CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT AND FACILITATING LEARNING

PAPASA NABA UGH UGH?

LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors
1. Nature of the learning process.
The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional process
of constructing meaning from information and experience.There are different types of learning
processes, for example, habit formation in motor learning;and learning that involves the generationof
knowledge, or cognitive skills and learning strategies.Learning in schools emphasizes the use of
intentional processes that students can use toconstruct meaning from information, experiences, and
their own thoughts and beliefs. Successfullearners are active, goal-directed, self-regulating, and
assume personal responsibility forcontributing to their own learning. The principles set forth in
thisdocument focus on this type oflearning.

2. Goals of the learning process.

The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can createmeaningful,
coherent representations of knowledge.The strategic nature of learning requires students to be goal-
directed. To construct usefulrepresentations of knowledge and to acquire the thinking and learning
strategies necessary forcontinued learning success across the lifespan, students must generate and
pursue personallyrelevant goals. Initially, students' short-term goals and learning may be sketchy in
an area, butover time their understanding can be refined by filling gaps, resolving inconsistencies,
anddeepening their understanding of the subject matter so that they can reach longer-term
goals.Educators can assist learners in creating meaningful learning goals that are consistent with
bothpersonal and educational aspirations and interests.

3. Construction of knowledge.
The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in
meaningfulways.Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build links between new
informationand experiences and their existing knowledge base. The nature of these links can take a
varietyof forms, such as adding to, modifying, or reorganizing existing knowledge or skills. How
theselinks are made or developed may vary in different subject areas and among students with
varyingtalents, interests, and abilities. However, unless new knowledge becomes integrated with
thelearner's prior knowledge and understanding, this new knowledge remains isolated, cannot
beused most effectively in new tasks, and does not transfer readily to new situations. Educatorscan
assist learners in acquiring and integrating knowledge by a number of strategies that havebeen shown
to be effective with learners of varying abilities, such as concept mapping andthematic organization or
categorizing.This historical document is derived from a 1990 APA presidential task force (revised in
1997).

4. Strategic thinking.
The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoningstrategies to achieve
complex learning goals.Successful learners use strategic thinking in their approach to learning,
reasoning, problemsolving, and concept learning. They understand and can use a variety of strategies
to help themreach learning and performance goals, and to apply their knowledge in novel situations.
Theyalso continue to expand their repertoire of strategies by reflecting on the methods they use to
seewhich work well for them, by receiving guided instruction and feedback, and by observing
orinteracting with appropriate models. Learning outcomes can be enhanced if educators
assistlearners in developing, applying, and assessing their strategic learning skills.

5. Thinking about thinking.

Higher-order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate creativeand critical
thinking.Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set reasonable learning
orperformance goals, select potentially appropriate learning strategies or methods, and monitortheir
progress toward these goals. In addition, successful learners know what to do if a problemoccurs or if
they are not making sufficient or timely progress toward a goal. They can generatealternative
methods to reach their goal (or reassess the appropriateness and utility of the goal).Instructional
methods that focus on helping learners develop these higher-order (metacognitive)strategies can
enhance student learning and personal responsibility for learning.

6. Context of learning.
Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology, andinstructional
practices.Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Teachers a major interactive role with both the learner
andthe learning environment. Cultural or group influences on students can impact many
educationallyrelevant variables, such as motivation, orientation toward learning, and ways of
thinking.Technologies and instructional practices must be appropriate for learners' level of
priorknowledge, cognitive abilities, and their learning and thinking strategies. The
classroomenvironment, particularly the degree to which it is nurturing or not, can also have
significantimpacts on student learning.

Motivational and Affective Factors

7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning.
What and how much is learned is influenced by motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn,is influenced
by the individual's emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals, and habitsof thinking.The rich
internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals, and expectations for success or failure canenhance or
interfere the learner's quality of thinking and information processing. Students' beliefsabout
themselves as learners and the nature of learning have a marked influence on
motivation.Motivational and emotional factors also influence both the quality of thinking and
informationprocessing as well as an individual's motivation to learn. Positive emotions, such as
curiosity,generally enhance motivation and facilitate learning and performance. Mild anxiety can
alsoenhance learning and performance by focusing the learner's attention on a particular
task.However, intense negative emotions (e.g., anxiety, panic, rage, insecurity) and related
thoughts(e.g., worrying about competence, ruminating about failure, fearing punishment, ridicule,
orstigmatizing labels) generally detract from motivation, interfere with learning, and contribute to
lowperformance.

8. Intrinsic motivation to learn.

The learner's creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute tomotivation to
learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty anddifficulty, relevant to personal
interests, and providing for personal choice and control.Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking, and
creativity are major indicators of the learners'intrinsic motivation to learn, which is in large part a
function of meeting basic needs to becompetent and to exercise personal control. Intrinsic motivation
is facilitated on tasks thatlearners perceive as interesting and personally relevant and meaningful,
appropriate incomplexity and difficulty to the learners' abilities, and on which they believe they can
succeed.Intrinsic motivation is also facilitated on tasks that are comparable to real-world situations
andmeet needs for choice and control. Educators can encourage and support learners' naturalcuriosity
and motivation to learn by attending to individual differences in learners' perceptions ofoptimal
novelty and difficulty, relevance, and personal choice and control.

9. Effects of motivation on effort.

Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort and guidedpractice.
Without learners' motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this effort isunlikely without coercion.
The effort is another major indicator of motivation to learn. The acquisition of complex knowledge
andskills demands the investment of considerable learner energy and strategic effort, along
withpersistence over time. Educators need to be concerned with facilitating motivation through
strategiesthat enhance learner effort and commitment to learning and to achieving high standards
ofcomprehension and understanding. Effective strategies include purposeful learning activities,guided
by practices that enhance positive emotions and intrinsic motivation to learn, and methodsthat
increase learners' perceptions that a task is interesting and personally relevant.

