CBSE Notes Class 10 Political Science

Chapter 1 - Power Sharing

In Class 9, you have studied that in a democracy all power does not rest with any one organ of the
government. An intelligent sharing of power among the legislature, executive and judiciary is very
important for the design of democracy. In this chapter, the idea of power sharing is explained in detail,
drawing parallels between the stories of Belgium and Sri Lanka. Also, you will learn the different forms
of power sharing.

CBSE Notes Class 10 Political Science Chapter 1 - Power Sharing

Story of Belgium
Belgium is a small country in Europe with a population of over 1crore, about half the population of
Haryana. Of the country’s total population, 59% speaks Dutch language, 40% of people speak French
and the remaining 1% speak German. Look at the map below to know the language variation of
Belgium. The minority French-speaking community was rich and powerful so they got the benefit of
economic development and education. This created tensions between the Dutch-speaking and French-
speaking communities during the 1950s and 1960s.

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Accommodation in Belgium
In Belgium, the government handled the community difference very well. Between 1970 and 1993,
Belgian leaders amended their constitution four times and came up with a new model to run the
government.

Here are some of the elements of the Belgian model.

1. Constitution prescribes that the number of Dutch and French-speaking ministers shall be equal
in the Central Government. Some special laws require the support of the majority of members
from each linguistic group. Thus, no single community can make decisions unilaterally.
2. The state governments are not subordinate to the Central Government.
3. Brussels has a separate government in which both communities have equal representation.
4. Apart from the Central and the State Government, there is a third kind of government. This
‘community government’ is elected by people belonging to one language community – Dutch,
French and German-speaking – no matter where they live. This government has the power
regarding cultural, educational and language-related issues.

The Belgium model was very complicated but it helped to avoid civic strife between the two major
communities.

Story of Sri Lanka

Now, let’s take a situation of another country, Sri Lanka. It is an island nation having a population of 2
crores, about the same as in Haryana. Sri Lanka has a diverse population. The major social groups are
the Sinhala-speakers (74%) and the Tamil-speakers (18%). Among Tamils, there are two subgroups,
“Sri Lankan Tamils” and “Indian Tamils”. You can see the map below to know the population distribution
of different communities of Sri Lanka.

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In Sri Lanka, the Sinhala community enjoyed the bigger majority and imposed its will on the entire
country.

Majoritarianism in Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka emerged as an independent country in 1948. The Sinhala community was in the majority so
they had formed the government. They also followed preferential policies that favoured Sinhala
applicants for university positions and government jobs. These measures taken by the government
gradually increased the feeling of alienation among the Sri Lankan Tamils. Sri Lankan Tamils felt that
constitution and government policies denied them equal political rights, discriminated against them in
getting jobs and other opportunities and ignored their interests. Due to which the relationship between
the Sinhala and Tamil communities become poor. Sri Lankan Tamils launched parties and struggles for
the recognition of Tamil as an official language, for regional autonomy and equality of opportunity in
securing education and jobs. But their demand was repeatedly denied by the government. The distrust
between the two communities turned into widespread conflict and turned into a CIVIL WAR. As a result,
thousands of people of both the communities have been killed. Many families were forced to leave the

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country as refugees and many more lost their livelihoods. The civil war ended in 2009 and caused a
terrible setback to the social, cultural and economic life of the country.

What have you learned from the Stories of Belgium and Sri Lanka?
 Both countries are democracies but they dealt differently with the concept of power sharing.
 In Belgium, the leaders have realised that the unity of the country is possible only by respecting
the feelings and interests of different communities and regions. This resulted in mutually
acceptable arrangements for sharing power.
 Sri Lanka shows that, if a majority community wants to force its dominance over others and
refuses to share power, it can undermine the unity of the country.

Why power sharing is desirable?

You will find the answer to this question in the points below.
1. Power sharing is good because it helps to reduce the possibility of conflict between social
groups.
2. The second reason is that, a democratic rule involves sharing power with those affected by its
exercise, and who have to live with its effects. People have a right to be consulted on how they
are to be governed.

Let us call the first set of reasons Prudential and the second moral. The prudential reasons stress that
power sharing will bring out better outcomes, whereas the moral reasons emphasise the act of power
sharing as valuable.

