extolling God
without and beyond all attributes or form, “nirguna.”
• As mentioned above, the feeling of Bhakti or devotion can be traced back to
the Rig Veda. It is the very first hymn of Rig Veda, which gives expression to
a feeling of intimacy with the highest God. In the Katha Upanishad it is said
that the divine help, which is the reward to Bhakti, is necessary before one
can be saved.
• The Sveta – Svatara Upanishad speaks of the highest devotion to God. Panini
refres to the object of devotion in the Astadhyayi. The earliest God connected
with Bhakti is Vishnu – Krishna.
• In the Bhagwad Gita there is emphasis on Love and devotion to God. The
attitude of love to the supreme God continued to be recommended in the
Bhagwat Purana.

Causes for the birth of Bhakti Movement:

• Prior to the coming of Islam to India, Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism were
the dominant religions. Hinduism lost its simplicity. Many philosophical
schools appeared. Two different sects, i.e., Vaishnavism and Saivism also
appeared within Hinduism. In course of time Sakti worship also came into
existence. Common people were confused on the way of worshipping God.
When Islam came to India, the Hindus observed many ceremonies and
worshipped many Gods and Goddesses. There were all sorts of superstitious
beliefs among them. Their religion had become complex in nature. Added to
these, the caste system, untouchability, blind worshipping
• and inequality in society caused dissensions among different sections of the
people. On the other hand Islam preached unity of God and brotherhood of
man. It emphasized monotheism. It attacked idol worship. It preached
equality of man before God.

• The oppressed common people and the people branded as low castes were
naturally attracted towards Islam. It only increased the rivalry among
religions. Fanaticism, bigotry, and religious intolerance began to raise their
heads. It was to remove such evils religious leaders appeared in different parts
of India. They preached pure devotion called Bhakti to attain God.
 Origin of the Bhakti Movement :
• Bhakti means personal devotion to God. It stresses the Union of the individual
with God. Bhakti movement originated in South India between the 7th and
the 12th centuries A.D. The Nayanmars, who worshipped Siva, and the
Alwars, who worshipped Vishnu, preached the idea of Bhakti. They carried
their message of love and devotion to various parts of South India through the
medium of the local language.
• They preached among common people. It made some of the followers of the
Vedic faith to revive the old Vedic religion. Saints like Sankara, Ramanuja
and Madhwa gave their concepts of God and the individual soul.

Bhakti Movement in the North:

• The Bhakti movement in North India gained momentum due to the Muslim
conquest. The saints of the Bhakti Movement were men and women of humble
origin. They came from all castes and classes. They had visited from place to
place singing devotional songs. They had also preached the Unity of God and
brotherhood of man. They had stressed tolerance among various religious
groups. Their preaching was simple.
• The Hindu tradition has generally been divided into a number of important
historical and religious periods through its long development. The formative
time frame from 2500—400 B.C.E. is highlighted by what are known as the
sacred texts, the Vedas, and a nomadic people known as the Indo-Aryans; this
period is classified as the Vedic Period. Central to the Vedas was the visionary
figure of the rishi, or seer, one who was able to communicate with and about
the various gods of the Vedic pantheon through a complex system of rituals
that could only be conducted by an increasingly powerful priesthood.
Liberation, or moksha, was to be found through the precise performance of
ritual.
• The Epic and Classical Periods, from 400 B.C.E.—600 C.E. are so named
because of their focus on important texts, namely, the Mahabharata and the
Ramayana. These epics are concerned with heroes and heroic battles, kings,
queens and ideal roles of individuals.
• Also of central importance to this time frame were Law Books concerned with
the ideal nature of society. Social order and stability were to be found in a
hierarchical ordering of people as well as specific roles assigned to each
individual’s life stage (ashrama) and position in society (varna) or caste.
• On the upper rung of this system was the Brahmin priesthood, followed by
Kshatriyas (warriors) and Vaishyas (merchants), also known as twice-born
classes. Only these groups were enabled to take part in an initiation ceremony
known as the “sacred thread,” study the Vedas and take part in Vedic rituals.
Beneath these three groups were the Shudras, those who were servants to the
upper three varnas. Underneath this rung came another subsection, the
Untouchables, those whose occupations were so polluting that they did not
even qualify to fit within an ordered society.
• The way to liberation from rebirth or moksha was in a true understanding of
dharma, recognition and maintenance of the good of the social order, as
exemplified and regulated by the Epics and Law Books.

NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF BHAKTI MOVEMENT

Nature of Bhakti Movement

• Generally speaking the religious movement of this period lies between 1300 –
1550 A.D. It was non ritualistic and mainly based on Bhakti. It emphasized a
religion or faith, which was essentially Hindu but reflected the vigorous
monotheism of Islam. All Bhakti cults are essentially monotheistic. It is
immaterial whether he is called Shiva, Krishna or Devi.
• They all symbolize the One and the Eternal. It is the religion, philosophy and
social thinking that were created during this revival, which enabled Hinduism
to reassert itself in the following period. In the religious life of India the glory
of period is most resplendent. Ramanand, Kabir, Mira, and Vallabhacharya in
the north, Chaitanya in Bengal, Madhava, Vedanta Desika and numerous
others in the south give to the religious life of the period a vitality that
Hinduism never seems to have enjoyed before.

Characteristics of Bhakti Movement.