Developmental and Social Factors

10. Developmental influences on learning.
As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for learning.Learning is most
effective when differential development within and across physical,intellectual, emotional, and social
domains is taken into account.Individuals learn best when material is appropriate to their
developmental level and is presentedin an enjoyable and interesting way. Because individual
development varies across intellectual,social, emotional, and physical domains, achievement in
different instructional domains may alsovary. Overemphasis on one type of developmental
readiness--such as reading readiness, forexample--may preclude learners from demonstrating that
they are more capable in other areas ofperformance. The cognitive, emotional, and social
development of individual learners and howthey interpret life experiences are affected by prior
schooling, home, culture, and communityfactors. Early and continuing parental involvement in
schooling, and the quality of languageinteractions and two-way communications between adults and
children can influence thesedevelopmental areas. Awareness and understanding of developmental
differences amongchildren with and without emotional, physical, or intellectual disabilities, can
facilitate the creationof optimal learning contexts.

11. Social influences on learning.

Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and communicationwith
others.Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to interact and to collaborate
withothers on instructional tasks. Learning settings that allow for social interactions, and that
respectdiversity, encourage flexible thinking and social competence. In interactive and
collaborativeinstructional contexts, individuals have an opportunity for perspective taking and
reflectivethinking that may lead to higher levels of cognitive, social, and moral development, as well
asself-esteem. Quality personal relationships that provide stability, trust, and caring can
increaselearners' sense of belonging, self-respect and self-acceptance, and provide a positive climate
forlearning. Family influences, positive interpersonal support and instruction in self-
motivationstrategies can offset factors that interfere with optimal learning such as negative beliefs
aboutcompetence in a particular subject, high levels of test anxiety, negative sex role expectations,
andundue pressure to perform well. Positive learning climates can also help to establish the
contextfor healthier levels of thinking, feeling, and behaving. Such contexts help learners feel safe
toshare ideas, actively participate in the learning process, and create a learning community.
Individual Differences Factors
12. Individual differences in learning.
Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that are afunction of prior
experience and heredity.Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities and talents. In
addition, throughlearning and social acculturation, they have acquired their own preferences for how
they like tolearn and the pace at which they learn. However, these preferences are not always useful
inhelping learners reach their learning goals. Educators need to help students examine theirlearning
preferences and expand or modify them, if necessary. The interaction between learnerdifferences and
curricular and environmental conditions is another key factor affecting learningoutcomes. Educators
need to be sensitive to individual differences, in general. They also need toattend to learner
perceptions of the degree to which these differences are accepted and adaptedto by varying
instructional methods and materials.

13. Learning and diversity.

Learning is most effective when differences in learners' linguistic, cultural, and socialbackgrounds are
taken into account.The same basic principles of learning, motivation, and effective instruction apply to
all learners.However, language, ethnicity, race, beliefs, and socioeconomic status all can influence
learning.Careful attention to these factors in the instructional setting enhances the possibilities
fordesigning and implementing appropriate learning environments. When learners perceive that
theirindividual differences in abilities, backgrounds, cultures, and experiences are valued,
respected,and accommodated in learning tasks and contexts, levels of motivation and achievement
areenhanced.

14. Standards and assessment.

Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as well aslearning
progress -- including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment -- are integralparts of the learning
process.Assessment provides important information to both the learner and teacher at all stages of
thelearning process. Effective learning takes place when learners feel challenged to work
towardsappropriately high goals; therefore, appraisal of the learner's cognitive strengths
andweaknesses, as well as current knowledge and skills, is important for the selection of
instructionalmaterials of an optimal degree of difficulty. Ongoing assessment of the learner's
understanding ofthe curricular material can provide valuable feedback to both learners and teachers
aboutprogress toward the learning goals. Standardized assessment of learner progress and
outcomesassessment provides one type of information about achievement levels both within and
acrossindividuals that can inform various types of programmatic decisions.

Alexander and Murphy gave a summary of the 14 principles and distilled them into five areas:

1. The knowledge base

One’s knowledge serves as the foundation of all future learning.

2. Strategic processing and control

Learners can develop skills to reflect and regulate their thoughts and behaviors in order to learn more
effectively.

3. Motivation and affect

Factors such as intrinsic motivation, reasons for wanting to learn, personal goals and enjoyment of
learning tasks all have a crucial role in the learning process.

4. Development and Individual Differences

Learning is a unique journey for each person because each learner has his own unique combination of
genetic and environmental factors that influence him.

5. Situation or context

Learning happens in the context of a society as well as within an individual.

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Growth

 refers to the quantitative changes in an individual as he progresses in chronological

age.
 May refer to increases in size, height, or weight.

Development

 Refers to qualitative changes in an individual leading to the individual’s maturation

 Is a series of orderly progression towards maturity

GROWTH DEVELOPMENT
Quantitative changes in size, weight number, etc. Qualitative changes in the quality
One of the parts of development Growth is one of its parts
Changes that take place in particular aspects of the Describes the changes in the organism as a whole
body and behavior
Continue throughout life but stops with the attainment Continuous process- from womb to tomb
of maturity
Quantitative and observable Changes are qualitative in nature and cannot be
measured
May or may not bring about development Possible without growth

Factors Influencing Growth and Development

1. Maturation- the natural growth resulting from heredity

2. Environmental Influences- in and through which the growing takes place
PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT

There are seven principles of development that have been put forth from the scientific
knowledge gained from observing children.

1. Development follows an orderly sequence which is predictable.

Patterns of Physical Development

a. Cephalocaudal Pattern – during infancy, the greatest growth always occur at the top.
b. Proximodistal Pattern- muscular control of the trunk and arms comes earlier as
compared to the hands and finger.
2. The rate of development is unique in each individual.
3. Development involves change
4. Early development is more critical than later development.
5. Development is the product of maturation and learning
6. Principle of inter-related development
7. There are social expectations for every developmental period which are often referred to as
developmental tasks.

Domains of development- also referred to as areas of development which include:

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

 Gross motor development- the large muscles in the body such as legs, arms, and the
chest
 Fine motor development- The small muscles such as those in the hands, fingers, lips and
tongue. Hand-eye co-ordination is an example of fine motor development height and
weight growth.

SOCIAL/ EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

-refers to the development of self-concept and self-esteem as well as the ability to

express feelings and form relationships with other people

LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

speech - production of sounds ( articulation) and voice quality

language development- understanding or comprehending (receptive language) and

being able to communicate using the language (expressive language)

COGNITIVE ( INTELLECTUAL) DEVELOPMENT

 -thinking processes such as concentrating, imagining, problem-solving, using logic,
organizing information and using symbols. Language and cognitive development are closely
linked.