Form of Power Sharing

Most of you must think that Sharing power = dividing power = weakening the country. The similar thing
was believed in the past. It was assumed that all the power of a government must reside in one person
or group of persons located at one place. Otherwise, it would be very difficult to make quick decisions
and to enforce them. But these notions have changed with the emergence of democracy. In a
democracy, people rule themselves through institutions of self-government. Everyone has a voice in the
shaping of public policies. Therefore, in a democratic country, political power should be distributed
among citizens.

In modern democracies, power sharing can take many forms, as mentioned below:

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1. Power is shared among different organs of government, such as the legislature, executive
and judiciary. This is called horizontal distribution of power because it allows different organs of
government placed at the same level to exercise different powers. Such separation ensures that
none of the organs can exercise unlimited power. Each organ checks the others. This arrangement
is called a system of checks and balances.

2. Power can be shared among governments at different levels - a general government for the
entire country and governments at the provincial or regional level which is called federal government.

3. Power may also be shared among different social groups such as the religious and
linguistic groups. ‘Community government’ in Belgium is a good example of this arrangement. This
method is used to give minority communities a fair share in power.

4. Power sharing arrangements can also be seen in the way political parties, pressure groups
and movements control or influence those in power. When two or more parties form an alliance to
contest elections and if they get elected, they form a coalition government and thus share power.

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 Revision Notes for Class 10 Social Science

Economics Chapter 3 – Money and Credit

Money as a Medium of Exchange

• Money is referred to as a medium of exchange because it serves as an intermediary

in the exchange process.

• A person who has money can readily swap it for whatever commodity or service
he or she desires.

Double Coincidence of Wants: It occurs when both parties agree to sell and buy each
other's commodities at the same time in the trade. Double coincidence of wants is a key
element of the barter system.

Modern Forms of Money

Indians utilised wheat and livestock as currency in the past. Following that came the use
of metallic coinage, such as gold, silver, and copper coins, which lasted well into the
twentieth century. Currency - paper notes and coins – are now modern forms of money.
The current kinds of money - currency and deposits – are inextricably related to the
modern banking system's operation.

Currency: The Reserve Bank of India, on behalf of the Indian government, issues
currency notes. No other person or organisation is permitted to print money. In India, the
rupee is generally recognised as a medium of exchange.

Deposit in Banks: People might also keep their money in the form of bank deposits.
People put their surplus money in the bank by opening a bank account in their own name.
Banks not only accept deposits, but they also pay interest on them. Deposits in bank

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accounts that can be withdrawn on demand are referred to as demand deposits. Cheques
are used instead of cash to make payments.

Cheques: It's a piece of paper that instructs the bank to transfer a specified amount from
a person's account to the person named on the check.

Loan Activities of Banks

• Banks only hold a small amount of their deposits in cash on hand. In India, banks
now maintain approximately 15% of their deposits in cash. This is retained as a
reserve to pay depositors who may come to the bank on any given day to withdraw
money.

• The majority of deposits are used to extend loans by banks. Loans for numerous
economic activities are in high demand. On loans, banks charge a greater interest
rate than they do on deposits.

• Banks' major source of income is the difference between what they charge
borrowers and what they pay depositors.

Two Different Credit Situations

A credit (loan) arrangement is one in which the lender provides money, products, or
services to the borrower in exchange for the promise of future payment.

There are two types of credit situations: one is where you have a lot of money and the
other is where

i. In the first scenario, a person borrows money for production purposes with the promise
of repaying the loan at the end of the year when the work is accomplished. And by the end
of the year, he or she has made a big profit from manufacturing operations and is able to
repay the loan. As a result, the person is in a better position than previously.

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ii. In the second scenario, a person borrows money for production purposes with the
promise of repaying the loan at the end of the year, when the production job is
accomplished. And by the end of the year, he or she has fallen into a financial trap. As a
result, that person is in a worse situation than before.

Terms of Credit

Every loan agreement stipulates an interest rate that must be paid to the lender in addition
to the principal repayment. Lenders also want collateral (security) in exchange for loans.

1. Collateral is an asset that a borrower holds, such as land, a building, a vehicle, livestock,
or bank savings, that the borrower uses as a guarantee to a lender until the loan is returned.
If the borrower fails to repay the loan, the lender has the authority to sell the asset or
collateral to recover payment.

2. The terms of credit include the interest rate, collateral and documentation requirements,
as well as the form of repayment. It varies depending on the lender's and borrower's
personalities.