• One chief characteristic of the Bhakti Movement can be mentioned as belief in
One God. Devotee could worship God by love and devotion. The second
characteristic of Bhakti Movement was that there was no need to worship Idols
or to perform elaborate rituals for seeking his grace. The third feature on which
the Bhakti Saints laid stress was the equality of all castes. There was no
distinction of high or low as far as devotion to God was concerned. The fourth
feature was the emphasis, which these saints laid on the Hindu – Muslim
Unity. According, to these saints all men, irrespective of their religion are equal
in the eyes of the God.
• The saints preached in the language of the common people. They did not use
Sanskrit, which was the language of the cultured few. These saints laid stress
on purity of heart and practice of virtues like Truth, Honesty, Kindness and
Charity. According to these saints, only virtuous man could realize God.
• These saints considered God as Omnipresent and Omnipotent. Even a
householder could realize God by love and devotion. Some regarded God as
formless or Nirguna while others considered him as having different forms or
Saguna.
• The basic principles of Bhakti Movement namely love and devotion to one
personal God and the Unity of God were mainly Hindu. But as a result of
contact with Islam, more emphasis was laid on these principles than
performance of outward rituals such as Yjnas, fasts, going to sacred places,
bathing in the Ganges or worship of images.
• The movement had two main objects in view. One was to reform Hindu religion
to enable it withstand the onslaught of Islamic propaganda. And the second
was to bring about a compromise between Hinduism and Islam.

FACTORS THAT HELPED THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE BHAKTI

MOVEMENT

• There were a number of factors which contributed to the rise and growth of
the Bhakti Movement during the Medieval Period. The first important factor
can be presumed as the persecution of Hindus by the Muslim rulers, who
tried to convert them to Islam and imposed Jaziya if they were not prepared
to become followers of Islam. This led to the very strong reactions of Hindus
leading to preservation of their religion through Bhakti Movement.
• Secondly, the ill-treatment of the lower classes in Hindu society by the
persons of upper castes, the people of the lower caste had to suffer injustice
and cruelties. So the teachings of the Bhakti saints who preached equality of
castes as far as the devotion to God was concerned appealed to the people of
lower castes. Thirdly, the elaborate rituals and rigor in religion was not liked
by common man. The Bhakti saints preached the path of devotion and
discarded all rituals hence it appealed to the common man.
• Next, was the enthusiasm and the inspiration of the Bhakti saints. They tried
to remove the evils of Hindu society and gave it a new vigor and vitality. Last,
factor was the inner vitality of the Hindu religion that resulted in an
intellectual and a moral revival of Hinduism. This Hinduism affected every
aspect of thought and generated new moral forces, which helped to revitalize
• Hindu life and gave it the dynamism. In the sphere of religion and normal
thinking in law, in literature and even in political ideals, a new life came into
being in India by the middle of the 16th century.

Torch Bearers of Bhakti Movement:

Ramanuja :
Ramanuja was one of the earliest reformers. Born in the South, he made a
pilgrimage to some of the holy places in Northern India. He considered God
as an Ocean of Love and beauty. His teachings were based on the Upanishads
and Bhagwad Gita. Whatever he taught, he had taught in the language of the
common man. Soon a large number of people became his followers.
Ramanand was his disciple. He took his message to Northern parts of India.

Ramananda :
Ramananda was the first reformer to preach in Hindi, the main language
spoken by the people of the North. He was educated at Benaras. He preached
that there is nothing high or low. All men are equal in the eyes of God. He was
an ardent worshipper of Rama. He welcomed people of all castes and status
to follow his teachings. He had twelve chief disciples.
One of them was a barber, another was a weaver, the third one was a cobbler
and the other was the famous saint Kabir and the fifth one was a woman
named Padmavathi. He considered God as a loving father. He lived in the
14th century A.D.

Bhakti Saint Ramananda

Kabir :
Kabir was an ardent disciple of Ramananda. It is said that he was the son of
a Brahmin widow who had left him near a tank at Varanasi. A Muslim couple
Niru and his wife who were weavers brought up the child. Later he became a
weaver but he was attracted by the teachings of Swami Ramananda. He
wanted unity between the Hindus and the Muslims. He preached that both
the Hindus and the Muslims are the children of a single God. He had no faith
in idol worship, religious rituals and ceremonies. He taught that Allah and
Eswar, Ram and Rahim are one and the same. They are present everywhere.
The devotees of Kabir were known as Kabir Panthis.
Thousands of people, both Hindus and Muslims became Kabir’s followers. He
probably lived in the fifteenth century A.D.

Namdeva :
Namdeva was a waterman by birth. He hailed from Maharashtra. He
composed beautiful hymns in Marathi. They are full of intense devotion to
God. He worshipped Vishnu in the form of Lord Vithoba. Some of his verses
are included in the Guru Granth Sahib, the holy book of the Sikhs. A large
number of people from different Castes became his followers.
Guru Nanak. (A.D.1469 -A.D.1538):
Guru Nanak was the founder of the Sikh religion. From his childhood, he did
not show any interest in worldly affairs. At the age of 29, he left his home and
became a Sadhu. He went to Mecca and Medina. He had travelled far and
wide to spread his teachings. Guru Nanak had finally settled at Karthpur. He
laid emphasis on pure and simple living. He preached the Unity of God and
condemned idolatry. He was against the caste system. Guru Nanak’s followers
are called the Sikhs. He started the Langer or the common kitchen, where
people belonging to all castes or religions could have their meals together.
Nanak’s teachings were in the form of verses. They were collected in a book
called the Adi Granth. Later Adi Grantham was written in a script called
Gurmukhi. The holy book of the Sikhs is popularly known as ‘Grantha
Sahib’. It contains verses from Kabir, Namdeva and other Bhakti and Sufi
saints.

