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 Spine 32mm

ACCOUNTING FOR ALL

ACCOUNTING FOR ALL

2ND EDITION Madri Schutte

Accounting for All 2nd edition aims to help students master introductory
accounting courses, and covers the key topics in the financial accounting and
cost accounting disciplines.

Now updated, it has been further enhanced by two new topics— partnerships
and non-profit organisations (NPOs)—giving students a broader coverage of the
business environment.

The study of accounting is often perceived as daunting, but the author has written
in an easy-to-understand style. The teaching methodology takes a step-by-step
approach and is supported by extensive explanatory examples and revision

2ND EDITION
questions. It also enables students to work through each chapter independently.

Accounting for All will benefit any student who does not have an accounting
background but needs a fundamental understanding of the financial and cost

ACCOUNTING
accounting principles and concepts as they apply to the world of business.

Lecturer support material is made available to prescribing institutions.

About the author

Madri Schutte is currently a lecturer at the Tshwane University of Technology
(TUT), where she teaches Accounting for Personnel Practitioners. She has lectured
FOR ALL
Madri Schutte
extensively on MBA cost accounting, as well as other financial accounting and
cost accounting service modules, and has written other financial accounting
and cost accounting textbooks. She has spent more than 20 years in private
practice and is a member of SAIPA (South African Institute of Professional
Accountants).
Madri Schutte

2 ND
EDITION

www.jutaacademic.co.za

Accounting for ALL 2E FINAL.indd 1 12/12/2016 11:33

Spine 32mm
 Contents

2.11.4 Payment directly into a bank account 40

2.11.5 Cash purchase from a supplier 41
2.12 Credit transactions and documents 42
2.12.1 Make a credit sale 42
2.12.2 Credit purchase from a supplier 43
2.13 Returns 43
2.13.1 Sales returns (we issued the credit note) 44
2.13.2 Purchases returns (credit note received from supplier) 44
2.14 Discounts 45
2.14.1 Settlement discounts (also see chapter 1) 46
2.14.2 Trade discounts 46
2.14.3 Quantity (bulk) discount 46
2.14.4 Cash discounts 46
2.15 Subsidiary journals 46
2.15.1 Cash journal/cash receipts and payments journal 47
2.15.2 Petty cash book 47
2.15.3 Purchases journal/accounts payable journal 47
2.15.4 Purchases returns journal/accounts payable allowance journal 47
2.15.5 Sales journal/accounts receivable journal 47
2.15.6 Sales returns journal/accounts receivable allowance journal 47
2.15.7 General journal 47
2.16 Summary 48
2.16.1 Summary cash transactions – source documents 48
2.16.2 Summary sales – source documents and subsidiary journals 49
2.16.3 Summary purchases – source documents and subsidiary
journals 50
2.17 How the books link together 52
Questions 53

CHAPTER 3
RECORDING TRANSACTIONS (DOUBLE-ENTRY SYSTEM)
3.1 Introduction 62
3.2 The ledger account 62
3.3 The general ledger 63
3.4 When to debit or credit asset, owner’s equity and liability accounts 64
3.5 Balancing the accounts 67
3.6 When to debit or credit income or expense accounts 69
3.6.1 The difference between assets, liabilities, expenses and
income 69
3.6.2 Statement of financial position items 69
3.6.3 Statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income
items 70
3.6.4 Income and expenses 70
3.6.5 How to record income and expense transactions 71
Questions 75
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Accounting for All

CHAPTER 4
INTRODUCTION TO VAT
4.1 Introduction 80
4.2 What is VAT? 80
4.3 Registration for VAT 82
4.4 At what rate is VAT paid? 82
4.5 How to identify transactions where VAT is charged 82
4.5.1 Examples of VAT exempt items 83
4.5.2 Examples of zero-rated VAT items 83
4.6 How to identify transactions where VAT can be recovered 84
4.7 How to calculate VAT 85
4.8 Discount 86
4.9 Calculating VAT due to or receivable from SARS 88
4.10 Recording VAT 89
Questions 91

CHAPTER 5
BOOKS OF PRIME ENTRY
5.1 Introduction 94
5.2 Cash receipts and payments journal 94
5.2.1 What is a cash receipts/payments journal (cash book)? 95
5.2.2 Source documents for cash journal entries 95
5.2.3 Inventory systems 96
5.2.4 Recording transactions in the cash journal 97
5.2.5 Cash receipts journal 99
5.2.6 Posting from the cash receipts journal to the general ledger
accounts 99
5.2.7 Posting from the cash payments journal to the general ledger
accounts 103
5.2.8 Settlement discount allowed and received 106
5.2.9 Recording of VAT 113
5.3 Petty cash 131
5.3.1 What is petty cash used for? 131
5.3.2 The imprest system 131
5.3.3 Petty cash vouchers 132
5.3.4 Security and control 133
5.3.5 Receipts into petty cash 133
5.3.6 Purpose of the petty cash book 133
5.3.7 Topping up the float and balancing the petty cash book 137
5.3.8 Posting petty cash transactions 139
5.3.9 Postings from the petty cash book with VAT column 140
5.4 Accounts payable journal 140
5.4.1 Checking suppliers’ invoices 141
5.4.2 Security and controls 141
5.5 Accounts payable allowance journal 141

viii
 Contents
5.6 Posting the accounts payable journal and accounts payable
allowance journal to the general ledger accounts 147
5.7 Subsidiary journals if the perpetual inventory system is used 152
5.8 Accounts payable ledger and accounts payable control account 156
5.9 How to reconcile the accounts payable control account with the
accounts payable ledger 163
5.10 Accounts receivable journal 164
5.10.1 The credit sales invoice 165
5.10.2 Calculating discounts 168
5.11 Accounts receivable allowance journal 169
5.11.1 Security and controls 169
5.12 Posting the accounts receivable journal and accounts receivable
allowances journal to the general ledger account 172
5.13 Posting the accounts receivable journal and accounts receivable
allowances journal to the general ledger accounts 175
5.14 Accounts receivable ledger and accounts receivable control account 176
5.15 General journal 181
5.16 Recording credit losses and correcting errors 183
5.17 Correction of errors 184
Questions 187

CHAPTER 6
THE TRIAL BALANCE
6.1 Introduction 200
6.2 What is a trial balance? 200
6.3 When all balances are correct, but a balance is omitted 203
6.4 Errors not revealed by the trial balance 204
6.5 Errors revealed by the trial balance 206
6.6 Correcting errors in the books of account and/or trial balance 207
Questions 216

CHAPTER 7
BANK RECONCILIATION STATEMENT
7.1 Introduction 232
7.2 What is a bank reconciliation statement? 232
7.3 Comparing the records 232
7.4 Reconciliation procedure 234
7.5 Comparison of the bank statement with the cash receipts journal and cash
payments journal (or the bank account) of the current month with the
bank reconciliation statement of the previous month 242
Questions 247