DEVELOPMENTAL TAKS ( ROBERT HAVIGHURST, 1972)

A Developmental task is a task that arises at a certain period in our life, the successful
achievement of which leads to happiness and success with later tasks while failure leads to unhappiness,
social disapproval, and difficulty with the later tasks.

Stages of Human Development

1. Pre-natal Period (conception to birth)

 Involves tremendous growth- from a single cell to an organism complete with brains and
behavioral capabilities
 Age when heredity endowments and sex are fixed and all body features, both external
and internal are developed.

PRE-NATAL STAGE

 relating to pregnant woman and her unborn baby

 before birth; during or relating to pregnancy

3 PERIODS OF PRENATAL STAGE

1. GERMINAL PERIOD
 Prenatal development that takes place in the first two weeks after conception
 It includes the creation of the zygote, continued cell division and the attachment of the
zygote to the uterine wall.

Inner and Outer Layers of the Organism

A. Blastocyst
 Inner layer of cells
 Develops later into the embryo
B. Trophoblast
 Outer layer of cells
 Provides nutrition and support for the embryo
 2. EMBRYONIC PERIOD
 Prenatal development occurs 2 to 8 weeks after conception
 The zygote will become Embryo

Organogenesis- is the process of organ formation during the first two months of prenatal
development

3 layers of cells

 Endoderm- inner layer of the cell; becomes the digestive and respiratory systems
 Ectoderm- outermost layer of the cell; becomes the nervous, sensory receptors and
skin parts
 Mesoderm- middle layer; develops into circulatory skeletal, muscular, excretory,
and reproductive system

Three life-support systems:

 Placenta – a life support system that consist disk-shaped group of tissues in which small blood
vessels from the mother and the offspring intertwine but do not join.
 Umbilical cord- contains two arteries and one vein that connects the baby to the placenta
 Amnion- is a bag or an envelope that contains a clear fluid in which the developing embryo
floats.

3. FETAL PERIOD
 Last from about 2 months after conception until 9 months when the infant is born.
 Dramatic course and organ systems mature to the point at which life can be sustained
outside the womb.

Teratology

 is the field that investigates the causes of congenital (birth) defects

 Teratogen- is that which causes birth defects; comes from a Greek word “tera” which
means monster.

HAZARDS TO PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

1. Prescription and non-prescription drugs

a. Prescription Drugs – thalidomide and antibiotics can be harmful on the developing
fetus
b. Non-prescription drugs- diet pills, aspirin, coffee
2. Psychoactive Drugs
 Pregnant woman who drank more caffeinated coffee were more likely to have preterm
deliveries and newborns with lower birthweight compared to their counterparts who
did not drink caffeinated coffee.
  Heavy drinking by pregnant woman results to the so-called FETAL ALCOHOL SYNDROME
(FAS)
 FETAL ALCOHOL SYNDROME (FAS) includes facial deformities and defective limbs, face
and heart. Most of these children are below average in intelligence and some are
mentally retarded.
 Fetal and nonfetal deaths are higher among smoking mothers.

5. Startle or Moro Reflex

 Infants will responds to sudden sounds or movements by throwing their arms and legs
out and throwing their heads back.
 Most infants will usually cry when startled and proceed to pull their limbs back into their
bodies.

6. Galant Reflex

 It is shown when an infant’s middle or lower back is stroked next to the spinal cord
 The baby will respond by curving his/her body toward the side which is being stroked.

INFANTILE AMNESIA – infants do not have the ability to recall events that happened when
they are very young. Many psychologists believe that people remember experiences
beginning at 3. Some, however, remember events at age of 2.

3. BABYHOOD STAGE ( 2nd week to 2nd year of life)

 Characterized by decreasing dependency for the reason that this is the time when
babies achieve enough body control to become independent
 Babyhood skills: hand and leg skills
 Crying, cooing, babbling, gesturing, and emotional expressions are examples of pre-
speech forms of communication
 Babies are capable of establishing friendships

4. EARLY CHILDHOOD

 The “preschooler years”

 Years before formal schooling begins
 Pre-gang, exploratory, and questioning age, when language and elementary reasoning

Developmental Tasks from ages 0-6 Infancy and Early Childhood

 Learning to walk
 Learning to crawl
 Learning to take solid food
 Learning to talk
  Learning to control the elimination of body waste
 Learning sex differences and sexual modesty
 Getting ready to read
 Forming concepts and learning language to describe social and physical reality.

5. MIDDLE AND LATE CHILDHOOD ( INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY)

 Gang and creativity age when self-help skills, social skills, school skills, and play skills are
developed.
 The fundamental skills of reading, writing and arithmetic are mastered
 The child is formally exposed to the larger world and its culture.
 Achievement becomes amore central theme of the child’s world and self-control
increases.

Developmental Tasks ( Ages 6-12) – Middle Childhood

 Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games

 Learning to get along with the age mates
 Building wholesome attitudes towards oneself as a growing organism
 Learning an appropriate masculine or feminine social role
 Developing concepts necessary for everyday living
 Developing conscience, morality and a scale of values.
 Achieving personal independence
 Developing attitudes towards social groups and institutions.

6. ADOLESCENCE (13-18 yrs.)

 Transition age from childhood to adulthood

 Begins with rapid physical changes-dramatic gains in height and weight, changes in body
contour and development of sexual characteristics such as enlargements of breast,
development of pubic and facial hair, and deepening voice.
 Pursuit of independence and identity are prominent
 Thought is more logical, abstract and idealistic.

Adolescence Developmental Tasks

 Achieving new and more mature relations with age mates of both sexes
 Achieving a masculine or feminine social role
 Accepting one’s physique and using the body effectively
 Achieving emotional independence of parents and other adults
 Preparing for marriage and family life
  Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as guide to behavior
 Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior.