Saints of Bhakti Movement

Chaitanya (A.D.1485 - A.D.1533) :

Chaitanya, a great devotee of Lord Krishna, was a saint from Bengal. From
his very childhood, he had showed great interest in education and studied
Sanskrit. He married the daughter of a Saintly person. Later at the age of 24,
he renounced the worldly life and became a sanyasin. He travelled all over the
Deccan, Bihar, Bengal and Orissa. His followers regarded him as an
incarnation of Lord Vishnu. He helped the old and the needy. He was opposed
to the inequalities of the caste system. He emphasized the need for tolerance,
humanity and love. He spread the message of Bhakti in Bengal. He
popularised ‘Sankritan’or public singing of God’s name. His songs are still
very popular in Bengal. He was addressed `Mahaprabhu’ by his followers.

Tulsi Das :
Goswamy Tulsidas was a devotee of Rama. His work gives the story of Rama
in Hindi. He was the foremost in popularizing Rama cult. His other works in
Hindi are Janaki Mangal and Parvathi Mangal. In his writings he insists the
duty of a son to his parent, duty of a student to his teacher and duty of a king
to his people.
Guru Ramdas:
He was a famous teacher. He was born in A.D. 1608. Chatrapati Shivaji, the
great Maratha ruler, was a follower of Ramdas. He stressed upon the equality
 of all men before God. He said that anyone could attain God’s favour by means
of Bhakti. Guru Ramdas was not merely a religious preacher but also a Nation
Builder.
Tukaram: was a saint who lived in Maharashtra. He composed a large
number of verses called Abhangas or devotional songs in praise of
Panduranga or Krishna. He believed in one God who was kind, merciful and
protective. He wrote all his abhangas in Marathi. Jnaneshwar: He is one of
the greatest saints of Maharashtra. He worshipped Vishnu in the form of
Vithoba or Krishna. At the age of fourteen, he translated the Bhagawad Gita
into the Marathi language. This book is called Jnaneshwari.

BHAKTI MOVEMENT IN SOUTH INDIA

Nayanmars :
In South India, the Nayanmars and Alwars were the noted saints of the
Bhakti movement. The Nayanmars, the devotees of Siva, were sixty three in
number. The most famous among them were Appar, Sundarar, Thirugnana
Sambandar and Manickavachakar. These saints composed many verses in
praise of Lord Siva. A saint named Nambiandar Nambi collected the
devotional songs of Nayanmars. Appar, Sundarar and Thirugnana
Sambandar composed the Thevaram hymns. Manickvachakar’s songs are
known as Tiruvachakam. Periyapuranam, written by Sekhizhar, tells us the
life stories of the Nayanmars.

Alwars :
The Alwars were the worshippers of Lord Vishnu who were twelve in number.
Among them Nammalwar, Tirumangai Alwar, Andal and Perialwar were
famous. The songs of the Alwars were compiled in a book called Nalayira
Divya Prabandham by Nadamuni. The devotional songs of Andal is called
Thiruppavai.

Basava :
Basava lived in Karnataka. He founded the Virasaiva or Lingayat sect.
According to Basava, Siva was the supreme God. Basava opposed child
marriage and idol worship.

Women Torch Bearers :

• Many of the bhakti poet-saints rejected asceticism as the crucial means
toward liberation; some bhaktas were instead householders. As well, themes
of universalism, a general rejection of institutionalized religion, and a central
focus on inner devotion laid the groundwork for more egalitarian attitudes
toward women and lower caste devotees. Women and shudras, both at the
bottom of the traditional hierarchy ordering society, became the examples of
true humility and devotion. Female poet-saints also played a significant role
in the bhakti movement at large. Nonetheless, many of these women had to
struggle for acceptance within the largely male dominated movement. Only
 through demonstrations of their utter devotion to the Divine, their
outstanding poetry and stubborn insistence of their spiritual equality with
their contemporaries were these women reluctantly acknowledged and
accepted within their ranks. Their struggle attests to the strength of
patriarchal values within both society and within religious and social
movements attempting to pave the way for more egalitarian access to the
Divine.
• The imagery of bhakti poetry is grounded in the everyday, familiar language
of ordinary people. Women bhaktas wrote of the obstacles of home, family
tensions, the absent husband, meaningless household chores, and
restrictions of married life, including their status as married women.
• In many cases, they rejected traditional women’s roles and societal norms by
leaving husbands and homes altogether, choosing to become wandering
bhaktas; in some instances they formed communities with other poet-saints.
Their new focus was utter devotion and worship of their Divine Husbands.
Caste status and even masculinity were understood as barriers to liberation,
in essence a rejection of the hierarchy laid out by the Law Books of the
Classical Period. Male bhaktas often took on the female voice calling to her
Beloved, utterly submissive to His desires.
• However, while male bhaktas could engage in this role playing on a temporary
basis, returning at will to their privileged social status as males, women
bhaktas faced overwhelming challenges through their rejection of societal
norms and values, without having the ability to revert back to their normative
roles as wives, mothers and in some cases, the privileges of their original high
caste status.
• While it is tempting to see women’s participation within the bhakti movement
as a revolt against the patriarchal norms of the time, there is little evidence
to support this perspective. Injustices and the patriarchal order itself were not
a major focus of these poet-saints.
• Women bhaktas were simply individuals attempting to lead lives of devotion.
Staying largely within the patriarchal ideology that upheld the chaste and
dutiful wife as ideal, these women transferred the object of their devotion and
their duties as the “lovers” or “wives” to their Divine Lover or Husband.
Nonetheless, that their poetry became an integral aspect of the bhakti
movement at large is highly significant and inspirational for many who look
to these extraordinary women as ideal examples of lives intoxicated by love
for the Divine.
• Further, it would appear that with the movement’s northward advancement
(15th through 17th centuries), its radical edge as it pertained to women’s
inclusion, was tempered. Greater numbers of women took part in the
movement’s earlier development (6th to 13th centuries); it is largely male
bhaktas and saints that are today perceived as the spokespersons for the
movement in its later manifestations.
• The poetry of women bhaktas from this latter time period is generally not
indicative of a rejection of societal norms in terms of leaving family and homes
in pursuit of divine love.
• Instead, some of the later poet-saints stayed within the confines of the
household while expounding on their souls’ journeys, their eternal love for the
Divine, as well as their never-ending search for truth.