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Accounting for All

CHAPTER 8
NON-CURRENT ASSETS − DEPRECIATION
8.1 Introduction 262
8.2 Characteristics of assets 263
8.3 Classification of assets 263
8.4 Non-current assets vs current assets 263
8.4.1 Tangible vs intangible assets 265
8.4.2 Investments 267
8.5 Capital and revenue expenses 267
8.5.1 Capital expenditure 267
8.5.2 Revenue expenditure 267
8.6 Depreciation 268
8.7 Financial year 269
8.8 Accumulated depreciation 270
8.9 Carrying value 270
8.10 Cost price 271
8.11 Scrap value (residual value) 272
8.12 Useful life 272
8.13 Depreciation methods 272
8.13.1 Straight-line method 273
8.13.2 Reducing balance method 276
8.13.3 Production unit method 278
8.14 Calculation of depreciation for a period shorter than twelve months 279
8.14.1 Straight-line method 279
8.14.2 Reducing balance method 280
8.15 Disclosure of the purchase of a fixed asset in the financial records 282
8.16 Disclosure of depreciation and accumulated depreciation in the
financial records 282
8.17 Recording the purchase of a fixed asset 284
8.18 Recording depreciation and accumulated depreciation 284
8.19 Disposal/trade-in of a fixed asset 285
8.19.1 Sale of a fixed asset 285
8.19.2 Trading-in of an asset 289
8.19.3 Scrapping of a fixed asset 290
Questions 291

CHAPTER 9
INVENTORY
9.1 Introduction 297
9.2 Categorisation of inventory 298
9.2.1 Direct material 298
9.2.2 Indirect material 298
9.2.3 Work in process 298
9.2.4 Finished goods 298
9.2.5 Trading inventories 298

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 Contents
9.3 Cost of goods sold 298
9.4 Calculation of closing inventory units 299
9.5 Inventory valuation methods 300
9.5.1 FIFO 301
9.5.2 Weighted average method 301
9.6 Inventory recording methods 301
9.6.1 Perpetual inventory system 302
9.6.2 Periodic inventory system 303
9.7 Calculation of gross profit 304
9.7.1 Perpetual inventory system 304
9.7.2 Periodic inventory system 304
9.8 Calculation of cost of sales 304
9.8.1 Perpetual inventory system 304
9.8.2 Periodic inventory system 305
9.9 Valuation of closing inventory 305
9.9.1 Inventory valuation using the perpetual inventory system 306
9.9.2 Inventory valuation using the periodic inventory system 308
Questions 311

CHAPTER 10
YEAR-END ADJUSTMENTS
10.1 Introduction 317
10.2 A typical accounting cycle, to be found in every accounting period 318
10.3 The accounting cycle 319
10.4 Accounting concepts 319
10.4.1 The ‘going concern’ concept 319
10.4.2 The ‘accrual’ concept (accrual basis of accounting) 319
10.4.3 The ‘comparability’ concept 320
10.4.4 The ‘prudence’ concept 320
10.5 Adjustments 321
10.5.1 Accrued expenses 322
10.5.2 Prepaid expenses 322
10.5.3 Accrued income 328
10.5.4 Income received in advance 331
10.6 The post-adjustment trial balance 336
10.7 Close the nominal accounts 337
10.7.1 Final accounts 338
10.7.2 The trading and profit and loss accounts 339
10.7.3 What are the reasons for final accounts? 353
Questions 355

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Accounting for All

CHAPTER 11
FINANCIAL STATEMENTS OF A SOLE TRADER
11.1 Introduction 358
11.2 Revision 359
11.3 Post-adjustment trial balance 364
11.4 Close the nominal accounts 365
11.5 Financial statements 368
11.5.1 Statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income
(old term = income statement) 369
11.5.2 Statement of financial position (balance sheet) 370
11.6 Reversing entries 374
Questions 375

CHAPTER 12
FINANCIAL STATEMENTS OF COMPANIES
12.1 Introduction 392
12.2 Formation of a company 393
12.3 Share capital 393
12.4 Types of shares 394
12.4.1 Ordinary shares 394
12.4.2 Preference shares 394
12.5 Reserves 394
12.5.1 Distributable reserves 394
12.5.2 Non-distributable reserves 394
12.6 Recording of transactions re shares issued 395
12.7 Recording dividends 396
12.8 Recording of transactions re taxation 398
12.9 The appropriation account 400
12.10 Financial statements of companies 403
Questions 410

CHAPTER 13
STATEMENT OF CASH FLOW
13.1 Introduction 415
13.2 Concepts 415
13.2.1 Cash 415
13.2.2 Funds 416
13.2.3 Operating activities 417
13.2.4 Investment activities 417
13.2.5 Financing activities 417
13.2.6 Cash flows from operating activities 418
13.2.7 Cash flows from investment activities 418
13.2.8 Cash flows from financing activities 419
13.3 Calculation of certain concepts 419
13.4 Format of the statement of cash flow (IAS)7 424
Questions 434
xii
 Contents

CHAPTER 14
PARTNERSHIPS
14.1 Introduction 443
14.2 Partnership agreement 444
14.3 Establishment of a partnership 444
14.4 Accounts in a partnership 445
14.4.1 Capital account 445
14.4.2 Drawings account 446
14.4.3 Current account 446
14.4.4 Appropriation account 450
14.5 Changes in partnership composition 452
14.5.1 Revaluation of assets 453
14.5.2 Determination of goodwill 455
14.5.3 Calculation of changes in profit sharing 458
Questions 460

CHAPTER 15
NON-PROFIT ORGANISATIONS (NPOs)
15.1 Introduction 465
15.2 Examples of non-profit organisations 465
15.3 Terminology 466
15.3.1 Surplus/deficit 466
15.3.2 Accumulated fund 466
15.4 Summary of differences in terminology 466
15.5 Statement of receipts and payments 466
15.6 Statement of income and expenditure 468
15.7 Income/funds of non-profit organisations 469
15.7.1 Membership entrance fees 469
15.7.2 Membership subscription fees 470
15.7.3 Fundraising activities 473
15.7.4 Legacies and donations 475
15.7.5 Special funds 480
Questions 482

CHAPTER 16
INTERPRETATION OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
16.1 Introduction 487
16.2 Data and information flow in an accounting cycle 487
16.3 Purpose of the analysis of financial statements 488
16.4 Users of financial statements 488
16.5 Accounting ratios 489
16.5.1 Profitability ratios 489
16.5.2 Liquidity ratios 491
16.5.3 Solvency ratios 492
16.6 Limitations of ratios 496
Questions 501
xiii
Accounting for All

CHAPTER 17
BASIC COST ACCOUNTING
17.1 Introduction 510
17.2 The concept: cost 510
17.3 Classification of costs (manufacturing entity) 511
17.3.1 Manufacturing costs 511
17.3.2 Commercial costs (non-manufacturing costs) 513
17.4 Expired and unexpired costs 513
17.4.1 Expired costs 513
17.4.2 Unexpired costs 514
17.5 Product and period costs 516
17.5.1 Product costs 516
17.5.2 Period costs 516
17.6 Allocating cost to cost objects 518
17.6.1 Direct costs 518
17.6.2 Indirect costs 518
17.7 Other cost terms in decision making 519
17.7.1 Opportunity cost 519
17.7.2 Sunken costs 520
17.8 Summary 520
Questions 522

CHAPTER 18
MANUFACTURING CONCERN
18.1 Introduction 529
18.2 Terminology 530
18.2.1 Direct material 530
18.2.2 Indirect material 530
18.2.3 Direct labour 530
18.2.4 Indirect labour 530
18.2.5 Manufacturing overheads 530
18.2.6 Primary cost 531
18.2.7 Manufacturing cost 531
18.2.8 Work in process 531
18.2.9 Finished products 531
18.2.10 Cost of sales 531
18.3 Activities typical of any manufacturing enterprise 531
18.3.1 Procurement of material 531
18.3.2 Labour cost 531
18.3.3 Overheads 531
18.3.4 Production 532
18.3.5 Storage 532
18.3.6 Sales 532
18.4 Product cost flows 532
18.5 Inventory accounts in a manufacturing enterprise 532
18.6 Accounting procedures in a manufacturing enterprise 533
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18.7 Steps to follow in processing the general ledger entries of a
manufacturing enterprise 533
18.8 Journal entries of a manufacturing enterprise 536
18.9 The manufacturing statement 541
18.10 The statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income 542
18.11 Cost flows in a trading environment 546
18.11.1 Cost of sales in a manufacturing organisation 546
18.11.2 Cost of sales in a trading organisation 546
Questions 547