7. EARLY ADULTHOOD ( 19-29 yrs.)

 Age of adjustment to new patterns of life and new roles such as spouse, parents and
bread winner.
 A time of establishing personal and economic independence, career development,
selecting a mate, learning to live with someone in intimate way, starting a family and
rearing children

Developmental Tasks of Early Adulthood Ages 18- 30

 Selecting a mate
 Learning to live with a partner
 Staring family
 Rearing children
 Managing home
 Getting started in occupation
 Taking on civic responsibility
 Finding a congenial social group

8. MIDDLE ADULTHOOD (30-60 yrs)

 Transition age when adjustments to initial physical and mental decline are experienced
 A time of expanding personal and social involvement and responsibility

Developmental Task

 Assisting teenage children to become responsible and happy adults

 Achieving adult social and civic responsibility
 Reaching and maintaining satisfactory performance in one’s occupational career
 Developing adult leisure time activities
 Relating oneself to one’s spouse as a person
 To accept and adjust to the physiological changes of middle age
 Adjusting to aging parents

9. LATE ADULTHOOD (61 yrs and above)

 A time for adjustment to decreasing strength and health, life review, retirement, and
adjustment to new social roles
 Retirement age when increasingly rapid physical and mental decline are experienced.

Developmental Tasks
  Adjusting to decreasing physical strength and health
 Adjusting to retirement and reduced income
 Adjusting to death of a spouse
 Establishing an explicit affiliation with one’s age group
 Adopting and adapting social roles in a flexible way
 Establishing satisfactory physical living arrangements

Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

 Psycho- relating to mind, brain and personality

 Social- external relationships and environment

Erikson’s (1959) theory of psychosocial development has eight distinct stages, taking in five stages up to
the age of 18 yrs and three further stages beyond, well into adulthood. Erikson suggests that there is still
plenty of room for continued growth and development throughout one’s life.

Like Freud, Erikson assumes that a crisis occurs at each stage of development. For Erikson, (1963) these
crises are of a psychosocial nature because they involve psychological needs of the individual conflicting
with the needs of society.

Epigenetic Principle

 Explains that we develop through a predetermined unfolding of our personalities in

eight stages
 Erikson’s theory delved into how personality was formed and believed that the earlier
stages served as a foundation for later stages
 It highlighted the influence of one’s environment, particularly on how earlier
experiences gradually build upon the next and result into one’s responsibility.

Psychosocial Crisis

 Each stage involves a psychosocial crisis of two opposing emotional forces

 Each crisis stage relates to a corresponding life stage and its inherent challenges.
Syntonic- positive disposition (e.g. TRUST)
Dystonic- negative disposition (e.g. MISTRUST)
 If a stage is managed well, we carry away a certain VIRTUE or PSYCHOSOCIAL STRENGTH
 Malignancy- involves too little of the positive and too much of the negative aspect of
the task
 Maladaptation- is not quite as bad; involves too much of the positive and too little of
the negative

1. TRUST VS. MISTRUST – INFANCY (BIRTH TO 1 ½ YRS)

 This stage begins at birth and lasts through one year of age
  The infant develops a sense of trust when interactions provide reliability, care, and
affection
 A lack of this will lead to mistrust
2. AUTONOMY VS. SHAME & DOUBT – TODDLERS ( 18 MOS. TO 3 YRS.)
 Infant develops a sense of personal control over physical skills and sense of
independence
 Erikson states it is critical that parents allow their children to explore the limits of their
abilities within an encouraging environment which is tolerant of failure.
 Success leads to feelings of autonomy, failure results in feelings of shame and doubt.
3. INITIATIVE VS. GUILT – PRESCHOOL YEARS (3-5 YRS.)
 Occurs during the preschool years, between the ages of three and five
 Child begins to assert control and power over their environment by planning activities,
accomplishing tasks and facing challenges. Success at this stage leads to a sense of
purpose.
 If initiative is dismissed or discourages, either through criticism or control, children
develop a sense of guilt.
4. INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY – ELEMENTARY SCHOOL YEARS (6-12 YRS)
 It occurs during childhood between the ages of six and twelve
 This stage, the child’s peer group will gain greater significance and will become a major
source of child’s self-esteem.
 Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority.
5. IDENTITY VS. ROLE CONFUSION – ADOLESCENCE (12-18 YRS)
 The 5th stage occurs during adolescence, from 12-18 yrs.
 Teenagers explore who they are as individuals, and seek to establish a sense of self, may
experiment with different roles, activities and behaviors.
 This is important to the process of forming a strong identity and developing a sense of
direction in life.
6. INTIMACY VS. ISOLATION – EARLY ADULTHOOD
 This takes place during young adulthood
 During this period, the major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving relationships
with other people. Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in
loneliness and isolation.
7. GENERATIVITY VS. STAGNATION – MIDDLE AGE/ MIDDLE ADULTHOOD
 This stage takes place during middle adulthood between the ages of approx. 40 and 65
 People experience a need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often
having mentees or creating positive changes that will benefit other people.
 Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in
shallow involvement in the world.
8. I NTEGRITY VS, DESPAIR – OLD AGE
 This stage takes place after age 65 and involves reflecting on one’s life and either
moving into feeling satisfied and happy with one’s life or feeling a deep sense of regret.
  Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret,
bitterness and despair.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY

JEAN PIAGET (1896-1980) was one of the 20 th centuries most influential researchers in the area
of developmental psychology. He was a child prodigy who published his first article in a refereed journal
at the age of 11.

While working in Binet’s test lab in Paris, Piaget became interested in how children think. He
noticed that young children’s answers were qualitatively different than older children. This suggested to
him that younger children were not less knowledgeable but, instead, answered the questions differently
than their older peers because they thought differently.

This implies that human development is qualitative rather than quantitative. Piaget showed that
young children think in strikingly different ways compared to adults.

Basic Cognitive Concepts

 Schema- the cognitive structure by which individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their
environment
 Assimilation- the process of fitting new experiences into an existing created schema
 Accomodation- process of creating new schema
 Equilibration- achieving proper balance between assimilation and accommodation

STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

1. SENSORIMOTOR (BIRTH TO 2 YRS)

Stage when a child initially reflexive in grasping, sucking, and reaching becomes more
organized in his movement and activity. Focuses on the prominence of the senses and
muscles movement through which the infant comes to learn about himself and the
world. In working with children in the sensorimotor stage, they should aim to provide a
rich and stimulating environment with appropriate objects to play with.