Female Bhaktas
The poets outlined below represent a panorama of female poet-saints within
the Bhakti movement. Some were extraordinarily radical in their rejection of
social norms and values, leaving husbands, families, and society behind in
order to extol their love for God. Others attempted to fit into more traditional
roles in society by maintaining their responsibilities as wives and mothers. All
wrote exquisite poetry that has been passed on through bards and singers
throughout India.

Akkamahadevi, also known as Akka or Mahadevi was a bhakta from the

southern region of Karnataka and devotee of Shiva in the 12th century C.E.
Legends tells of her wandering naked in search of her Divine Lover; her poetry,
or vacanas tells of her frustration with societal norms and roles that restricted
her. They also bear witness to her intense, all-encompassing love for Shiva,
whom she addresses as Chennamallikarjuna. Through Shiva and Shiva alone
is her love fulfilled; through separation from her “lord White as jasmine” is
her heart broken.

Janabai was born around the 13th century in Maharashtra in a low caste
sudra family. As a young girl she was sent to work in the upper-caste family
of Namdev, one of the most revered of the bhakti poet saints. While within
this household, she continued to serve Namdev, both as a servant and as his
devotee. Janabai wrote over three hundred poems focusing on domestic
chores and the restrictions facing her as a low caste woman.

• Mira bai, or Mira is said to have been born into a ruling Rajput family.
Mirabai’s poetry tells of her vision of Lord Krishna when she was a child; from
that point on Mira vowed that she would forever be his bride.
• Despite her wishes she was married into another princely family at a young
age. Yet the numerous legends surrounding Mira tell of an undying devotion
toward Krishna, her true husband. Central to these accounts are Mirabai’s
struggles within the family she had been married into, including unsuccessful
attempts made by her jealous husband to kill her. Others focus on her sisters-
in-law’s efforts to obstruct Mirabai in her desires to join the company of
wandering saints, actions deemed utterly improper for a woman of her high-
caste status.
• Eventually, Mirabai left her husband and family in pilgrimage to various
places associated with “her Dark Lord,” including Brindavan, Krishna’s holy
city. There she was initially rejected because she was a woman. Yet Mirabai’s
reputation of devotion, piety, and intellectual astuteness eventually led to her
inclusion within the community of the saints of Brindavan. Mirabai’s poetry
portrays a unique relationship with Krishna; in it she is not only the devoted
bride of Krishna, but Krishna is ardent in his pursuit of Mira.
• Because of Mirabai’s singular focus and intense devotion of her Husband, the
“lifter of the mountain,” she can be perceived as simply upholding the “wifely”
duties of women and patriarchal norms in general. On the other hand, she
remains for many a symbol of resistance of social order of the day.

• Bahinabai or Bahina was a poet-saint from 17th century Maharashtra,

writing in the form of abangas, women’s songs that accompanied their
labours, especially in the fields. Her writings are particularly
autobiographical, recounting her childhood, puberty and married life.

• Despite having obvious conflicts with her husband due to her overarching and
ecstatic love for her Divine Lover in the form of Lord Vithoba, another name
for Krishna, she took her role as wife and responsibilities to her earthly
husband seriously. Her husband was also critical of her allegiance to the
Bhakti poet-saint Tukaram.

• Nonetheless, her poetry reflects an attitude of duty and respectful empathy

toward both her marriage and her spouse. This becomes clear through her
writings on the responsibilities of women toward their husbands. Though
highly unusual, it is believed that Bahinabai received some classical training
from her father, a Brahmin scribe.

• Her poetry recounts visions she experiences of the low-caste poet-saint

Tukaram; despite her high caste status, she became his devotee, thus
choosing the path of devotion over brahmanical norms of ritual purity.

Lalleshwari, locally popular as Lal Ded, was a Kashmiri mystic of the early
medieval period, renowned for her devotional lyrical verse. Her spiritualist
compositions, musings, methods and practices were universal, holistic and
transcendental in appeal, and thus inspired Hindus and Muslims alike. She
managed to express insight in brevity, simplicity and above all, encompassive
generality, surpassing most of her comparatively narrow-minded
contemporaries. She emphasised sentimental abstraction and was a
pioneering, vocal critic of superficialities as idolatry. She was instrumental to
the body of vernacular mysticism in the region, and a harmonising influence
and crucial link between traditional mysticism, the popular Bhakti movement
and Sufism. To erstwhile sensibilities, Lal Ded was a tantalising oxymoron: a
 revolutionary reformer and an idealist empath. She made the esoteric
accessible.
Early Life
Lalleshwari was born in Pandrethan (ancient Puranadhisthana), about 7
kilometres to the southeast of Srinagar, in a Kashmiri Pandit family, during
the reign of Alaa-ud-din Khilji.