CHAPTER 19
COST BEHAVIOUR
19.1 Introduction 554
19.2 Cost behaviour 554
19.3 Fixed costs 555
19.3.1 Fixed manufacturing costs 555
19.3.2 Semi-fixed manufacturing costs 557
19.4 Variable costs 557
19.4.1 Variable manufacturing costs 558
19.4.2 Semi-variable manufacturing costs 561
Questions 563

CHAPTER 20
BUDGETS
20.1 Introduction 565
20.2 Budgeting and budget control 565
20.2.1 Budgets 566
20.2.2 Budget control 566
20.3 The functions of budgets and budget control 566
20.3.1 Planning 566
20.3.2 Co-ordination 566
20.3.3 Control 567
20.4 Objectives of budget control 567
20.5 Advantages of budgeting 568
20.6 Disadvantages of budgeting 568
20.7 Important aspects in the preparation of budgets 568
20.7.1 Human factor 569
20.7.2 Budget period 569
20.7.3 Budget committee 569
20.7.4 Resource constraints 570
20.8 Preparation of the master budget 570
20.9 Sales budget 572
20.10 Production budget 572
20.11 Materials purchasing budget 573
20.12 Direct labour budget 574
20.13 Manufacturing overheads budget 575
xv
Accounting for All
20.14 Cost of sales budget 577
20.15 Cash budget 580
Questions 583

CHAPTER 21
COST-VOLUME-PROFIT ANALYSIS
21.1 Introduction 596
21.2 The marginal statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive
income 597
21.3 Marginal income 597
21.3.1 Marginal income per unit (MI/unit) 597
21.3.2 Marginal income in total 598
21.4 MIR (marginal income ratio) 601
21.5 Break-even point 603
21.5.1 Break-even point in units 603
21.5.2 Break-even point in Rand value 604
21.6 Break-even point and profit planning 606
21.7 Margin of safety (MS) 608
21.8 Applying CVP analysis 610
21.8.1 Change in selling price 610
21.8.2 Change in variable costs 612
21.8.3 Change in fixed costs 613
21.8.4 Change in sales volume 614
21.9 Basic assumptions about cost-volume-profit analysis 616
Questions 618

CHAPTER 22
PAYROLL
22.1 Introduction 623
22.2 Productivity 624
22.3 Factors that influence labour productivity 624
22.3.1 Humanitarian factors that influence labour productivity 624
22.3.2 External factors that influence labour productivity 624
22.3.3 Personnel administration 625
22.4 Employment records 625
22.4.1 Personnel records 625
22.4.2 Clock cards 625
22.4.3 Time tickets 625
22.4.4 Job cards 626
22.4.5 Production reports 626
22.4.6 General expectations 626
22.5 Compulsory registrations 626
22.5.1 The South African Revenue Service (SARS) 626
22.5.2 Department of Labour 627
22.6 Terminology 628
22.6.1 Salary 628
xvi
 Contents
22.6.2 Wages 629
22.6.3 Commission 629
22.6.4 Bonus 630
22.6.5 Fringe benefits 630
22.6.6 Total or gross income 631
22.6.7 Taxable income 631
22.6.8 Net income 631
22.6.9 Gross retirement funding income 631
22.6.10 Gross non-retirement funding income 631
22.7 Deductions from gross income 632
22.7.1 Deductions imposed by law or company regulation 632
22.7.2 Voluntary deductions 634
22.8 Medical tax credit 634
22.9 Calculation of taxable income 634
22.10 Remuneration methods 635
22.10.1 Fixed salary remuneration 636
22.10.2 Time-based remuneration 636
22.10.3 Shift work remuneration 637
22.10.4 Piecework remuneration 638
22.11 Payroll and payroll analysis 639
Questions 641

CHAPTER 23
BUSINESS ETHICS
23.1 Introduction 646
23.2 Definition of business ethics 646
23.3 Business ethics and law 647
23.4 Business ethics and corporate social responsibility (CSR) 647
23.5 Characteristics or features of business ethics 648
23.6 Need for or importance of business ethics 648
23.7 Rules or principles of business ethics 649

xvii
 PREFACE

Accounting for All will assist first year students to master the concepts of
financial accounting and cost accounting in particular, in courses where
these are not major subjects.

The content is written in an interactive way so that it:

 Enables students to master the different topics by working through the

theory and practical exercises on their own and only consulting the
lecturer with those concepts and issues that they do not understand or
need further guidance with

 Enables lecturers to fulfil the role of facilitator because the contents of

this publication replace, to a certain extent, the lessons which they
would normally present in class.

The author tried to create a new method of writing which complies with the
requirements of SAQA regarding outcomes based education.
 TERMINOLOGY
Old term New term
Statement of profit or loss and other
Income statement
comprehensive income

Balance sheet Statement of financial position

Debtors Accounts receivable

Creditors Accounts payable

Sales Sales or revenue

Bad debts Credit losses

Bad debts recovered Credit losses recovered

Provision for bad debts Allowance for credit losses

Cash flow statement Statement of cash flow

Discount allowed Settlement discount allowed

Discount received Settlement discount received

 CHAPTER 1
BASIC CONCEPTS IN ACCOUNTANCY –
ACCOUNTING PROCESS
1.1 Introduction
Accountancy stems originally from the need to keep records. Accountancy can
consequently be defined as:
The orderly and systematic recording of transactions within a business, during a
certain period.
From the definition it is clear that there are a few concepts that must be explained.
Outcomes
You should be able to:
 Define the term ‘accounting’
 Explain the purpose of accounting
 List the external users of financial statements
 Explain the term ‘financial position’
 Explain the term ‘financial performance’
 List the types of report
 List the elements of financial statements
 Discuss the underlying assumptions of financial accounting
 Discuss the qualitative characteristics of financial accounting
 Discuss the term ‘dual concepts’
 Define the term ‘account’
 Explain the ‘accounting process’
 Explain the term ‘transaction’
 Explain the concepts:
– Assets
– Liabilities
– Income
– Expenses
– Owner’s equity

1.2 Definition of accounting

Accounting can be explained by the following words:
 Identifying – determining the nature of transactions
 Measuring – determining the value of transactions
 Recording – recording transaction in the accounting records
 Reporting – reporting the financial results.
Accounting for All

1.3 Purpose of accounting

To provide financial information regarding the economic activities of an entity to
the users of financial statements.

1.4 External users of financial statements

 Investors – Use the information in financial statements to determine the
profitability and the financial state of affairs for possible further investment
and/or withdrawals (declaring of dividends).
 Owners and shareholders – Use the financial statements to determine if the
funds they have invested in the entity have been appropriately utilised and
well managed, and whether the entity is making a profit.
 Suppliers – Assess the financial statements in order to determine whether the
entity will be able to pay its debts.
 Customers – Want to be sure that the entity will be able to deliver
goods/services and also after-sale service.
 Employees – Need job security with regard to remuneration and career
opportunities.
 The community – Is dependent on profitable entities for donations and social
investments.
 State institutions – Are run by the government and are dependent on the
payment of taxes and levies. The financial statements provide the information
on which the calculations are based.

