Oceanography

Oceanography (from Ancient Greek ὠκεανός (ōkeanós) 'ocean' and

γραφή (graphḗ) 'writing'), also known as oceanology, sea science, ocean
science, and marine science, is the scientific study of the ocean,
including its physics, chemistry, biology, and geology.

It is an Earth science, which covers a wide range of topics, including

ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics; fluxes of various
chemical substances and physical properties within the ocean and across
its boundaries; ecosystem dynamics; and plate tectonics and seabed Thermohaline circulation
geology.

Oceanographers draw upon a wide range of disciplines to deepen their understanding of the world’s oceans,
incorporating insights from astronomy, biology, chemistry, geography, geology, hydrology, meteorology and physics.

History

Early history
Humans first acquired knowledge of the waves and currents of the seas
and oceans in pre-historic times. Observations on tides were recorded by
Aristotle and Strabo in 384–322 BC.[1] Early exploration of the oceans
was primarily for cartography and mainly limited to its surfaces and of
the animals that fishermen brought up in nets, though depth soundings by
lead line were taken.

The Portuguese campaign of Atlantic navigation is the earliest example

of a systematic scientific large project, sustained over many decades,
Benjamin Franklin's 1770 map of the Gulf
studying the currents and winds of the Atlantic.
Stream

The work of Pedro Nunes (1502–1578) is remembered in the navigation

context for the determination of the loxodromic curve: the shortest course between two points on the surface of a
sphere represented onto a two-dimensional map.[2][3] When he published his "Treatise of the Sphere" (1537), mostly
a commentated translation of earlier work by others, he included a treatise on geometrical and astronomic methods of
navigation. There he states clearly that Portuguese navigations were not an adventurous endeavour:

"nam se fezeram indo a acertar: mas partiam os nossos mareantes muy ensinados e prouidos de estromentos e regras
de astrologia e geometria que sam as cousas que os cosmographos ham dadar apercebidas (...) e leuaua cartas muy
particularmente rumadas e na ja as de que os antigos vsauam" (were not done by chance: but our seafarers departed
well taught and provided with instruments and rules of astrology (astronomy) and geometry which were matters the
cosmographers would provide (...) and they took charts with exact routes and no longer those used by the ancient).[4]

His credibility rests on being personally involved in the instruction of pilots and senior seafarers from 1527 onwards
by Royal appointment, along with his recognized competence as mathematician and astronomer.[2] The main
problem in navigating back from the south of the Canary Islands (or south of Boujdour) by sail alone, is due to the
change in the regime of winds and currents: the North Atlantic gyre and the Equatorial counter current [5] will push
south along the northwest bulge of Africa, while the uncertain winds where the Northeast trades meet the Southeast
trades (the doldrums) [6] leave a sailing ship to the mercy of the currents. Together, prevalent current and wind make
northwards progress very difficult or impossible. It was to overcome this problem and clear the passage to India
around Africa as a viable maritime trade route, that a systematic plan of exploration was devised by the Portuguese.
The return route from regions south of the Canaries became the 'volta do largo' or 'volta do mar'. The 'rediscovery' of
the Azores islands in 1427 is merely a reflection of the heightened strategic importance of the islands, now sitting on
the return route from the western coast of Africa (sequentially called 'volta de Guiné' and 'volta da Mina'); and the
references to the Sargasso Sea (also called at the time 'Mar da Baga'), to the west of the Azores, in 1436, reveals the
western extent of the return route.[7] This is necessary, under sail, to make use of the southeasterly and northeasterly
winds away from the western coast of Africa, up to the northern latitudes where the westerly winds will bring the
seafarers towards the western coasts of Europe.[8]

The secrecy involving the Portuguese navigations, with the death penalty for the leaking of maps and routes,
concentrated all sensitive records in the Royal Archives, completely destroyed by the Lisbon earthquake of 1775.
However, the systematic nature of the Portuguese campaign, mapping the currents and winds of the Atlantic, is
demonstrated by the understanding of the seasonal variations, with expeditions setting sail at different times of the
year taking different routes to take account of seasonal predominate winds. This happens from as early as late 15th
century and early 16th: Bartolomeu Dias followed the African coast on his way south in August 1487, while Vasco da
Gama would take an open sea route from the latitude of Sierra Leone, spending three months in the open sea of the
South Atlantic to profit from the southwards deflection of the southwesterly on the Brazilian side (and the Brazilian
current going southward - Gama departed in July 1497); and Pedro Álvares Cabral (departing March 1500) took an
even larger arch to the west, from the latitude of Cape Verde, thus avoiding the summer monsoon (which would have
blocked the route taken by Gama at the time he set sail).[9] Furthermore, there were systematic expeditions pushing
into the western Northern Atlantic (Teive, 1454; Vogado, 1462; Teles, 1474; Ulmo, 1486).[10]