Evidence strongly suggests that Women in erstwhile Kashmir, received liberal

education. She was supposedly inspired by exposure to Shaivite teachings
and preachings, early on in her life, as substantiated by her poetry, which
indicates that she was educated as a young child, at her father’s house.

She was married at the age of twelve where, she was renamed Padmawati,
keeping consistent with a patriarchal Kashmiri Pandit tradition, by her-in-
laws. Her marriage was dissatisfactory: She was continually tormented by her
mother-in-law, while her simpleton and gullible husband, persisted oblivious,
mundane and extremely passive, in pretty much every aspect. She left home
at the age of 24 to take Sannyasa (renunciation) and become a disciple of the
Shaivite guru, Siddha Srikantha (Sed Bayu), whom she ultimately surpassed
in spiritual attainments. She carried forth the torch of Shaivism (erstwhile
known as Trika) in Kashmir, and much proliferated it. She furthered the
tradition to such extensivity, that the once-esoteric (locally held as such)
mysticism became augmented in local lore and folk narratives.

Lal Ded was stylised independently and varyingly by each community, she
was simultaneously co-existed as the Lalla Yogini to the Hindus and the
Lal’arifa to the Muslims

ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS AND PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATION OF BHAKTI

MOVEMENT

With reference to the early beginning of Bhakti Movement in southern India,

on the philosophical side the most important fact is the new interpretation of
the ancient philosophical texts given by Ramanuja, who in the eleventh
century provided an intellectual foundation for bhakti, which the monistic
philosophy had done so much to undermine.
• It was this influence which was most powerful in what has been called the
Hindu Reformation, and in the ` Four Churches of the Reformation we have
evidence of the new strength and vitality which had been imparted to the spirit
of bhakti.
• These Churches are known respectively as (1) the Srisampradaya of
Ramanuja, (2) the Brahma-sampradaya of Madhva, (3) the Rudra-
sampradaya of Vishnuswamin, and (4) the Sanakadi-sampradaya of
Nimbarka.
• These Churches are based on different theological foundations. The first held
a qualified monism—visishtadvaita, the second a dualism on the lines of the
 Samkhya-Yoga, the third a pure monism—suddhadvaita, and the fourth a
philosophy which is a curious blend of monism and pluralism. Yet all agree
on certain points.
• They hold to the belief in God as in some way personal. They also agree in
holding that the soul is essentially personal and possessed of inalienable
individuality. It is also immortal, finding its true being not in absorption in
the Supreme, but in a relation with him of inextinguishable love. All agree
accordingly in rejecting the doctrine of Maya.
• Sir R. G. Bhandarkar has well summarized what is to be said regarding the
relations of the various Vaishnava systems to each other in the following
paragraph:
• The points of contact between these various Vaishnava systems are that their
spiritual elements are essentially derived from the Bhagavadgita, that
Vasudeva as the name of the Supreme Being, stands in the background of all,
and that spiritual monism and world-illusion are denounced by them equally.
The differences arise from the varied importance that they attach to the
different spiritual doctrines; the prominence that they give to one or other of
the three elements that were mingled with Vasudevism ; the metaphysical
theory that they set up; and the ceremonial that they impose upon their
followers. The Bhagavadgita was supplemented in later times by the
Pancaratra Samhitas and the Puranas such as the Vishnu and the Bhagavata,
and other later works of that description. These occasionally elucidated some
of the essential doctrines, laid down the ceremonial, and brought together a
vast mass of legendary matter to magnify the importance of their special
teachings and render them attractive.
• The Bhaktiratnavali, a work, dating from about A. D. 1400, which consists of
extracts from the Bha-gavata Purana, shows how this influence wrought in
one of its lines. It commends the bhakti-marga as the only way of deliverance.
Neither charity, nor asceticism, nor sacrifices, nor purificatory rites, nor
penances and religious vows please him. He is pleased with pure devotion.
Everything else is futile, mere mockery.
• Effects of Bhakti Movement:
The Bhakti movement had brought the Hindus and the Muslims closer to each
other. The equality concept preached by the leaders reduced the rigidity of the
caste system to a certain extent. The suppressed people gained a feeling of
self-respect. The reformers preached in local languages. It led to the
development of Vernacular literature. They composed hymns and songs in the
languages spoken by the people.
• Therefore there was a remarkable growth of literature in all the languages. A
new language Urdu, a mixture of Persian and Hindi, was developed. The
Bhakti movement freed the common people from the tyranny of the priests. It
checked the excesses of polytheism. It encouraged the spirit of toleration. The
gap between the Hindus and the Muslims was reduced.
• They began to live amicably together. It emphasized the value of a pure life of
charity and devotion. Finally, it improved the moral and spiritual ways of life
of the medieval society. It provided an example for the future generation to
live with the spirit of toleration.

NEW STRANDS IN THE FABRIC OF ISLAMIC TRADITIONS

• Just as the regions within the subcontinent were not isolated from one
another, so too, contact with lands beyond the seas and mountains had
existed for millennia. Arab merchants, for instance, frequented ports along
the western coast in the first millennium CE, while Central Asian people
settled in the north-western parts of the subcontinent during the same
period.
• From the seventh century, with the advent of Islam, these regions became
part of what is often termed the Islamic world.