1.5 The term ‘financial position’

Financial position
Indicates the state of affairs at a specific point in time (statement of financial
position).

All assets and liabilities are reflected on the

statement of financial position.

Assets = Liabilities + Equity

1.6 The term ‘financial performance’

Financial performance
Indicates the financial performance in terms of profit and loss for a specific
period (statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income).

All income and expenses are reflected on the statement

of profit or loss and other comprehensive income.
In the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income we calculate
the gross and net profit for a specific period.

2
 Chapter 1 Basic concepts in accountancy

1.7 The term ‘financial period’

Financial period
This is the period that can start on any day of a calendar year, but has twelve
consecutive months. At the end of the period the accounts are closed off. Profit or
loss is computed and financial reports are prepared. A financial period is, for
example, 1 March 2015–29 February 2016.

1.8 Types of financial statement

 Statement of financial position
 Statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income
 Statement of changes in equity
 Explanatory notes
 Statements of cash flow.

1.9 Elements of financial statements (types of accounts)

 Assets
 Liabilities
 Equity
 Income
 Expenses.

1.10 Underlying assumptions of financial accounting

1.10.1 The accruals basis
Transactions are recorded for accounting purposes when they occur and not when
cash is received or paid.
1.10.2 The going concern assumption
It is an assumption that the entity will continue to operate in the foreseeable
future. Hence it is assumed that the entity has neither the intention nor the need to
liquidate or curtail its operations materially.

1.11 Qualitative characteristics of financial accounting

1.11.1 Understandability
To achieve the stated aims of reporting, the financial statements should be
understandable to the average user who has a reasonable knowledge of business
and a willingness to study the information with the necessary diligence. This does
not mean, however, that information should be excluded from the financial
statements if it is too complex for certain readers to understand.
1.11.2 Reliability
Reliability means that the users of financial reports should be able to rely on
information that faithfully represents the economic circumstances and events that

3
Accounting for All

it purports to represent. The term ‛reliability’ does not mean ‛absolute accuracy’
but rather refers to information that the user can trust.
Information is reliable when it does not contain material errors and is free from
bias.
Reliable information will, inter alia:
 Be representationally faithful
 Reflect the substance rather than the form of events
 Be neutral (unbiased)
 Be prudent in instances of uncertainty
 Be complete
 Be timely.
1.11.3 Relevance
As already mentioned, the purpose of financial statements is to provide
information to users. The information should assist users to make appropriate
decisions; for example, if a supplier wishes to supply goods to the entity, the
financial statements should provide sufficient information regarding the ability of
the entity to pay its creditors. The information contained in the financial
statements is not useful and therefore not relevant if it does not place the user in a
position to make these decisions.
1.11.4 Comparability
To meet their needs, users of financial information should be given comparable
information in order to identify trends over time and between similar companies.

1.12 Dual concept

The dual concept determines that the financial position of an entity is defined in
terms of the accounting equation. Each transaction has a dual effect in order to
ensure that the accounting records comply with the dual concept. This means that
the accounting equation must always balance. (Refer to chapter 2.)
Another term for the duality concept is the double-entry system. This dictates that
each transaction influences at least two accounts. One is debited and the other is
credited. (Refer to chapter 3.)

1.13 Definition of an account

An account is a formal record of the transactions of an entity with regard to a
specific item. Increases and decreases in each asset, liability, equity, and income
and expense item are recorded in general ledger accounts. Management is
responsible for the activities and assets of an entity and will therefore scrutinise
the movements in the individual accounts.

1.14 What is a transaction?

A transaction is an agreement between two parties. Normally one party sells
something, or renders a service to another party, and that other party has an
obligation to pay for the goods or service in terms of a monetary value. A
4
 Chapter 1 Basic concepts in accountancy

transaction is an event that effects a change in an asset, liability or net worth

capital.

1.15 Starting a business

In order to start a business, money is required. In accounting terms this money is
called capital.
For the successful operation of a business, money/capital is typically utilised to
acquire the following items:
 Buildings
 Vehicles
 Equipment
 Inventory (articles you want to sell)
 Personnel.

1.16 Types of business based on activities

 Service business, for example panelbeater
 Manufacturing business, for example toy factory
 Trading business
– Wholesaler (sell to a business, for example Checkers warehouse).
– Retailer (sell to the public, for example Checkers).

1.17 Types of business based on organisational form

 Sole proprietor
 Partnership
 Company
– Profit company
– Non-profit company
 Close corporation.

1.18 Comparison between business entities

1.18.1 Profit versus non-profit organisations
The Companies Act of 2008 distinguishes between profit and non-profit
companies. A non-profit organisation is incorporated for public benefit, and its
income and assets are not to benefit the organisation’s stakeholders, but rather
used to pursue the organisation’s charitable goals. Profit companies, on the other
hand, exist to generate a profit for their stakeholders.
The Companies Act of 2008 specifies the following profit business entities:
1. Sole proprietor
2. Private company – (Pty) Ltd
3. Personal liability company – Inc
4. Public companies (Ltd)
5. State-owned companies – SOC.
5
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
Veteres tamen, non solum mulieres nubere dicebant, sed
etiam viros, quod notandum ad intelligentiam primae et
rudis latinitatis. Sic Pomponius, apud Nonium Marcellum:

"Sed meus frater, postquam vidit me inde injectum

domo, nupsit posterius dotatae vetulae, varicosae,
vafrae."
Pompon. Panuceatis.

nubere: Etiam de coitu illegitimo.

"At satius fuerat eam viro dare nuptum potius.—Heia!

Haec quidem ecastor quotidie viro nubit, nupsitque
hodie, Nubet mox noctu: nunquam ego hanc viduam
cubare sivi."
Plaut. Cistell. I, I, 44 sqq.

Qui loquitur Curios, assertoresque Camillos,

Nolito fronti credere; nupsit heri.
Mart. I, XXV, 3 sq.
Jam sex aut septem nupsisti, Galla, cinaedis,
Dum coma te nimium pexaque barba juvat.
Mart. VII, LVIII, 1 sq.

nuces: Inter puerorum crepundia; ideoque saepissime ad

puerilem patientiam translatae. Meritorii enim pueri, quibus
licenter utebantur antiqui, a turpi servitio recedentes nuces
spargebant, id est ludos pueritiae. Vide Serv. in Virgil.
Eclog. VIII.

Mopse, novas incide faces; tibi ducitur uxor;

Sparge, marite, nuces; tibi deserit Hesperus Oetam.
Virgil. Eclog. VIII, 29 sq.

Et maritus ipse nuces spargendas dabat, ut ostenderet se

velle in futurum pueris abstinere, meritoriosque suos turpi
officio hic et nunc dimittendo.

Da nuces pueris iners,

Concubine; satis diu
Lusisti nucibus; lubet
Jam servire Thalassio;
Concubine, nuces da.
Catull. LVI, 131 sqq.

Hinc legere nuces in obscenis, ut docet Lipsius Antiq. lect.

3.

Nuptiis versabant nuces pueri et puellae cum magno

strepitu, ne vox puellae virginitatem deponentis posset
audiri. Unde Plinius nuces vocat, nuptiarum comites. Vide
Serv. loco supra citato, et Plin. XV, 22.

Nucis cortex inter fucos, quo scilicet cani crines

flavescerent.