 Object Permanence- ability attained in this stage where he knows that an object
still exists even when out of sight.
2. PREOPERATIONAL STAGE (2 TO 7 YRS)
 Begins to use language
  Egocentric thinking; difficulty seeing things from other viewpoints
 Classified objects by single feature e.g color

 Symbolic Function- ability to represent objects and events

 Egocentrism- the tendency of a child to only see his point of view and assume that everyone else
also has his same point of view.
 Centration- the tendency of the child to only focus on one thing or event and exclude other aspects
 Lack of Conservation- the inability to realize that some things remain unchanged despite looking
different
 Irreversibility- pre-operational children still have the inability to reverse their thinking
 Animism- tendency of a child to attribute human like traits to inanimate objects.
 Realism- believing that psychological events such as dreams are real.

3. CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE (7 TO 11 YRS)

 characterized by ability of the child to think logically but only in terms of concrete
objects; covers the elementary school years.
 Decentering- ability of the child to perceive different features of objects and situations
 Reversibility- ability of the child to follow that certain operation can be done in reverse.
 Conservation- ability to know that certain properties of objects like number, mass, volume or
area do not change even if there is a change in appearance
 Seriation- ability to arrange things in a series based on one dimension such as weight, volume,
size, etc.
 Classification- ability to group things based on one dimension

4. FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE (11 YEARS AND ABOVE)

 Thinking becomes more logical. They can now solve abstract problems and can
hypothesize
 Hypothetical Reasoning- ability to come up with different hypothesis about a problem and
weighs data to make judgement
 Analogical Reasoning- ability to perceive the relationship in one instance and use that
relationship to narrow down possible answers in similar problems
 Deductive Reasoning- ability to think logically by applying a general rule to a particular situation.

LEV VYGOTSKY’S SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY

 Lev Vygotsky

 Born in Russia in 1896

 His work began when he was studying learning and development to improve his own
teaching
 He wrote on language, thought, psychology of art, learning and development, and
educating students with special needs.

Socio-cultural Theory

 Key theme of Vygotsky’s theory is that social interaction plays a very important role in
cognitive development
 Social and cultural factors should be looked into in understanding individual
development
 He recognized that social interaction and language are two central factors in cognitive
development

Scaffolding

 Vygotsky’s term for the appropriate assistance given by the teacher to assist the
learners accomplish a task.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN VYGOSTKY’S SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY AND PIAGET’S COGNITIVE

DEVELOPMENT THEORY

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural View Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental

View
Learning is …. social solitary
Development is driven Input from others and MKO’s Conflict between stages
by …
Context Development is different depending Development is universal and stages
on social and cultural context are same regardless of context
Knowledge Children work with others to build Children acquire knowledge through
knowledge their own explorations
Stages? No Yes
Link Learning precedes development Development precedes learning
(learning/ development)
Role of Language Language drives thought Thought drives language
Speech Social speech becomes inner speech Egocentric speech becomes social
speech

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Potential Level – Actual Level = ZPD

 Potential Level- level that the learner achieves with the assistance of the teacher or a more
advanced peer
  Actual Level- level that the learner achieves alone

More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) - competent adult or more advanced peer

KOHLBERG’S MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY

Lawrence Kohlberg (1927- 1987)

 Born into a wealthy family in New York in 1927.

 Began studying psychology as an undergraduate at the University of Chicago. In one
year, he earned his B.A. in psychology and continued his education as a graduate
student at the University of Chicago. In 1958, he earned his Ph.D.
 Kohlberg studied moral reasoning and development with much work based on that of
Jean Piaget and John Dewey. He had a brief teaching position at Yale University before
moving onto Harvard in 1967.
 While in Central America in 1973, he developed a rare and unknown tropical disease
which disabled him in many ways and caused him to be severely depressed. In January
of 1987, he disappeared; his body was later found in the swamp area. There is some
suspicion the Kohlberg took his own life.

KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

LEVEL I. Pre-Conventional Morality (Birth to 9 years)

 People at this stage do not really understand the conventions/ rules of a society.

Stage 1- Punishment- Obedience Orientation

 Consequences of acts determine whether they are good or bad.
Stage 2- Instrumental Relativist Orientation
 The ethics of “what’s in it for me?” Obeying rules and exchanging favors are judged in
terms of the benefit to the individual.

LEVEL II- Conventional (10-13 yrs. Old)

 People at this stage conform to the conventions/ rules of a society

Stage 3- Good Boy- Nice Girl Orientation

 Ethical decisions are based on concern for or the opinions of others
Stage 4- Law and Order Orientation
 Right behavior consists in doing one’s duty, showing respect for authority and
maintaining the given social order for its own sake.
LEVEL III- Post-Conventional
Stage 5- Social Contract Orientation
 Rules and laws represent agreement among people about behavior that benefits
society. Rules can be changed when they no longer meet society’s needs.
 Stage 6- Universal Ethical Principle Orientation
 Right is defined by the decision of conscience in accord with self-chosen ethical
principles appealing to logical comprehensiveness, universality and consistency.

PIAGET’S MORAL DEVELOPMENT

His theory was based on techniques on investigation that included conversing with children and
asking them questions about moral dilemmas and events in stories.

3 Great Periods of Moral Development

1. Starting age 5 and lasting up to age 7-8- justice is subordinated to adult authority
2. Between 8-11- progressive equalitarianism
3. Between 11-12- consideration of equity

FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY

 A person goes through the sequence of these five stages and along the way there are
needs to be met.
 Whether these needs are met or not, determines whether the person will develop a
healthy personality or not.

Sigmund Freud

 Considered to be the most well- known psychologist because of his very interesting
theory about the unconscious and also about sexual development.

Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development

1. Oral Stage ( birth to 18 mos.)

2. Anal Stage ( 18 mos. to 3 yrs.)
3. Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years)
4. Latency Stage (6 to puberty)
5. Genital Stage (puberty onwards)

ORAL STAGE

 Erogenous zone- (pleasure area) a specific area that becomes the focus of pleasure or
needs. These may be arms, mouth and the genitals.
 Erogenous zone is the mouth.
 During the oral stage the child is focused on oral pleasures (sucking)
 Too much or too little satisfaction can lead to Oral Fixation or Oral Personality as shown in
increased focus on oral activities.

Fixation- results from failure to satisfy the needs of a particular psychosexual stage.
  Oral receptive- a type of personality which has a stronger tendency to smoke, drink,
alcohol, overeat.
 Oral aggressive- a tendency to bite his/her nails or use curse words or even gossip
 As a result, these persons may become too dependent on others, easily fooled, and lack
leadership traits.
 However, they may also find these tendencies and become pessimistic and aggressive in
relating with people.