The documents relating to the supplying of ships, and the ordering of sun declination tables for the southern Atlantic
for as early as 1493–1496,[11] all suggest a well-planned and systematic activity happening during the decade long
period between Bartolomeu Dias finding the southern tip of Africa, and Gama's departure; additionally, there are
indications of further travels by Bartolomeu Dias in the area.[7] The most significant consequence of this systematic
knowledge was the negotiation of the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, moving the line of demarcation 270 leagues to
the west (from 100 to 370 leagues west of the Azores), bringing what is now Brazil into the Portuguese area of
domination. The knowledge gathered from open sea exploration allowed for the well-documented extended periods
of sail without sight of land, not by accident but as pre-determined planned route; for example, 30 days for
Bartolomeu Dias culminating on Mossel Bay, the three months Gama spent in the South Atlantic to use the Brazil
current (southward), or the 29 days Cabral took from Cape Verde up to landing in Monte Pascoal, Brazil.

The Danish expedition to Arabia 1761–67 can be said to be the world's first oceanographic expedition, as the ship
Grønland had on board a group of scientists, including naturalist Peter Forsskål, who was assigned an explicit task by
the king, Frederik V, to study and describe the marine life in the open sea, including finding the cause of mareel, or
milky seas. For this purpose, the expedition was equipped with nets and scrapers, specifically designed to collect
samples from the open waters and the bottom at great depth.[12]

Although Juan Ponce de León in 1513 first identified the Gulf Stream, and the current was well known to mariners,
Benjamin Franklin made the first scientific study of it and gave it its name. Franklin measured water temperatures
during several Atlantic crossings and correctly explained the Gulf Stream's cause. Franklin and Timothy Folger
printed the first map of the Gulf Stream in 1769–1770.[13][14]

Information on the currents of the Pacific Ocean was gathered by explorers of the late 18th century, including James
Cook and Louis Antoine de Bougainville. James Rennell wrote the first scientific textbooks on oceanography,
detailing the current flows of the Atlantic and Indian oceans. During a voyage around the Cape of Good Hope in
1777, he mapped "the banks and currents at the Lagullas". He was also the first to understand the nature of the
intermittent current near the Isles of Scilly, (now known as Rennell's Current).[15] The tides and currents of the ocean
are distinct. Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels created by the combination of the gravitational forces of the Moon
along with the Sun (the Sun just in a much lesser extent) and are also caused by the Earth and Moon orbiting each
 other. An ocean current is a continuous, directed movement of seawater
generated by a number of forces acting upon the water, including wind,
the Coriolis effect, breaking waves, cabbeling, and temperature and
salinity differences.[16]

Sir James Clark Ross took the first modern sounding in deep sea in 1840,
and Charles Darwin published a paper on reefs and the formation of
atolls as a result of the second voyage of HMS Beagle in 1831–1836.
Robert FitzRoy published a four-volume report of Beagle's three
voyages. In 1841–1842 Edward Forbes undertook dredging in the
1799 map of the currents in the Atlantic Aegean Sea that founded marine ecology.
and Indian Oceans, by James Rennell
The first superintendent of the United States Naval Observatory (1842–
1861), Matthew Fontaine Maury devoted his time to the study of marine
meteorology, navigation, and charting prevailing winds and currents. His 1855 textbook Physical Geography of the
Sea was one of the first comprehensive oceanography studies. Many nations sent oceanographic observations to
Maury at the Naval Observatory, where he and his colleagues evaluated the information and distributed the results
worldwide.[17]

Modern oceanography
Knowledge of the oceans remained confined to the topmost few fathoms of the water and a small amount of the
bottom, mainly in shallow areas. Almost nothing was known of the ocean depths. The British Royal Navy's efforts to
chart all of the world's coastlines in the mid-19th century reinforced the vague idea that most of the ocean was very
deep, although little more was known. As exploration ignited both popular and scientific interest in the polar regions
and Africa, so too did the mysteries of the unexplored oceans.