Formal Sector Credit in India

Credit that is both cheap and accessible is critical for the country's prosperity. The
numerous forms of loans can be divided into the following categories:

1. Formal Sector Loans: Loans from the formal sector include those from banks and
cooperatives. The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) is in charge of overseeing the operation of
formal loan sources. Banks must report to the RBI how much they are lending, to whom,
and at what interest rate, among other things.

2. Informal Sector Loans: Loans from the informal sector include those from
moneylenders, traders, employers, family, and friends, among others. There is no
regulatory body that oversees the lending activities of informal lenders. There is no one to
stop them from obtaining their money by unethical means.

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Formal and Informal Credit

Formal Credit: The RBI oversees the operation of formal sources of loans, which
includes banks and cooperatives. To ensure that the bank maintains a minimum cash
balance and that loans are given not just to profit-making businesses and dealers, but also
to small growers, small scale industries, small borrowers, and so on. Banks are required
to report their actions to the RBI on a regular basis.

Informal Credit: Money lenders, traders, employers, relatives, and friends are just a few
examples. There is no one in charge of monitoring their credit operations. They can charge
any interest rate they want. There is no one to stop them from obtaining their money by
unethical means.

Self Help Groups for the Poor

Poor households continue to rely on informal sources of financing for the following
reasons:

• In rural India, banks are not widely available.

• Even if banks are present, obtaining a bank loan is substantially more difficult
because adequate documentation and collateral are required.

Self-Help Groups were formed to address these issues (SHGs). SHGs are small groups of
poor people who encourage their members to save small amounts of money. A typical
SHG includes 15-20 members who meet and save on a regular basis, usually from the
same neighbourhood.

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Advantages of Self Help Group (SHG):

• It assists borrowers in overcoming the lack of collateral issues.

• SHGs are the foundations of the rural poor's organisation.

• People can receive loans on schedule and at a fair interest rate for a number of
objectives.

• It assists women in becoming financially self-sufficient.

• The group's frequent meetings give a forum for discussing and taking action on a
variety of social concerns such as health, nutrition, domestic violence, and so on.

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 Revision Notes for Class 10 Social Science

Economics Chapter 4 – Globalisation and the Indian Economy

Production Across Countries

The main mode of communication between distant countries was trade. Large corporations,
now known as Multinational Corporations (MNCs), play a significant role in trade.

• A multinational corporation (MNC) is one that owns or controls production in more

than one country.

• MNCs locate production headquarters and factories in areas where labour and other
resources are cheap. This is done to keep production costs down and allow MNCs to
make more money.

• MNCs locate production near markets, where skilled and unskilled labour is readily
available at low rates, and where the availability of other production elements is
ensured.

• Furthermore, MNCs may seek government measures that protect their interests.

Interlinking Production Across Countries

• Investment refers to money spent on assets such as land, buildings, machineries, and
other equipment.

• MNC investment is referred to as foreign investment. Any investment is made in the

hopes of profiting from the assets.

MNCs are spreading their production and interacting with local producers in numerous nations
throughout the world in a variety of methods, as listed below:

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 • Joint Production: MNCs partner with an existing local company in joint production or
partnership. The investment enables local producers to obtain new and improved assets
as well as cutting-edge technologies.

• Acquisition of Local Companies: MNCs purchase large established local enterprises

with vast networks in order to grow their production.

• Controlled Production: MNCs source materials and make orders with local companies
who create goods, resulting in controlled production. The MNC's brand name is used
to market the products.

MNCs collaborate with local businesses to set up production, which benefits local businesses
in the following ways:

1. MNCs can give funds for extra investments, such as the purchase of new machines to
increase production speed.

2. Multinational corporations may bring cutting-edge manufacturing technology with them.

Foreign Trade and Integration of Markets

• Foreign trade allows producers to expand their reach beyond their home markets, i.e.
markets within their own countries.

• Producers have the option of selling their products not only in domestic markets, but
also in marketplaces around the world.

• Similarly, importing items manufactured in another country is one way for purchasers
to increase their options beyond what is offered domestically.

Thus, foreign trade leads to the connection or integration of markets in other countries.

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Globalisation

The term “globalisation” refers to the process of integrating a country's economy with the
global economy. It's a multifaceted problem. It is the culmination of a number of initiatives
aimed at converting the world into one of greater interconnectedness and integration.

It entails the establishment of networks and endeavours aimed at breaking down social,
economic, and geographic barriers. Globalisation aims to create connections such that events
in India can be influenced by events taking place thousands of miles away. To put it another
way, globalisation is the process of people, corporations, and governments all over the world
interacting and uniting.