ANAL STAGE

 The child’s focus of pleasure in this stage is the anus.

 The child finds satisfaction in eliminating and retaining feces.
 The child needs to work on toilet training.
 In terms of personality, fixation during this stage can result in being anal retentive or anal
expulsive.
 Anal retentive- an obsession with cleanliness, perfection, and control
 Anal expulsive- the person becomes messy and disorganized

PHALLIC STAGE

 The pleasure or erogenous zone is the genitals.

 During preschool age, children become interested in what makes boys and girls different.
 Preschoolers will sometimes be seen fondling their genitals.
 Oedipus Complex- boys develop unconscious sexual desire for their mother
 Oedipus- in Greek mythology unintentionally killed his father and married his mother
Jocasta.
 Electra Complex- girls may develop an unconscious sexual attraction towards their father.
 According to Freud, out of fear of castration and due to strong competition of their father,
boys eventually decide to identify with them rather than fight them.
 By identifying with their father, the boys develop masculine characteristics and identify
themselves as males and repress their sexual feelings towards their mother.
 A fixation at this stage could result in sexual deviances and weak or confused sexual identity.

LATENCY STAGE

 It is during this stage that sexual urges remain repressed

 Children’s focused is the acquisition of physical and academic skills
 Boys relate more with boys and girls with girls during this stage.

GENITAL STAGE

 Begins at the start of puberty when sexual urges are again awakened.
 Adolescents focus their sexual urges towards the opposite sex with pleasure centered on
the genitals.
FREUD’S PERSONALITY COMPONENTS

Id
 Operates on the pleasure principle
 It focuses on immediate gratification of its needs
 Whatever feels good now is what it will pursue with no consideration for the reality,
logicality or practicality in the situation.
Ego
emerges during toddler and preschooler years

operates using the reality principle

aware that others have also needs to be met

It is practical because it knows that being impulsive or selfish can result to negative

consequences later, so it reasons and considers the best response to situations.
Superego
 Near the end of the preschool years, or the end of phallic stage, the superego develops
 It embodies a person’s moral aspect
 It is likened to conscience because it exerts influence on what one considers right or
wrong.
TOPOGRAPHICAL MODEL
1. The unconscious
 Freud believes that most of what influences us is our unconscious
 The Oedipus and Electra Complex are both buried down into the unconscious, out of our
awareness due to the extreme anxiety they caused.
2. The Conscious
 All that we are aware of are stored in our conscious mind
 However, our conscious mind only comprises a very small part of who we are so that, in our
everyday life, we are only aware of a very small part of what makes up our personality.
 Most of what we are is hidden and out of reach.
3. The Subconscious
 This is the part of us that we can reach if prompted, but is not in our active conscious
 It is right below the surface, but still “hidden” somewhat unless we search for it.
 Telephone number, childhood memories, name of your childhood friend

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LEARNING
It is relatively permanent change in one’s behavior as a result of his interaction in the
environment.
3 Important Concepts in Learning
1. Change
  Learning involves change in knowledge or behavior. Example, if a rat is lost in a maze, it
produces an array of attempts to look for its way out. For several times, it does the same
thing until it finally gets its way out.
 Nothing about the maze has changed for it remains the same. Everything else in the
rat’s situation has remained unchanged except the RAT.

BEHAVIORAL THEORIST- learning consists of changes in behavior

COGNITIVE THEORIST- learning involves changes in knowledge
2. Behavior – The changes brought about by learning are relatively permanent.
 However, changes in making responses can be produced by other factors aside from
learning. Example changes brought about by drives, fatigues, disease and injury
dissipate rapidly.
 Drugs can also produce changes in responding but also can dissipate when the drugs
wear off.
3. Previous experience- learning results from experience. Therefore, learning involves experience.
Taman here ----

Metacognition
 coined by John Flavell
 means “thinking about thinking” or “learning how to learn”
 it involves higher order thinking which involves active awareness and control over the
cognitive process engaged in learning
3 Categories of Metacognitive Knowledge
1. Person Variables
 Includes how one views himself as a learner or thinker
 Refers to knowledge about how human beings learn and process information
2. Task Variables
 Include knowledge about the nature of the task as well as the type of processing
demands that it will place upon the individual
 It is about knowing what exactly needs to be accomplished, gauging its difficulty and
knowing the kind of effort it will demand from you.
3. Strategy Variables
 Involves awareness of the strategy you are using to learn a topic and evaluating
whether this strategy is effective
 Meta-attention- the awareness of specific strategies so you can keep your attention
focused on the topic or task.
BEHAVIORISM
 Emphasizes conditioning behavior and altering the environment to elicit selected
responses from the learner.
 This dominated much of the 20th century psychology
I. CONNECTIONISM – EDWARD LEE THORNDIKE (Founder of Behavior Psychology)
 Defined teaching as arranging the classroom to enhance desirable connections and associations
 Focused on testing the relationship between a stimulus and a response
 Defined learning as habit formation

Thorndike’s Laws of Learning

1. Law of Readiness- emphasizes the role of motivation
2. Law of Exercise- a connection is strengthened in proportion to its frequency and its average
intensity and duration.
3. Law of Effect- responses accompanied by satisfaction strengthen the connection; responses
accompanied by discomfort weaken the connection.
II. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
 Also known as respondent conditioning refers to a form of learning that occurs through
the repeated association of 2 or more different stimuli.
Ivan Pavlov (1849- 1936)
 Russian psychologist
 Noble Prize winner 1904 for work on digestion
 First to study Classical Conditioning
 His famous experiments with dogs, he showed that desired responses can be
elicited when paired repeatedly with a stimulus.
4 key elements to describe the process of Classical Conditioning

1. Unconditioned Stimulus
 The Unconditioned Stimulus ( UCS) is any stimulus that consistently produces a
particular naturally occurring automatic response.
 In Pavlov’s experiment, the UCS was the food.
2. Unconditioned Response
 The Unconditioned Response (UCR) is the response that occurs automatically when the
UCS is presented.
 UCR is a reflexive, involuntary response that is predictably caused by UCS.
 In Pavlov’s experiment, the UCR was the salivation.
3. Conditioned Stimulus
 Conditioned Stimulus (CS) is the stimulus that is neutral at the start of the conditioning
process and does not normally produced the UCR.
 Yet, through repeated association with the UCS, the CS triggers a very similar response
to that caused by the UCS.
4. Conditioned Response
 The Conditioned Response (CR) is the learned response that is produced by the CS.
 The CR occurs after the CS has been associated with the UCS.