The seminal event in the founding of the modern science of

oceanography was the 1872–1876 Challenger expedition. As the first
true oceanographic cruise, this expedition laid the groundwork for an
entire academic and research discipline.[18] In response to a
recommendation from the Royal Society, the British Government
announced in 1871 an expedition to explore world's oceans and conduct
appropriate scientific investigation. Charles Wyville Thomson and Sir
John Murray launched the Challenger expedition. Challenger, leased
from the Royal Navy, was modified for scientific work and equipped
with separate laboratories for natural history and chemistry.[19] Under the
HMS Challenger undertook the first
scientific supervision of Thomson, Challenger travelled nearly 70,000
global marine research expedition in
nautical miles (130,000 km) surveying and exploring. On her journey
1872.
circumnavigating the globe,[19] 492 deep sea soundings, 133 bottom
dredges, 151 open water trawls and 263 serial water temperature
observations were taken.[20] Around 4,700 new species of marine life were discovered. The result was the Report Of
The Scientific Results of the Exploring Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger during the years 1873–76. Murray, who
supervised the publication, described the report as "the greatest advance in the knowledge of our planet since the
celebrated discoveries of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries". He went on to found the academic discipline of
oceanography at the University of Edinburgh, which remained the centre for oceanographic research well into the
20th century.[21] Murray was the first to study marine trenches and in particular the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, and map the
sedimentary deposits in the oceans. He tried to map out the world's ocean currents based on salinity and temperature
observations, and was the first to correctly understand the nature of coral reef development.

In the late 19th century, other Western nations also sent out scientific expeditions (as did private individuals and
institutions). The first purpose-built oceanographic ship, Albatros, was built in 1882. In 1893, Fridtjof Nansen
allowed his ship, Fram, to be frozen in the Arctic ice. This enabled him to obtain oceanographic, meteorological and
astronomical data at a stationary spot over an extended period.

In 1881 the geographer John

Francon Williams published a
seminal book, Geography of
the Oceans.[22][23][24]
Between 1907 and 1911 Otto
Krümmel published the
Handbuch der
Ozeanographie, which
became influential in
Writer and geographer John Francon awakening public interest in Ocean currents (1911)
oceanography. [25] The four-
Williams FRGS commemorative plaque,
Clackmannan Cemetery 2019 month 1910 North Atlantic
expedition headed by John Murray and Johan Hjort was the most
ambitious research oceanographic and marine zoological project ever
mounted until then, and led to the classic 1912 book The Depths of the Ocean.

The first acoustic measurement of sea depth was made in 1914. Between 1925 and 1927 the "Meteor" expedition
gathered 70,000 ocean depth measurements using an echo sounder, surveying the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.

In 1934, Easter Ellen Cupp, the first woman to have earned a PhD (at Scripps) in the United States, completed a
major work on diatoms[26] that remained the standard taxonomy in the field until well after her death in 1999. In
1940, Cupp was let go from her position at Scripps. Sverdrup specifically commended Cupp as a conscientious and
industrious worker and commented that his decision was no reflection on her ability as a scientist. Sverdrup used the
instructor billet vacated by Cupp to employ Marston Sargent, a biologist studying marine algae, which was not a new
research program at Scripps. Financial pressures did not prevent Sverdrup from retaining the services of two other
young post-doctoral students, Walter Munk and Roger Revelle. Cupp's partner, Dorothy Rosenbury, found her a
position teaching high school, where she remained for the rest of her career. (Russell, 2000)

Sverdrup, Johnson and Fleming published The Oceans in 1942,[27] which was a major landmark. The Sea (in three
volumes, covering physical oceanography, seawater and geology) edited by M.N. Hill was published in 1962, while
Rhodes Fairbridge's Encyclopedia of Oceanography was published in 1966.