Heu! sero revocatur amor, seroque juventa,

Quum vetus infecit cana senecta caput.
Tum studium formae, coma tum mutuatur, ut annos
Dissimulet viridi cortice tincta nucis.
Tibull. I, VIII, 41 sqq.

nuditas: In deliciis Romanorum.

"Nam amator meretricis mores sibi emit auro et

purpura; Quid opus est, quod suum esse nolit, ei ultro
ostentarier? Pulchra mulier nuda erit quam purpurata
pulchrior."
Plaut. Mostell. I, III, 128 sqq.

"Quin tute exornas moribus lepidis, quum lepida tota

es? Non vestem amatores mulieris amant, sed vestis
 fartum?"
Plaut. ibid. vers. 12 sq.

Nudulas tibi porrigit papillas,

Nudulos tibi porrigit lacertos,
Nudulumque femur, genu nudulum
Et pectuscula nudula, et retecta
Ostenta tibi, nudulasque plantas.
Quid tum? nudula tota, tota inermis.
Petron. Phaleuc. 40 sqq.
Non juvat in caeco venerem corrumpere motu.
Si nescis, oculi sunt in amore duces.
Ipse Paris nuda fertur periisse Lacaena,
Quum Menelaaeo surgeret e thalamo.
Nudus et Endymion Phoebi cepisse sororem
Dicitur, et nudae concubuisse deae.
Quod si pertendens animo vestita cubaris,
Scissa veste, meas experiere manus.
Propert. II, XVI, 11 sqq.

Nudas inspiciebant puellas lenones, mangones et

conciliatores, ut pro certo haberent an essent bona merx,
laudabileque conjugium.

"Et conditiones quaesitas per amicos, qui,

matresfamilias et aetate adulta virgines denudarent,
atque perspicerent, tanquam Thoranio vendente."
Suet. in Aug. 69.

Vide COMESSATIONES.

nugae: Libidines venereae. Gallice la bagatelle.

...major tamen illa voluptas

Alterius sexus: magis ille extenditur, et mox
Auribus atque oculis concepta urina movetur.
 Non capit has nugas humilis domus.
Juv. XI, 166 sqq.

Hinc nugo pro moecho et dissoluto apud Apul. in Metam.

nugae: Convicia comica; verborum lusus libidinosi in

theatro, ut in Atellanis.

"Quid dicit tibi!—Nugas theatri, verba quae in comoediis

Solent lenoni dici, quae pueri sciunt."
Plaut. Pseudol. IV, VI, 18 sqq.

Vide Donat. ad Terent. Eunuch.

nuptiae: Nuptiarum solemnia fuse lepidissimeque describit

Catullus molli in suo hymenaeo cantu LVI.

1° Ex instituto Romuli rapi simulabatur virgo ex gremio

matris, in memoriam raptus Sabinarum. Inde lege cautum
ne nisi de nocte fierent. Vide Fest. Pomp. et Varr. in Aeliis.
Facibus praecedebatur nova sponsa e foco ejus incensis et
aqua adspersis, boni ominis causa.

"Virgini in hortos deductae, ante diem tertium quam ibi

nuptiae fierent, quum in separata diaeta esset die
nuptiarum, priusquam ad eum transiret, et priusquam
aqua et igni acciperetur, id est nuptiae celebrarentur,
obtulit decem aureos dono."
L. Serv. Sempron. § virgini de donat. inter vir. et
ux.

Quos facient justos ignis et unda viros.

Ovid. Art. Amat. II, 598.

2° Ominosum putabant antiqui, ingrediendo, vel egrediendo

limen tangere, quod praecipue in novis nuptiis religioni
habebant.
 "Sensim super attolle limen pedes, nova nupta! sospes
Iter incipe hoc, ut viro tuo semper sis superstes, atque
Ut potior pollentia sit, vincasque virum, victrixque sies,
Superetque tuum imperium! vir te vestiat, tu virum
despolies."
Plaut. Casin. IV, VI, 1 sqq.

...limen transire memento

Cautius, atque alte sobria ferre pedem.
Ovid. Am. I, XII, 5 sq.

Limen enim Vestae sacratum erat; unde cavebant, ait Varro

in Aeliis, ne a sacrilegio inchoarent novae nuptae, si
virginitatem depositurae calcassent rem Vestae, id est
numini castissimo, consecratam.

3° Postes mariti unguine lupino ungebantur; a Romulo ipso

institutum, quod lupae lacte nutritus fuit. Vid. Serv. in
Aeneid. IV, no. 46.

"Egregia numinis et singularis interpretatio potestatum,

nisi postes virorum adipali unguine oblinerentur a
sponsis, nisi virginalia vincula jam ferventes
dissolverent, etc."
Arnob. adv. Gent. II.

4° Novae nuptae caput flammeolo involvebatur.

"Jam Psyche puellae caput involverat flammeolo..."

Petron. Sat.

...dudum sedet illa parato

Flammeolo tyriusque palam genialis in hortis
Sternitur, etc.
Juv. X, 333 sqq.
Flammeus enim color primum matronis tantum licitus erat,
ut ab innuptis discernerentur.

"Flammeus vestis, vel tegmen quo capita matronae

tegunt."
Non. Marc.

5° Pronubae comitabantur novam nuptam (vide

PRONUBAE), mulierumque turba, quae ubi deducta in
domum mariti erat, versus acclamabant ad Venerem
prurientes (vide FESCENNINI VERSUS), thalamumque
instruebant.

"Jam embasicoetas praeferebat facem; jam ebriae

mulieres longum agmen plaudentes fecerant,
thalamumque incesta exornaverant veste."
Petron. Sat.

6° Sponso tandem tradita virgine, choryphaei epithalamia

cantabant obscenasque strophas cum magno strepitu (vide
HYMEN, CANTUS); nucesque spargebant (vide NUCES),
donec delibata crederetur, uxorque plene facta.

7° Vide COLLUM TUMIDUM.

nuptiae senum: Ridiculae habebantur; unde

Anacreonteum illud: Anacreon, senex es, blandae dicunt
puellae: Certe enim, ut apud nos, senes uxorem ducentes
occentabant antiqui cum strepitu, quod Galli vocant
charivari. Quod patet ex elegantissime collectis ab Alberico
Gentili de Nupt. V, 3. (Taubman. in Plaut. etc.)

"Dabitur homini amica, noctuque in lecto accendet

senem: Namque, edepol! aliud quidem illi quid amica
opus sit, nescio."
Plaut. Stich. IV, I, 66 sq.
 "Nupta ea est, an vidua?—Et nupta et vidua.—Quo
pacto potis Vidua et nupta esse eadem?—Quia
adolescens nupta est cum sene."
Idem, Mil. IV, I, 18 sq.

nuptiae inter viros: Portentosa Neronis libido, nec de

privatis inaudita.

"Post etiam Phythagorae cuidam, in modum solemnium

conjugiorum, nuberet, inditumque imperatori
flammeum, dos, et genialis thorus, et faces nuptiales,
cunctaque quae vel in foeminis non sine verecundia
conspiciuntur, spectata."
Sulp. Sever. Sacr. hist. II.

"Puerum Sporum, exsectis testibus, etiam in muliebrem

naturam transfigurare conatus est: cum dote et
flammeo per solemne nuptiarum celeberrimo officio
deductum ad se pro uxore habuit."
Sueton. in Neron 28.

Barbatus rigido nupsit Callistratus Afro

Hac qua lege viro nubere virgo solet.
Praeluxere faces, velarunt flammea vultus,
Nec tua defuerunt verba, Thalasse, tibi, etc.
Mart. XII, XLII, 1 sqq.

nuptiarum anniversaria: Religiose celebrabantur auspicio

Mercurii, ex Aegyptiaca disciplina. Vide MERCURIUS.