Key Processes in Classical Conditioning

1. ACQUISITION is the overall process during which the organism learns to associate 2 events.
2. EXTINCTION is the gradual decrease in the strength or rate of a CR that occurs when the UCS is no
longer presented.
3. SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY is the reappearance of a CR when the CS is presented, following a rest
period after the CR appears to have been extinguished.
4. STIMULUS GENERALIZATION is the tendency for another stimulus to produce a response that is
similar to the CR. The greater the similarity between the stimuli, the greater the possibility that a
generalization will occur.
5. STIMULUS DISCRIMINATION- occurs when a person or animal responds to the CS only, but not to
any other stimulus that is similar to the CS.

III. OPERANT CONDITONING- B.F. SKINNER (1904-1990)

 The term “operant conditioning” originated by the behaviorist B.F. Skinner, who believed that
one should focus on the external, observable causes of behavior.
 All we need to now in order to describe and explain behavior is this; actions followed by good
outcomes are likely to recur and actions followed by bad outcomes are less likely to recur.”
-(Skinner, 1953)

Reinforcement comes in two forms:

Positive Reinforcers- are favorable events or outcomes that are given to the individual after the
desired behavior which may come in the form of praise, rewards, etc.
Negative Reinforcers- characterized by the removal of an undesired or unpleasant outcome
after the desired behavior. A response is strengthened as something considered negative is
removed.

The goal in both of these cases of reinforcement is for the behavior to increase.

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IV. ALBERT BANDURA: Social Cognitive Theory

 Human beings have specific abilities related to learning that sets them apart from other
species.
 Social Cognitive Theory states that there are three characteristics that are unique to
humans:
o Vicarious Consequences (Model and Initiate Others)
o Self-efficacy
 o Performance Standards and Moral Conduct (ability to regulate one’s own
behavior)

4 Phases of Observational Learning

1. Attention
 Mere exposure does not ensure acquisition of behavior
 Observer must attend to recognize the distinctive features of the model’s response
2. Retention
 Reproduction of the desired behavior implies that student symbolically retains the observed
behavior
3. Motor Reproduction
 After observation, physical skills and coordination are needed for reproduction of the
behavior learned.
4. Motivational Process
 Although observer acquires and retains the ability to perform the modeled behavior, there
will be no overt performance unless conditions are favorable.

 He believes that people acquire behaviors through the observation of others, then imitate
what they have observed. Several studies involving television commercials and videos
containing violent scenes have supported this theory of modeling.
 Albert Bandura believed television was a source of behavior modeling.

Models are classified as:

1. Real life- exemplified by teachers, parents and significant others
2. Symbolic- presented through oral or written symbols
3. Representational- presented through audio-visual measures

According to Maslow’s Theory, there are four types of needs that must be satisfied before a
person can act unselfishly.

The needs are arranged in hierarchical order. The upward climb is made by satisfying one set of
needs at a time.

HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

1. Physiological Needs – this is the basic. The body craves for food, liquid, sleep, oxygen, sex,
freedom of movement and a moderate temperature.
2. Safety Needs- safety from physical attack, emotional attack, fatal disease, invasion, Extreme
losses (job, family members, home, friends)
 3. Love and Belonging Needs- the love or belongingness needs come into play after the
physiological and security drives are satisfied. Gratification is a matter of degree rather than an
either or accomplishment.
 Inclusion- part of a group colleagues, peers, family, clubs
 Affection- love and be loved
 Control- influence over others and self
4. Esteem Needs- The esteem needs are of two types. There’s self-esteem, which is the result of
competence or mastery of tasks.
 There is also the attention and recognition that comes from others. Wanting this
admiration is part of what McClelland labels “need for power”.
5. Self-actualization- Maslow described the need for self-actualization as the desire to become
more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming.
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COGNITIVISM
The cognitivist paradigm essentially argues that the “black box” of the mind should be opened
and understood. The leaner is viewed as an information processer (like a computer).

I. Gestalt Laws
 The word Gestalt is used in modern German to mean the way a thing has been
“gestellt”. i.e. “placed” or “put together”
 There is no exact equivalent in English. Form is the usual translation; in psychology the
word is often rendered “pattern” or “configuration”
 One of the most important theories of perception is the Gestalt Theory. It was
developed about 1910 by Max Wertheimer and carried on by Wolfgang Kohler and
Kurt Koffkaat Frankfurt University.
 They suggested that learners do not just collect information but they actively process
and restructure data in order to understand it.
 This called perceptual process.
 Like past experience, needs, attitudes and one’s present situation can affect his/her
perception.
 According to the Gestalt Psychologist, the way we form our perception are guided by
certain principles or laws.
Principles of Gestalt Psychology

1. Law of Continuity – states that perceptual organization tends to preserve smooth continuities
rather than abrupt changes.
2. Law of Closure- states that incomplete figures tend to be seen as complete. In perception, there
is the tendency to complete unfinished objects. We tend to ignore gaps and complete contour
lines.
3. Law of Proximity- holds that things close together are grouped together in perception.
 4. Law of Similarity- refers to the perception of similar objects that tend to be related
5. Law of Pragnanz- states that all possible organizations that could be perceived from a visual
stimulus, the one that will most likely occur is the one that possesses the best, simplest, and
most stable form.
6. Figure and Ground- the eye differentiates an object form its surrounding area. A form,
silhouette, or shape is naturally perceived image clearer. Using unusual figure/ ground
relationships can add interest and subtlety to an image.

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Conclusion
 Gestaltist views on learning and problem-solving were opposed at the time dominant pre-
behaviorist and behaviorist views. Wertheimer emphasized importance of seeing the whole
structure of the problem.
 Gestaltism therefore suggests that learners should be encouraged to discover whole nature
or relationships between elements of a problem.