The Great Global Rift, running along the Mid Atlantic Ridge, was discovered by Maurice Ewing and Bruce Heezen
in 1953 and mapped by Heezen and Marie Tharp using bathymetric data; in 1954 a mountain range under the Arctic
Ocean was found by the Arctic Institute of the USSR. The theory of seafloor spreading was developed in 1960 by
Harry Hammond Hess. The Ocean Drilling Program started in 1966. Deep-sea vents were discovered in 1977 by Jack
Corliss and Robert Ballard in the submersible DSV Alvin.[28]

In the 1950s, Auguste Piccard invented the bathyscaphe and used the bathyscaphe Trieste to investigate the ocean's
depths. The United States nuclear submarine Nautilus made the first journey under the ice to the North Pole in 1958.
In 1962 the FLIP (Floating Instrument Platform), a 355-foot (108 m) spar buoy, was first deployed.

In 1968, Tanya Atwater led the first all-woman oceanographic expedition. Until that time, gender policies restricted
women oceanographers from participating in voyages to a significant extent.

From the 1970s, there has been much emphasis on the application of large scale computers to oceanography to allow
numerical predictions of ocean conditions and as a part of overall environmental change prediction. Early techniques
included analog computers (such as the Ishiguro Storm Surge Computer) generally now replaced by numerical
methods (e.g. SLOSH.) An oceanographic buoy array was established in the Pacific to allow prediction of El Niño
events.
1990 saw the start of the World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE) which continued until 2002. Geosat seafloor
mapping data became available in 1995.

Study of the oceans is critical to understanding shifts in Earth's energy balance along with related global and regional
changes in climate, the biosphere and biogeochemistry. The atmosphere and ocean are linked because of evaporation
and precipitation as well as thermal flux (and solar insolation). Recent studies have advanced knowledge on ocean
acidification, ocean heat content, ocean currents, sea level rise, the oceanic carbon cycle, the water cycle, Arctic sea
ice decline, coral bleaching, marine heatwaves, extreme weather, coastal erosion and many other phenomena in
regards to ongoing climate change and climate feedbacks.

In general, understanding the world ocean through further scientific study enables better stewardship and sustainable
utilization of Earth's resources.[29] The Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission reports that 1.7% of the total
national research expenditure of its members is focused on ocean science.[30]

Branches
The study of oceanography is divided into these five branches:

Biological oceanography
Biological oceanography investigates the ecology and biology of marine
organisms in the context of the physical, chemical and geological
characteristics of their ocean environment.

Chemical oceanography
Chemical oceanography is the study of the chemistry of the ocean.
Whereas chemical oceanography is primarily occupied with the study
and understanding of seawater properties and its changes, ocean
chemistry focuses primarily on the geochemical cycles. The following is Oceanographic frontal systems on the
Southern Hemisphere
a central topic investigated by chemical oceanography.

Ocean acidification
Ocean acidification describes the decrease in ocean pH that is caused by
anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions into the atmosphere.[31]
Seawater is slightly alkaline and had a preindustrial pH of about 8.2.
More recently, anthropogenic activities have steadily increased the
carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere; about 30–40% of the added
CO2 is absorbed by the oceans, forming carbonic acid and lowering the
pH (now below 8.1[32]) through ocean acidification.[33][34][35] The pH is
expected to reach 7.7 by the year 2100.[36]

An important element for the skeletons of marine animals is calcium, but

calcium carbonate becomes more soluble with pressure, so carbonate
shells and skeletons dissolve below the carbonate compensation
depth.[37] Calcium carbonate becomes more soluble at lower pH, so The Applied Marine Physics Building at
ocean acidification is likely to affect marine organisms with calcareous the University of Miami's Rosenstiel
shells, such as oysters, clams, sea urchins and corals,[38][39] and the School of Marine, Atmospheric, and Earth
carbonate compensation depth will rise closer to the sea surface. Affected Science on Virginia Key, in September
2007
planktonic organisms will include pteropods, coccolithophorids and
foraminifera, all important in the food chain. In tropical regions, corals are likely to be severely affected as they
become less able to build their calcium carbonate skeletons,[40] in turn adversely impacting other reef dwellers.[36]

The current rate of ocean chemistry change seems to be unprecedented in Earth's geological history, making it
unclear how well marine ecosystems will adapt to the shifting conditions of the near future.[41] Of particular concern
is the manner in which the combination of acidification with the expected additional stressors of higher ocean
temperatures and lower oxygen levels will impact the seas.[42]

Geological oceanography
Geological oceanography is the study of the geology of the ocean floor including plate tectonics and
paleoceanography.