Cyllenes, caelique decus, facunde minister,

Aurea cui torto virga dracone viret;
Sic tibi lascivi non desit copia furti,
Sive cupis Paphien, seu Ganymede cales.
......
Hunc semper Norbana diem cum conjuge Caro
Laeta colat primis qua coiere toris.
 Mart. VII, LXXIV, 1 sqq.

Vide et REPOTIUM.

nuptiae: Et etiam pro concubitu illegitimo.

"Continuo producta est puella satis bella, et quae non

plus quam septem annos habere videbatur. ...
Plaudentibus ergo universis et postulantibus, nuptias
fecerunt."
Petron. Sat.

"Tum Quartilla jocantium quoque libidine accensa et

ipsa surrexit, correptumque Gitona in cubiculum traxit.
Sine dubio non repugnaverat puer, ac ne puella quidem
tristis expaverat nuptiarum nomen."
Petron. Sat.

"Tu rus uxorem duces: id rus hoc erit, Tantisper dum

ego cum Casina faciam nuptias."
Plaut. Cas. II, VIII, 49 sq.

nupta verba:

"Quae virginem dicere non licebat."

Fest.

"Majores nostri virginis acerbae aures veneris vocabulis

imbui noluerunt; ut essent qui filiae virginis omni verbo
spurco tuerentur aures."
Varr. Agath.

"...Injuriarumque tenebatur, qui turpibus verbis

utebatur apud virgines."
Tertull. de Spectac.

Virgo sum: nondum didici verba nupta dicere.

 Plaut. Frag. dyscol.

nutare: Capite assentire; quod frequentissimum inter

amasios.

Nil opus est digitis per quos arcana loquaris,

Nec tibi per nutus accipienda nota est.
Ovid. Art. Amat. I, 131 sq.

"Neque illa ulli homini nutet, nictet, annuat."

Plaut. Asin. IV, I, 39.

nutrices: Pro mammis, etiam sensu venereo.

Illaque atque alia viderunt luce marinas

Mortales oculi nudato corpore nymphas
Nutricum tenus exstantes e gurgite cano.
Tum Thetidis Peleus incensus fertur amore,
Tum Thetis humanos non despexit hymenaeos, etc.
Catull. LIX, 16 sqq.

OBDUCERE

obducere: Dicebatur de proxenetis et conciliatoribus. Vide

Publ. Victor. Var. XV, 7, et Turneb. XIV, 34.

"Missus mercatum ab suo adolescens patre Emit atque

apportat scita forma mulierem... Amat senex hanc, se
adsimulans vendere, Tradit vicino: eum putat uxor illius
Obduxe scortum..."
Plaut. Argument. Mercat. vers. 1 sqq.
 "Nec, pol! ego patiar, sic me nuptam tam male,
Measque in aedes sic scorta obductarier."
Id. Merc. IV, IV, 43 sq.

obficus: Turpis, impudicus. (Papias.)

obscenitas verborum:

"Vel hoc vitium sit quod κακόφατον vocatur; sive mala

consuetudine, in obscenum intellectum sermo deductus
est, ut ductare exercitus et patrare bellum, apud
Sallustium dicta sancte et antique, ridentur a nobis, si
diis placet; quam culpam non scribentium quidem
judico, sed legentium. Tamen vitanda, quatenus verba
honesta moribus perdidimus..."
Quintil. Inst. orat. VIII, 3.

Est altera obscenitas quae vocalis tantum, ex verborum

concentu oritur, aut vitiosa sermonis compositione.
Quodquidem vitium accurate vitabant antiqui, praesertim
loquendo.

"Non olet unde sit quod dicitur cum illis, cum autem
nobis non dicitur; quia, si ita diceretur obscenius,
concurrent literae, ut etiam modo, nisi autem
interposuissem."
Cic. Orat. XVIII.

obsessores alieni matrimonii: Insidiatores alienae

pudicitae. (Val. Max.)

obsignata: Dicebatur de virgine intemerata.

"Signatam integram virginem vetustas voluit dicere."

Non. Marc.
 "Primam Chrysicum negat signatam reddere."
Lucil. lib. XXIX.

"Parere quaedam matrona cupiens, dubitans an esset

praegnans, visa est in quiete obsignatam habere
naturam."
Cic. de Nat. deor. XXII.

Vide SIGNATA.

obvarare: Pervertere, depravare. Dictum a varis.

"Nam consiliis obvarant, quibus tamen concedit hic

ordo."
Enn. Achill. apud Non. Marc.

ocquiniscere: Inclinare. De paedicante.

Ut nullum civem paedicavi per dolum,

Nisi ipsus orans ultroque ocquinisceret.
Pompon. Prostibulo, apud Non. Marc.
Nisi nunc aliquis subito obviam occurrit mihi
Qui ocquiniscat, quo compingam terminum in tutum
locum.
Idem, Pistore, apud Non. Marc.

oculus limus: Obliquus; signum lasciviae.

"Quadam voluptate suffusi, aut limi, ut sit dicam

venerei."
Quintil. Inst. orat. II, 3.

"Ad me conversa limis et morsicantibus oculis."

Apul. Met. II.

"Viden' limulis, obsecro, ut intuentur?—Ecastor, sine

omni arbitror malitia esse."
 Plaut. Bacchid. V, II, 12 sq.

oculi indomiti: Extra modum lascivi.

"Ego animo cupido, atque oculis indomitis fui."

Plaut. Bacchid. IV, IX, 92.

oculi nigri: In pretio apud Romanos.

Semper haerentem puerum canebat,

Et Lycum nigris oculis nigroque
Crine decorum.
Hor. Od. I, XXXII, 10 sqq.
Non magis esse velim, quam pravo virere naso,
Spectandum nigris oculis nigroque capillo.
Hor. de Art. poet. 36 sq.

Necnon venuste Claudianus:

...non labra rosae, non colla pruinae,

Non crines aequant violae, non lumina flammae.
De Honorii et Mariae nuptiis, 265 sq.

Hic violae pro nigro colore; nam Virgilius nigras dicit violas.

oculi petulantes: Lascivi, impudici.

"Cujus omnes corporis partes ad nequitiam sunt

oppositissimae; oculi, ad petulantem lasciviam."
Rutilius Lupus ex Lycurgo.

"Ipse Paris dearum lividinantium judex, si hanc in

comparatione vidisset tam petulantibus oculis, et
Helenem huic donasset, et deas."
Petron. Sat.
oculi putres: Venere soluti. Eodem sensu Persius: patranti
fractus ocello; et Juvenalis, oculosque in fine trementes.

Omnes in Damalim putres

Deponent oculos; nec Damalis novo
Divelletur adultero,
Lascivis hederis ambitiosior.
Hor. Od. I, XXXVI, 17 sqq.

oculis venari: De arte mulierum quae, tanquam visco

volucres auceps capit, sic et ipsae viros oculis attrahunt et
capiunt.

"Viden' tu illam oculis venaturam facere, atque

aucupium auribus?"
Plaut. Mil. IV, I, 43.

oculissimus: Carissimus. Simili modo Galli: Je l'aime

comme mes yeux.

"Salve, oculissime homo."

Plaut. Curcul. I, II, 28.

Sic et alibi oculitus amare, id est valde et singulariter.

officium: Res venerea.