II. WOLFGANG KOHLER’S INSIGHT LEARNING/ PROBLEM SOLVING THEORY

 The capacity to discern the true nature of situation
 Imaginative power to see into and understand immediately
 Gaining insight is a gradual process of exploring, analyzing and structuring perception
until a solution is arrived ta.
III. LEWIN’S TOPOLOGICAL AND VECTOR THEORY (FIELD THEORY)
 Authored by Kurt Lewin
 Focused on psychological field or life space of an individual
 Believes that every objects exists in a field of forces that move to change it, define it, or
give it a degree of stability and substance
 The behavior of an individual at a given moment is the result of existing forces operating
simultaneously in his life space.

2 forces
 Internal Forces- individual’s feelings, attitudes, and needs
 External Forces- everything in the physical world including other human beings.
Application to Teaching
 To understand the motivation of a learner, the teacher has to develop the ability to
transcend the tension (needs) of a learner, the learner’s ability, and the properties of
the learner’s perceived environment
 Teacher should try to suit the goals and activities of the lesson to the learner’s needs.
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IV. URIE BRONFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL THEORY

 This theory looks at a child’s development within the context of the system f
relationships that from his/her environment.
  It defines complex “layers” of environment, each having an effect on a child’s
development
 Renamed as Bioecological Systems Theory
 Emphasizes that a child’s own biology is a primary environment fueling her development
 The interaction between factors in the child’s maturing biology, his immediate family
community environment, and the societal landscape fuels and steers his development.
Social Levels or Systems
1. Microsystem
 Is the layer closest to the child and contains the structures with which the child has
direct contact.
 Family, child care services, school, local neighborhood, memberships of organizations or
clubs, or child care environments.
2. Mesosytem
 This layer provides the connection between the structures of the child’s microsystem
 Ex. The connection between the child’s teacher and his parents, between his church and
his neighborhood, etc.
3. Exosystem
 This layer defines the larger social system in which the child does not function directly.
 It is one step removed from the child
 The exosystem has an indirect impact on the child’s development because of the
connection with the family unit.
 The structrures in this layer impact the child’s development by interacting with some
structure in her microsystem
 For example, a parent’s place of employment, and access to family and community
services.

4. Macrosystem
 May be considered the outermost layer in the child’s environment
 This layer is comprised of cultural values, customs and laws. (Berk, 2000).
 the effects of larger principles defined by the macrosystem have a cascading influence
throughout the interaction of all the other layers.
5. Chronosystem
 Encompasses the dimension of time as it relates to a child’s environments
 The social and historical time frame in which the child’s life is set- this reflects how
children change over time.
 Elements within the system can be either external, such as the timing of a parent’s
death, or internal, such as the physiological changes that occur with the aging of a child.
 AS children get older, they may react differently to environment changes and may be
more able to determine more how that change will influence them.

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 V. DAVID AUSUBEL’S MEANIGNFUL LEARNING THEORY
David Ausubelwas a cognitive learning theorist who focused on the learning of school
subjects and who placed considerable interest on what the student already knows as being
the primary determiner of whether and what he/she learns.
Ausubel viewed learning as an active process, not simply responding to your
environment. Learners seek to make sense of their surroundings by integrating new
knowledge with that which they have already learned.

 He viewed learning as an active process, not simply responding to your

environment
 Learners make sense of their surroundings by integrating new knowledge with
that which they have already learned

ADVANCE ORGANIZER- presents an overview of the information to be covered in detail during the
exposition that follows.

Ausubel’s Meaningful Learning/ Subsumption Theory

Ausubel proposed four processes by which meaningful learning can occur:

Derivative Subsumption
Correlative subsumption
Superordinate Learning
Combinatorial Learning

Derivative Subsumption

 Describes the situation in which the new information pupils learn is an instance or example of a
concept that pupils have already learned.
 Meaningful learning takes place when new material or relationships can be derived from the
existing structure.
 Example (Stage 1)-
o PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE: Let’s suppose Ali has acquired a basic concept such as “tree”-
has green leaves, branch, fruits
o Ali learns about a kind of tree that he has never seen before “persimmon tree”-
conforms to his previous understanding of “tree”.
o His new knowledge of persimmon trees is attached to the concept of tree, without
substantially altering that concept in any way.

Correlative Subsumption
  More “valuable” learning than that of derivative subsumption, since it enriches the higher level
concept.
 Example (stage 2)
o Now, let’s suppose Ali encounters a new kind of tree that has red leaves, rather than
green
o To accommodate this new information, Ali has to alter or extend hid concept of “tree”
tp include the possibility of red leaves.

Superordinate Learning
 In this case, you already knew lot of examples of the concept, but you did not know the concept
itself until it was taught to pupils.
 Example (stage 3)
o Ali was well acquainted with maples, oaks, apple trees, etc., but pupils still did not know,
until they were taught that these were all examples of deciduous trees.

Combinatorial Learning
 It describes a process by which the new idea is derived from another idea that comes from his
previous knowledge (in a different, but related, “branch”)
 Students could think of this as learning by analogy
 Example (Stage 3)
o Ali learn about modification on the plants part, Ali might relate it to previously acquired
knowledge of how papyrus tree used to produce paper.

VI. JEROME BRUNER’S DISCOVERY LEARNING THEORY OR INQUIRY METHOD

Discovery Learning
 Bruner believes that students must be ACTIVE – they must identify key
principles themselves rather than simply accepting teacher’s explanation
 Posits that learning is more meaningful to learners when they have opportunity
to discover on their own the relationship among concepts or to actively search
for a solution to a problem
 An approach to instruction through which students interact with their
environment by exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with questions
and controversies and performing experiments
 The ideas is that students are more likely to remember concepts they discover
on their own.
 Calls his view of learning as “instrumental conceptualism”
Characteristics:
 Inquiry-based process
 Focuses on learning through experience
 Inductive reasoning- uses specific examples to formulate a general principle
Advantages of Discovery Learning
 Active engagement
 Promotes motivation
 Promotes ownership of learning
 The development of creativity and problem-solving skills
 A tailored learning experience
Spiral Curriculum
 Is one that develops the same lessons at succeeding age or grade levels as well as at
different levels of difficulty
 It is also about integration and cohesion of knowledge
 It means that there must be a considerable venue for developing themes in which a
number of different content areas can be combines and integrated.