Physical oceanography
Physical oceanography studies the ocean's physical attributes including temperature-salinity structure, mixing,
surface waves, internal waves, surface tides, internal tides, and currents. The following are central topics investigated
by physical oceanography.

Seismic Oceanography

Ocean currents
Since the early ocean expeditions in oceanography, a major interest was the study of ocean currents and temperature
measurements. The tides, the Coriolis effect, changes in direction and strength of wind, salinity, and temperature are
the main factors determining ocean currents. The thermohaline circulation (THC) (thermo- referring to temperature
and -haline referring to salt content) connects the ocean basins and is primarily dependent on the density of sea
water. It is becoming more common to refer to this system as the 'meridional overturning circulation' because it more
accurately accounts for other driving factors beyond temperature and salinity.

Examples of sustained currents are the Gulf Stream and the Kuroshio Current which are wind-driven
western boundary currents.

Ocean heat content

Oceanic heat content (OHC) refers to the extra heat stored in the ocean
from changes in Earth's energy balance. The increase in the ocean heat
play an important role in sea level rise, because of thermal expansion.
Ocean warming accounts for 90% of the energy accumulation associated
with global warming since 1971.[43][44] 0:00

Paleoceanography Oceans of Climate Change (https://climat

Paleoceanography is the study of the history of the oceans in the geologic e.nasa.gov/climate_reel/OceansClimate
past with regard to circulation, chemistry, biology, geology and patterns Change640360) NASA

of sedimentation and biological productivity. Paleoceanographic studies

using environment models and different proxies enable the scientific
community to assess the role of the oceanic processes in the global climate by the reconstruction of past climate at
various intervals. Paleoceanographic research is also intimately tied to palaeoclimatology.
Oceanographic institutions
The earliest international organizations of oceanography were founded at
the turn of the 20th century, starting with the International Council for the
Exploration of the Sea created in 1902, followed in 1919 by the
Mediterranean Science Commission. Marine research institutes were
already in existence, starting with the Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn in
Naples, Italy (1872), the Biological Station of Roscoff, France (1876),
the Arago Laboratory in Banyuls-sur-mer, France (1882), the Laboratory
of the Marine Biological Association in Plymouth, UK (1884), the
Norwegian Institute for Marine Research in Bergen, Norway (1900), the
Laboratory für internationale Meeresforschung, Kiel, Germany (1902).
Stazione Zoologica of Naples in the
On the other side of the Atlantic, the Scripps Institution of Oceanography 1890s
was founded in 1903, followed by the Woods Hole Oceanographic
Institution in 1930, the Virginia Institute of Marine Science in 1938, the
Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory at Columbia University in 1949, and later the School of Oceanography at
University of Washington. In Australia, the Australian Institute of Marine Science (AIMS), established in 1972 soon
became a key player in marine tropical research.

In 1921 the International Hydrographic Bureau, called since 1970 the International Hydrographic Organization, was
established to develop hydrographic and nautical charting standards.

Related disciplines
Biogeochemistry – Study of chemical cycles of the earth that are either driven by or influence
biological activity
Biogeography – Study of distribution of species
Climatology – Scientific study of climate, defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time
Coastal geography – Study of the region between the ocean and the land
Environmental science – Study of the environment
Geophysics – Physics of the Earth and its vicinity
Glaciology – Scientific study of ice and natural phenomena involving ice
Hydrography – Measurement of bodies of water
Hydrology – Science of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth
Limnology – Science of inland aquatic ecosystems
Meteorology – Interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere focusing on weather forecasting
MetOcean – The syllabic abbreviation of meteorology and (physical) oceanography.