"In solemni sexuum officio quod marem ac foeminam

miscet, in concubitu communi, in illo ipso voluptatis
ultimae aestu, etc."
Tertull. de Anima, I, 27.

"Liviam Orestillam Caio Pisoni nubentem, quum ad

officium et ipse veniret, ad se deduci imperavit."
Suet. in Calig. 24.
 "Quum ergo res ad effectum spectaret, clara Eumolpus
voce exhortabatur, ut spissaret officium."
Petron. Sat.

officium omne: Genus omne veneris et concubitus.

Quidquid amas dabit illa manus: communiter omni

Fungitur officio.
Claudian. in Eutrop. I, 367 sq.

officium puerile: Patientia pueri paedicati.

"Faciendum est puerile officium: conquiniscam ad

Cistulam."
Plaut. Cist. IV, I, 5.

Lascivam tota possedi nocte puellam,

Cujus nequitias vincere nemo potest.
Fessus mille modis, illud puerile poposci,
Ante preces totas primaque verba dedit.
Mart. IX, LXVII, 1 sqq.

olera: In obscenis.

"Num radix fuit?—Non fuit.—Num cucumis?—Profecto,

hercle, non fuit quidquam olerum."
Plaut. Cas. V, II, 32 sq.

Inde Catullianum illud proverbium de eis qui, aliis

prostantes, quaerebant quo suam libidinem exercerent.

Mentula moechatur, moechatur mentula certe;

Hoc est quid dicunt, ipsa olera olla legit.
Tibull. LXXXIX, 1 sq.

omnia: Verbum venereum. Cuncta gaudia quae puer aut

puella dare potest; omnis veneris laetitia.
 "Nec adhuc quidem omnia erant facta, quum Ascyltos
furtim se foribus admovit."
Petron. Sat.

Et idem alibi:

"Forsitan dum omnia concupisco, etc."

Ulteriora pudet narrare, sed omnia fiunt.

Ovid. Epist. XV, 133.
Haerens ad latus, omnia experiris;
Frustra, etc.
Tibull. XVIII, 6 sq.

opella idalia: Opus venereum. Dictio suavissima; nam

minutis verbis, ut pueri, gaudent et amores.

Non has mellea velitationes

Cyprilla exigit, aut procax Cupido
Cui salacula mentula, et salaces
Lumbuli idalia placent opella.
Phaleuc. ex editione Petronii a Linocerio CIↃIↃXXCV,
Lutet. Parisior.

opera: Saepe ad venerem translatum. Sic Terent. Operam

dare amori.

"Liberis dare operam, quam honeste dicitur."

Cic. Epist. ad Fam. IX, 22.

"Cujus fuerit conditionis Venus, cujus operae, cujus

quaestus."
Arnob. adv. Gent. IV.

Sic Graece meretrices dicebantur ἐργάσιμοι, et quaestus

earum ἐργάστα.
opicus: Fetidus, obscenus, immundus. Ab Opicis, Italiae
populo, foeditate liguritorum notissimo.

Eunus Syriscus inguinum liguritor;

Opicus magister. Sic eum docet Phyllis.
Auson. Epigr. CXX, 1 sq.
Nec curanda viris opicae castigat amicae
Verba. Soloecismum liceat fecisse marito.
Juv. VI, 455 sq.

Opigena: Cognomen Junonis, sic dictae ab Ope, quam

matronae colebant, quod eam in partu opem ferre
credebant. (Vide Steph. Dict. historic.)

oppidulum: Pro mulierum pudendis.

Fossula oppidulum arctula profundum

Et meandribulis inexplicandis munit undula, etc.
Petron. Phaleuc. 32 sq.
Quid tum! nudula tota, tota inermis,
Armatum hastula tua vibrante,
Aperta oppiduli in sui benigne
Castella, o pudeat!
Id. ibid. vers. 45, sqq.

opus: Opera est labor, opus vero, quod opera perficitur.

Eadem igitur similitudine opus saepissime de actu veneris.

Obscenis rigido deo tabellas

Ducens ex Elephantidos libellis,
Dat donum Lalage, rogatque tentes
Si pictas opus edat ad figuras.
Priap. Carm. III, 1 sqq.
Accessi quoties ad opus, mistisque movemur
Inguinibus, cunnus non tacet, ipsa taces.
 Mart. VII, XVIII, 5 sq.

opus muliebre: Patientia paedicati.

"Quid ille alter, o dii! qui tanquam togae virilis stolam

sumpsit, qui ne vir esset a matre persuasus est; qui
opus muliebre in ergastulo fecit; qui postquam
conturbavit, etc."
Petron. Sat.

orarium: Linteolum ad immunditiam oris detergendam.

Gallice un mouchoir. Orario et utebantur Romani ad
pudenda detergenda post venerem peractam. Vide Aug. de
Civ. Dei, XXII, 7.

Ricini et aurati, ricae et oraria mitrae.

Lucil. Frag. III, 13.

Oraria interpretatur[TR1] Achaintre, quibus os obvolvebatur.

Orarii donum signum erat favoris apud imperatores. Inde

usus Orientalium, orarium tradere praedilectae pellici, in
indicium noctis concessae.

"Ipsumque primum donasse oraria populo romano,

quibus uteretur in favorem."
Vopisc. in Aurelian.

Orbona: Dea quae praeest pueris utroque parente orbatis.

Aram Romae habebat. Vide Plin. II, 7.

orgia: Sane sciendum, orgia apud Graecos dici sacra

omnia, sicut apud Latinos caeremoniae. Abusive enim pro
sacris liberis. Erant Romae orgia Cybeles, Cereris, necnon
Veneris ipsius, ut patet ex antiquo poeta apud Ephestionem.
Turpitudinis causa, orgia omnia prohibuit senatus, anno
urbis 568.
ornatus (-us): Quidquid pertinet ad cultum virorum et
mulierum. Sic apud Livium Adronic. Asiatico ornatu affluere.

"Quid vides!—Nescio quis eccum incedit Ornatu quidem

thalassico."
Plaut. Mil. IV, VI, 66 sq.

Sed peculiariter de compositione capillorum.

Ecce tuum solers caput exornare Cypassis

Objicitur dominae contemerasse torum.
Ovid. Am. II, VII, 17 sqq.

Et infra:

Adde quod ornandis operosa est illa capillis

Et tibi per doctas grata ministra manus.
Idem, ibid. 23 sq.

Hinc:

ornatrices: Puellae in ministerio apud matronas, et ex

officio peculiari ad compositionem capillorum.

"Haec matris meae liberta et ornatrix fuit."

Sueton. Claud. 40.

Ornatricis mobilem artem sic exprimit Tertullianus:

"Quid crinibus vestris quiescere non licet modo subtritis,

modo suscitatis, modo elisis! alii in cincinnis coercentur;
alii, ut vagi et volucres elabuntur, non bona simplicitate.
Affigitis praeterea nescio quas enormitates sutilium
atque textilium capillamentorum, nunc in galeri modum,
quasi vaginam capitis, et operculum verticis; nunc in
cervicem retro suggestum."
Tertull. de Cult. foemin. VI.
In ornatrices mulierum morositates, contumelias et
lacerationes testantur satyrici, praesertim vetularum, et
inspeciosarum. Si forte dum comerentur, se difformes
inspicerent, speculo dejecto miseram famulam verberabant.