Faiths of rulers and subjects

• One axis of understanding the significance of these connections that is
frequently adopted is to focus on the religions of ruling elites. In 711 an Arab
general named Muhammad Qasim conquered Sind, which became part of the
Caliph’s domain. Later (c. thirteenth century) the Turks and Afghans
established the Delhi Sultanate.
• This was followed by the formation of Sultanates in the Deccan and other
parts of the subcontinent; Islam was an acknowledged religion of rulers in
several areas. This continued with the establishment of the Mughal Empire
in the sixteenth century as well as in many of the regional states that
emerged in the eighteenth century.
• Theoretically, Muslim rulers were to be guided by the ulama, who were
expected to ensure that they ruled according to the shari‘a. Clearly, the
situation was complicated in the subcontinent, where there were populations
that did not subscribe to Islam.
• It is in this context that the category of the zimmi, meaning protected (derived
from the Arabic word zimma, protection) developed for people who followed
revealed scriptures, such as the Jews and Christians, and lived under
Muslim rulership. They paid a tax called jizya and gained the right to be
protected by Muslims. In India this status was extended to Hindus as well.
Rulers such as the Mughals came to regard themselves as emperors of not
just Muslims but of all peoples.
• In effect, rulers often adopted a fairly flexible policy towards their subjects.
For instance, several rulers gave land endowments and granted tax
exemptions to Hindu, Jaina, Zoroastrian, Christian and Jewish religious
institutions and also expressed respect and devotion towards non-Muslim
religious leaders. These grants were made by several Mughal rulers,
including Akbar and Aurangzeb.
 A Mughal painting depicting Emperor Jahangir with a Jogi

The popular practice of Islam

• The developments that followed the coming of Islam were not confined to ruling
elites; in fact they permeated far and wide, through the subcontinent, amongst
different social strata – peasants, artisans, warriors, merchants, to name a few.
All those who adopted Islam accepted, in principle, the five “pillars” of the faith:
that there is one God, Allah, and Prophet Muhammad is his messenger
(shahada); offering prayers five times a day (namaz/salat ); giving alms (zakat
); fasting during the month of Ramzan (sawm); and performing the pilgrimage
to Mecca (hajj ).
• However, these universal features were often overlaid with diversities in
practice derived from sectarian affiliations (Sunni, Shi‘a), and the influence of
local customary practices of converts from different social milieus. For example,
 the Khojahs, a branch of the Ismailis (a Shi‘a sect), developed new modes of
communication, disseminating ideas derived from the Qur’an
through indigenous literary genres. These included the ginan

Atiya mosque, Mymensingh district, Bangladesh, built with brick, 1609

(derived from the Sanskrit jnana, meaning “knowledge”), devotional poems in

Punjabi, Multani, Sindhi, Kachchi, Hindi and Gujarati, sung in special ragas
during daily prayer meetings. Elsewhere, Arab Muslim traders who settled
along the Malabar coast (Kerala) adopted the local language, Malayalam. They
also adopted local customs such as matriliny and matrilocal residence.
• The complex blend of a universal faith with local traditions is perhaps best
exemplified in the architecture of mosques. Some architectural featuresof
mosques are universal – such as their orientation towards Mecca, evident in
the placement of the mihrab (prayer niche) and the minbar (pulpit).
• However, there are several features that show variations – such as roofs and
building.
 GROWTH OF SUFISM

In the early centuries of Islam a group of religiousminded people called sufis

turned to sceticism and mysticism in protest against the growing materialism
of the Caliphate as a religious and political institution. They were critical of
the dogmatic definitions and scholastic methods of interpreting the Qur’an
and sunna (traditions of the Prophet) adopted by theologians.
Instead, they laid emphasis on seeking salvation through intense devotion
and love for God by following His commands, and by following the example of
the Prophet Muhammad whom they regarded as a perfect human being. The
sufis thus sought an interpretation of the Qur’an on the basis of their personal
experience.

What is Sufism?

• In the beginning Sufism developed in Mesopotamia, Arabia, Iran and

modem Afghanistan. It was formalized by the end of the 8th century. Right
from the beginning there was a hiatus between the ulemas and the mystics.
The latter claimed to be delving into the interior of religion, which depended
on the heart.
• 'The Sufi and bhakti traditions are characterised by adherence to religious
text, governmental authority and opposed to external ritualism of prayer.
The Sufis aim for a direct relationship with God and thus their basic features
incorporate strands from various sources including Hinduism. ,
• Ritu Dewan has pointed out that as a consequence of the 12th century
Mongal invasion many Sufis took shelter in India, especially in Multan,
Punjab, and Sindh.
• One of the greatest Sufi mystics Maulana Jalaluddin Rumi (1207-1273)
was very influenced by Indian folklore and even wrote a poem dedicated
to the flute of Krishna.
• He founded the Maulavi Sufi order in which music and dance were spiritual
methods. Soami ji Maharaj founder of the Radha Soami sect was much
influenced by Rumi who he often quoted in his discourses. Guru Nanak too
was inspired by Rumi.
• Rumi and Baba Farid's compositions (1173-1265) have been included in the
Granth Sahib together with those of Kabir.
• Guru Nanak was called guru of the Hindus and pir of the Mussalmans. By
the end of the 16th century the Bhakti movement had covered the -entire
north 1ndia resulting in an intermingling of Hindu mysticism with Sufism.
Sufis were also against external ritualism in religion.
• Prayers and fasting were held to be inferior to works of charity. And Jihad
not external war but a fight against the lower self of man. Some Sufis like