See also
Oceans portal
Underwater diving
portal

Anoxic event – Historic oxygen depletion events in Earth's oceans

Anoxic waters – Areas of sea water, fresh water, or groundwater that are depleted of dissolved oxygen
Argo (oceanography) – International oceanographic observation program
Astrooceanography – Study of extraterrestrial oceans
Bathymetric chart – Map depicting the submerged terrain of bodies of water
 Cabled observatory – Seabed oceanographic research platforms connected to the surface by
undersea cables
Ecological forecasting – forecasting the responses of ecological systems to changing environment
List of ocean circulation models – Models used in physical oceanography.
List of seas
List of submarine topographical features – Oceanic landforms and topographic elements.
Maritime archaeology – Archaeological study of human interaction with the sea
Marine current power – Extraction of power from ocean currents
Marine engineering – Engineering and design of shipboard systems
Naval architecture – Engineering discipline of marine vessels
Ocean colonization – Type of ocean claim
Oceans Act of 2000 – US law to establish policy on the oceans
Ocean optics
Ocean color
Offshore construction – Installation of structures and facilities in a marine environment
Outline of oceanography – Hierarchical outline list of articles related to oceanography
Planetary oceanography – Study of extraterrestrial oceans
Sea level – Geographical reference point from which various heights are measured
Ocean chemistry

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Sources and further reading

Boling Guo, Daiwen Huang. Infinite-Dimensional Dynamical Systems in Atmospheric and Oceanic
Science (http://www.worldscientific.com/worldscibooks/10.1142/9106), 2014, World Scientific
Publishing, ISBN 978-981-4590-37-2. Sample Chapter (http://www.worldscientific.com/doi/suppl/10.11
42/9106/suppl_file/9106_chap01.pdf)
Hamblin, Jacob Darwin (2005) Oceanographers and the Cold War: Disciples of Marine Science (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=6jrUK226eRgC&dq=Hamblin+%22Oceanographers+and+the+Cold+
 War%22&pg=PP1). University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-98482-7
Lang, Michael A., Ian G. Macintyre, and Klaus Rützler, eds. Proceedings of the Smithsonian Marine
Science Symposium. (http://www.sil.si.edu/smithsoniancontributions/MarineSciences/sc_RecordSingl
e.cfm?filename=SCMS-0038) Smithsonian Contributions to the Marine Sciences, no. 38. Washington,
D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press (2009)
Roorda, Eric Paul, ed. The Ocean Reader: History, Culture, Politics (Duke University Press, 2020) 523
pp. online review (http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=58118)
Steele, J., K. Turekian and S. Thorpe. (2001). Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences. San Diego: Academic
Press. (6 vols.) ISBN 0-12-227430-X
Sverdrup, Keith A., Duxbury, Alyn C., Duxbury, Alison B. (2006). Fundamentals of Oceanography,
McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-282678-9
Russell, Joellen Louise. Easter Ellen Cupp (https://library.ucsd.edu/dc/object/bb3962043d/_3_1.pdf),
2000, Regents of the University of California.

External links
NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory – Physical Oceanography Distributed Active Archive Center
(PO.DAAC) (https://podaac.jpl.nasa.gov/). A data centre responsible for archiving and distributing data
about the physical state of the ocean.
Scripps Institution of Oceanography (http://www.scripps.ucsd.edu). One of the world's oldest, largest,
and most important centres for ocean and Earth science research, education, and public service.
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI) (http://www.whoi.edu). One of the world's largest
private, non-profit ocean research, engineering and education organizations.
British Oceanographic Data Centre (http://www.bodc.ac.uk/). A source of oceanographic data and
information.
NOAA Ocean and Weather Data Navigator (https://web.archive.org/web/20060211015453/http://dappe
r.pmel.noaa.gov/dchart/). Plot and download ocean data.
Freeview Video 'Voyage to the Bottom of the Deep Deep Sea' Oceanography Programme (http://www.
vega.org.uk/video/programme/10) by the Vega Science Trust and the BBC/Open University.
Atlas of Spanish Oceanography (http://atlas.investigadhoc.com/) by InvestigAdHoc (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20130602181200/http://investigadhoc.com/).
Glossary of Physical Oceanography and Related Disciplines (https://web.archive.org/web/2011092702
0036/http://stommel.tamu.edu/~baum/paleo/ocean/) by Steven K. Baum, Department of
Oceanography, Texas A&M University
Barcelona-Ocean.com (http://barcelona-ocean.com/). Inspiring Education in Marine Sciences
CFOO: Sea Atlas (https://web.archive.org/web/20180905125513/http://cfoo.co.za/seaatlas/index.php).
A source of oceanographic live data (buoy monitoring) and education for South African coasts.
Oceanography (https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00547lb) on In Our Time at the BBC
Memorial website for USNS Bowditch, USNS Dutton, USNS Michelson and USNS H. H. Hess (https://
www.tags-ship.com/)

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