Tuta sit ornatrix: odi quae sauciat ora

Unguibus, et rapta brachia figit acu.
Devovet et tangit dominae caput illa; simulque
Ploret ad invisas sanguinolenta comas.
Ovid. Art. Amat. III, 239 sq.
Praefectura domus sicula non mitior aula.
Nam si constituit, solitoque decentius optat
Ornari, et properat, jamque exspectatur in hortis,
Aut apud Isiacae potius sacraria lenae;
Disponit crinem, laceratis ipsa capillis,
Nuda humeros psecas infelix, nudisque mamillis.
Altior hic quare cincinnus? Taurea punit
Continuo flexi crimen facinusque capilli.
Quid psecas admisit? quaenam est hic culpa puellae;
Si tibi displicuit nasus tuus?
Juv. VI, 486 sqq.

Ad consilium vocabantur ornatrices emeritae, in arduis

ornatus. Vide Junium, de Coma, c. 7.

Est in consilio matrona, admotaque lanis

Emerita quae cessat acu: sententia prima
Hujus erit; post hanc aetate arte minore
Censebunt, tamquam famae discrimen agatur
Aut animae; tanta est quaerendi cura decoris.
Juv. VI, 497 sqq.

Orpheus: Masculae veneris primus institutor ab Ovidio

dictus.

Ille etiam Thracum populis fuit auctor, amorem

 In teneros transferre mares, citraque juventam
Aetatis breve ver, et primos carpere flores.
Ovid. Met. X, 83 sqq.

In gratiam Orphei Thraces mulieribus stigmata inurebant.

Vide Plutarch. in sermone de iis qui serius puniuntur
divinitus.

os: Pars vultus labellis obsignata. Vide LABELLA.

os rubidum: Signum verecundiae apud antiquos.

"Oris verecundi et semper rubidi."

Spartian. in Percenn. Nigr.

os siccum: Indecorum enim erat omnibus, sed praesertim

puellis, frequenter spuere. Sic Catullus multa in amica
Formiani enumerans parum venusta.

Salve nec minimo puella naso,

Nec bello pede, nec nigris ocellis,
Nec longis digitis, nec ore sicco,
Nec sane nimis elegante lingua, etc.
Catull. XL, 1 sqq.

os praebere: De fellante.

"Adolescentem morem gestum oportuit.—Quî potui

melius? Quin hodie usque os praebui."
Terent. Adelph. II, II.

ore morigerari: Irrumari.

"Quare Parrhasii quoque tabulam, in qua Meleagro

Atalanta ore morigeratur,...in cubiculo dedicavit."
Sueton. Tiber. 44.
oscillatio: Concubantium motus, ex alternis oppositisque
concussibus. A cillere, id est movere.

"Sic inter mercenarium amicamque positus, senex velut

oscillatone ludebat."
Petron. Sat.

oscillum: Gallice une balançoire. Certe inter ludos

Romanorum.

Versibus incomptis ludunt, risuque soluto,

......
Et te, Bacche, vocant per carmina laeta, tibique
Oscilla ex alta suspendunt mollia pinu.
Virgil. Georg. II, 386 sqq.

"Alii dicunt, oscilla membra esse virilia de floribus facta;

quae suspendebantur per intercolumnia, ita ut in ea
homines, acceptis clausis personis, impingerent, et ea
ore cillerent, id est moverent, ad risum populo
commovendum; et hoc in Orpheo lectum est."
Serv. in Virgil. loco supra citato.

osculum: Diminutivum, pro ore minusculo.

...videt oscula quae non

Est vidisse satis.
Ovid. Met. I, 499 sq.
Tu velut Oebaliis habites taciturnus Amyclis,
Aut tua Sigalion aegyptius oscula signet,
Obnixum, Pauline, taces.
Auson. Epist. XXV, 26 sqq.

osculatio: Verbum genericum: actus basiandi.

Eum jam turgidulo tument liquore

 Vascula, et liquidae fluunt medullae,
Imbelles procul osculationes
Udulis fugias pati labellis.
Blandulos decet hos columbulillos
Imbelles avido osculationes
Rostrulo inserere...
Petron. Phaleuc. 9 sqq.

Tres osculorum species, fine dissimiles, observantiae, studii,

voluptatis. Praecipue notanda sunt:

osculum capitis:

"Laudor quod osculavi privignae caput."

Titinnius, Ilarubra, apud Non. Marc.

osculum frontis: Religiosum apud veteres, auctore

Plutarcho; frons enim Genio sacrata erat.

osculum auribus deprehensis: Graece χύτρα, id est olla,

quod, ut caput ollae, ita aures ansarum formam referunt.
Inter Latinos hoc osculi genus primus expressit Plautus:

"Pareo: at scin' quomodo? Sine te exorem, sine te

prendam auriculis, sine dem savium."
Plaut. Poenul. I, II, 162 sq.

"Prehende auriculis, compara labella cum labellis."

Idem, Asin. III, III, 78.

Romae, in veteri monumento, videtur Cupido alatus, qui

comprensis auribus Zozimam deosculatur.

Et foetus matrona dabit, natusque parenti

Oscula compressis auribus eripiet;
Nec taedebit avum parvo advigilare nepoti; etc.
Petron. II, VI, 53 sqq.
osculum cum lingua:

Et dare anhelanti pugnantibus humida linguis

Oscula, et in collo figere dente notas.
Tibull. I, VIII, 37 sq.

osculum hircosum: Fetidum, impudicum.

Te vicinia tota, te pilosus

Hircoso premit osculo colonus.
Mart. XII, LIX, 4 sq.

oscula sincera: Intacta, intemerata.

"Non solum virginitatem illibatam, sed etiam oscula

sincera ad virum perferre debet."
Val. Max. I, 6.

Quasi dicas primum osculum, primum florem labiorum.

oscula clausa, dimidio labro: Modo eorum qui fetidum

spirantes os aperire non audent.

Fila Tarentini graviter redolentia porri

Edisti quoties, oscula clausa dato.
Mart. XIII, XV, 1 sq.
Basia dimidio quod das mihi, Posthume, labro,
Laudo; licet demas hinc quoque dimidium.
Mart. II, X, 1 sq.

oscula delibare: Legere, sed leviter et labris lubricis;

opposite basiis compressis. Dictio lepidissima.

Olli subridens hominum sator atque deorum

Vultu quo coelum tempestatesque serenat,
Oscula libavit natae...
Virgil. Aeneid. I, 254 sqq.
 Olli purpurea delibantes oscula,
Clemente morsu rosea labella vellicent.
Apul. Ἀνεχόμ. 6 sq.

osculis applicare: Firme basiare.

"Habuit in deliciis homines appellatos nominibus

verendorum utriusque sexus, quos libentius suis oculis
applicabat."
Lamprid. in Commod.

osculi jus:

"Affinibus et propinquis in mulieres jus est, ut sobrias

comprobent, etc."
Arnob. adv. Gent. II.

"Verum illecebris Agrippinae, Germanici fratris sui filiae,

per jus osculi et blanditiarum occasionem pellectus in
amorem."
Suet. in Claud. 26.

ostentatrix: Quae tamquam mercem se ostendit et

explicat, seu quaestus, seu gratuitae veneris causa.

"Quam improba juvenum circumspectatrix! quam

immodica suî ostentatrix!"
Apul. in Apolog.

ostrea: Inter fomenta cibi. Sic Juvenalis de muliere ebria:

...Quid enim Venus ebria curat?

Inguinis et capitis quae sint discrimina, nescit
Grandia quae mediis jam noctibus ostrea mordet,
Quum perfusa mero spumant unguenta Falerno,
Quum bibitur concha.
Juv. VI, 300 sqq.
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