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 Shah Abdul Latif and Sachal Sarmast called' upon people to "strike the
Mullahs".
• In Bengal the influence of Chaitanya was felt on a popular level, speciauy
on the Baul movement. Muslim Bauls followed the Sufi tradition and Hindu
Bauls the Vaishnavite.
• Sufi literature of Rumi and Hafiz (d. 1389) influenced Raja RamMohan Roy
and Devendranath Tagore, and Rabindranath Tagore. Sufi literature
remains fresh today though long years have passed since it was first penned
• Sufism, specialises in the spiritual dimension of Islam. It believes in revelation
as a source of contact with the sacred and attempts to get a personal
experience of the unity of God. This leads to a realization that God alone is to
be adored.
• This is basic to Sufism. While orthodox priests of Islam feel that this desire to
merge in the unity of God is anti-Islam the Sufis do not feel this is so. In fact
they feel it is closely related to Islamic doctrine. The two are interdependent.
Ammalogy given to clarify the relationship is that of the kernel of the walnut
and the shell.
Neither, can possibly do without the other. Another.example is that Islamic
doctrine is like the circumference of a circle at the centre of the centre of which
lies the ultimate Reality (Haququat). Sufism is a mediator between Islamic
doctrine and Utlimate Reality.
Sufism can be explained through three basic religious attitudes of
1) Islam
2) Iman
3) Thsan
1slam: the attitude of submission to the will of Allah.
Iman designates a firm faith in the teachings of the Islam.
Ihsan is to adore Allah though one may not see him. Sufism is the spirituil
progress of a devotee from the initial stage of Islam to the ultimate stage of
Ihsan.
• As Islam in India, it came to enfold in its cloak, the system of monasticism
and a defined way of community life. The Sufi mystic however was in no way
forced to live a defined and organised life.
• By the 9th century, these Sufis who had come to form a brotherhood and a
definite way of community life, also began wearing a particular kind of coarse
woollen garment known as sufi and thus came to be called sufis. Suifis,
though Muslim, are considered to be pantheistic mystics. This was a basic
difference with orthodox Islam but in common with the bhakti school of the
Hindus.

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• The Sufis followed the Quran, and sought to reveal their purpose in life
through their sayings, actions and the path that they followed. This path was
often shared by different mystics and came to be called tariqah or sufism.
• The path of lunselfishness' through either renouncing the world and ones
possessions and desires or by adopting an attitude of patience, humility and
charity, towards God, were essential to being a sufi. The sufis also had a
special method of their own for producing the state of mind in which they
would have revelations. They called this dhikr.
• Its simplest form is the continual repetition of the name of Allah with intense
concentration on the thought of God, and losing one's individuality in this. If
we examine these teachings closely we can see how the idea of dhikr which
was central to Sufi thought is similar to the idea in bhakti tradition of
concentrating on the ishta deva, in one's quest for liberation particularly in
the saguna tradition.
• Thus, Sufism mainly professed mysticism and upon this the Sufis built the
basic theological doctrines of their religious movement. A major practice
devised by the Sufis for stimulating religious emotion was listening to music
and song or sama.
• These songs are capable of sending one into a trance. The subject of the songs
was love, which was often erotic. One could not clearly distinguish whether
the love, being talked about here was human love or the love for the deity.
Once again this is similar to the love in the bhakti tradition between the
bhakta and the God as was expressed for Krishna by the Gopis. We find,
many attempts were made to define the Sufi in different ways. In general it
was however agreed that the Sufi had metaphysical, social and
philanthropic characteristics.
• Further, the Sufi doctrine we find was moulded by different influences such
as the developments in Muhammadan monotheistic ideas or the influence of
Greek and Indian philosophies. Moreover, we can also include here, political,
sbcial and intellectual conditions that favoured the grbwth of mysticism.
• The Sufis were very strict about accepting disciples or murid. blowly
however,"as followers flocked to them, many Sufis became recognised as
teachers of Shaikhs Medieval and Modern and Pirs and 'orders' arose within
Sufism. The four major orders that arose were the.(a) Qudiri (b) Suhrawardi
(c) Chisti and (d) Naqshbandi. By the 13th century, Sufism had become a
movement in its own right in India.

The Spread of Sufism in India

• Sufism mainly flowed into Indian from Arabia, Mesopotamia, and Iran. We
have accounts of the various saints of different orders spreading Sufi
teachings in different parts of India: To name a few, we have the well-known

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 Shaikh Muinuddin Chisti who had established himself in Ajmer and Shaikh
Nizarnuddin Auliya whose teachings and followers spread all over India.
• As far as the spread of Sufism in India is concerned, its character changed to
adapt to tQe Hindu environment. Thus, the metaphysical aspect was avoided
and personal instruction of disciples was undertaken. Not all Sufis however
took disciples.
• Those who did were called Shaikhs. The Shaikh besides being a teacher
was regarded as a protector, friend, companion and benefactor or Wali.
The teacher was also believed to possess supernatural powers or
Karamah. The Shatkh or pir was regarded as the spiritual guide of the
disciple or murid. We find that most of the people who came to the Sufi
saints, desired to use their spiritual pawers to cure an illness or fulfil a
wish. Even today we find that of the many people who may visit the resting
place of a pir, i.e. his dargah, come there to seek the fulfilment of a wish
or a blessing.
• There were as mentioned earlier four main orders among the Sufis. Each
of these we find different from the other in the emphasis of its teachings
and'the extent to which it spread in India. All four orders however regarded
the Shariah as the spiritual guide. All four believed that a Sufi should have
no wordily possessions.
• Each order had over time found devout disciples who in turn had reached
the stature of being capable of having their own disciples and were known
as Khalifahs.
• These Khalifahs played imported roles in the spread of their order's
teachings. Of the four orders, the Suhrawardis, were the most orthodox
and played a leading role in the spread of SuEsq in the North-West of
India. They believed that to be able to perform their functions better, they
had to maintain good relations with the political authority of the time.
• Of these orders, it is however the Chisti Sufis who are best known. They
spread al.1 over the country and their principal Shaikh Nizamuddin,
settled in Delhi and gave the order its expansive character. The Chistis
consistently maintained that the political authority was an influence to be
avoided. By th'e time Nizamuddin died in 1325 and his successor
Nasiruddin took over, in 1356, a spiritual empire had began to form. It
reached its peak in the personality of Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya. By this
time-the Chisti order had spread to Bihar and Bengal and had an even
older order in Rajasthan that began with Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti in
Ajmer in the 1190s. The expansion of this order into the Deccan was
carried out by Shaikh Gesu-daraz.
• It is imported to note that because of the presence of differences
between the order and individualistic approach of many of the

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 Shaikhs, a single Muslim unijied community of disciples could not
be formed. Instead, each order had its devout disciples who together
formed a united brotherhood. Overtime, Sufism lost its spiritual intensity
and became missionary in character.
• By the end of the 14th century, Hinduism had evoked a response in the
Sufis. The devotional character of Hindi songs and the language, had
brought the Suf~an d Hindu closer. An intermixing of the two people on a
cultural level had begun to take place.
• In fact we find that a common ground had opened up in which the mutual
acceptance of the aesthetic values of the Hindus and Muslims had come
to be accepted by each other. This intercharge of cultures will be discussed
in the following section that specifically deals with the meeting of Sufism
and the bhakti tradition.

SUFISM AND BHAKTI: A COMPARISON

• Having outlined what the tradition of Sufism entailed let us now consider
the role of Sufism in the bhakti tradition. You may have already noticed that
much of what the Sufis taught was very similar to the bhakti teaching of
concentrating upon a God and the significance of sacred music and song.
This interaction between the two (as mentioned earlier in sub-section 24.3.1)
it is believed to have led to the creation of a medieval mysticism which was
independent of sectarian or orthodox practices and disclaimed particularly
caste practices and atrocities. The first Sufi teacher who came to India
was, as mentioned earlier, Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti, who arrived in Delhi in
1193 and settled in Pushkar in Ajmer. He had both Hindu and Muslim
followers. We are all familiar with the 'Urs' at his dargah in A-jmer, to which
flocks of followers come, treating it as a major pilgrimage centre even today.
• As mentioned, these Sufis, were Islamic mystics who sought the path
of salvation through an ardent and passionate love for God. The
teachings of the Sufis greatly influenced not only followers but many saints
of the bhakti tradition who came to combine in themselves, sufi and bhakti
teachings.
• The two most significant figures here from the 15th and 16th century, were
Kabir and Guru Nanak. We will briefly consider their role in the development
of medieval mysticism.

Growth of Medieval Mysticism

• An important role in the growth of medieval mysticism was played by
Ramananda (1370-1440) who himself was a follower of Ramanuja.
Ramananda challenged caste divisions, questioned traditional ceremonies
and accepted the Hindu philosophy of divisions, questioned traditional

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 ceremonies and accepted the Hindu philosophy of jnana or knowledge,
meditation or yoga and devotion or bhakti.
• He had many disciples of which twelve were the more important and came
from low castes. The most famous of these disciples was Kabir, the son of a
Muslim weaver. It is believed that though, he early in his life abandoned the
Muslim faith, he retained the strict monotheism of Islam and an aversion to
the caste system. He saw religion as a personal concern and stressed
relationship between man, God and his teacher or guru. He combined in him,
elements of both the Sufi and bhakti traditions, claiming that both Allah and
Rama were the same thing.
• Since he was trying to reach out to the common people he used the dialect or
its variant as the language of communication. He stressed the importance of
both material and spiritual things in one's life. He had both Hindu and Muslim
followers and was non-sectarian. It is possible however that his Hindu
followers are greater in number. Much of Kabir's life and work is derived from
reconstructing its course from the dohas or sakhis rendered by him.
• These were essentially rhymed poems; set to music. There is much debate
however about how many of these dohas were written by Kabir himself and
how many of his followers or the Kabir panthis.
• Thus, there is doubt about the legitimacy of some of the sayings that are
attributed to Kabir. Many it is believed are those of his devotees. These dohas,
it is believed were very often included by the Sufi saints into their sama.
• Important among Kabir's followers was Dadu (1544-1608) who also belonged
to a Muslim .family. He made the important contribution of seeking a
unification of faiths, and founded the Brahma-Sampradaya where God would
be worshipped without ritual or orthodoxy.
• As a mystic he contributed to the idea of the beauty of the world to be
discovered not by becoming a recluse or an ascetic but by living a full life and
enjoying what it had to offer.
• At the same time as Kabir we have, the contribution of Guru Nanak of Punjab
(1469-1538). There is greater certainty about his dates and origins than those
of Kabir. Live Kabir, he too was a monotheist and was greatly opposed to the
caste system.
• His disciples, the Sikhs, were organised into a close knit community. His
teachings and writings and those of the subsequent Gurus were compiled
together by the fifth Guru, Arjun, into the sacred book of the Sikhs, the Adi-
Grantha. The Sikhs represented a bhakti sect, where their bhakti was sung
in the form of the Gurbani.
• Guru Nanak's religious renderings we find, also incorporated the best of sufi
influence and much of his teachings reflect the union of bhakti and sufi
pracitcs.

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