Globalisation has Been Enabled by the Following Factors:

1. Technology:

• One of the primary factors that has accelerated the globalisation process is rapid
technological advancement. This has allowed for considerably speedier and more cost-
effective distribution of commodities over great distances.

• Information is now readily accessible because of advancements in information and

communication technologies.

• These advancements enabled India's IT revolution by allowing workers to be located in

different regions while yet being integrated into a virtual workspace.

• Automation and precise control of production, as well as homogeneity, have been made
possible thanks to advanced computing facilities.

2. Trade Liberalisation:

• Government-imposed trade restrictions are known as trade barriers. The government

can employ trade barriers to control or enhance international trade, as well as decide

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 what sorts of goods and how much of each should be imported. Import taxes are an
example of a trade barrier.

• Liberalisation is the process of removing government-imposed trade obstacles or

limitations. The government is said to be more liberal when it imposes fewer
restrictions than before.

• In a developing economy, trade restrictions can help to boost growth and productivity.
It can, however, be harmful after a certain level of development.

• India liberalised its trade in 1991, allowing companies to freely import and export
materials and goods. This was backed up by organisations like the World Bank.

3. Foreign Investment Policy:

• A company's considerable investments in a foreign enterprise are known as foreign

direct investments (FDI).

• The investment could be used to acquire a material source, expand a company's

territory, or establish an international presence.

World Trade Organization (WTO)

• The World Trade Organization (WTO) arose from the 1947 General Agreement on
Tariffs and Trade (GATT).

• The World Trade Organization (WTO) is a global organisation with 164 member
countries that regulates international trade rules.

• The World Trade Organization's purpose is to keep trade flowing as smoothly and
predictably as feasible.

• If a trade dispute arises, the World Trade Organization (WTO) tries to resolve it.

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Impact of Globalisation in India

To begin with, MNCs have expanded their investments in India during the last 20 years,
indicating that investing in India has shown to be profitable.

• MNCs have shown an interest in urban industries such as cell phones, autos, electronics,
soft drinks, fast food, and banking.

• There are a lot of wealthy people who buy these things. New employment has been
created in these industries and services. Local businesses that supply these sectors with
raw materials and other necessities have also prospered.

Second, increased competition has benefited a number of prominent Indian firms.

• They have increased their production standards by investing in modern technologies

and production methods.

• Successful relationships with international enterprises have benefited some.

The Struggle for a Fair Globalisation

Fair globalisation provides possibilities for everyone while also ensuring that the advantages
of globalisation are distributed more evenly. The government has a significant role to play in
making this happen.

Some of the steps that the government can take are:

1. It has the potential to help small producers boost their output.

2. It can ensure that labour rules are followed and that workers' rights are protected.

3. The government can deploy trade and investment obstacles if required.

4. It can negotiate for "fairer rules" in the WTO.

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5. It can also band together with other developing countries with similar interests to combat
the WTO's hegemony of developed countries.

Highlights of Globalisation and the Indian Economy Class 10 Notes

• Important research-based information about globalisation.

• Foreign trade and investments by Multinational Companies (MNC).

• Role of MNCs in the process of globalisation.

• The impact of globalisation.

• Contribution of globalisation in the development process.

• Integration of production and integration of markets.

These above points have been highlighted in Class 10 Economics Chapter 4 notes. You can
get a significant amount of help by consulting the Globalisation and the Indian Economy Class
10 notes by Vedantu.

Factors that Caused a Transformation in the Market - Globalisation Class 10

• Interlinking Production Across Countries - Investment refers to any form of money

that invested or spent in buying equipment, machines or land. Foreign investment refers
to the investment made by multinational companies. Through partnerships and the use
of local companies for supplies, the MNCs interacts with the local producers and
spreads their products across the globe. Even local companies benefit from them
through additional investments and the introduction of the latest technology for
catalysing the production.

• Production Across Countries - This would not have been possible without the
inclusion of MNCs in trade. Trade plays a fundamental role in maintaining the
connection between the countries. These multinational companies control production

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 in more than one country by setting up factories and offices with cheap labours and the
aim of greater profits.

• Foreign Trade and Integration of Markets - To reach beyond the domestic market, a
country needs to explore opportunities in foreign trade. With the introduction of foreign
trade, the chances of magnifying the scale of business become much higher as the
business no more competes on a domestic but international level. This also leads to the
development of the living standard in a country as the buyers get to choose from a range
of products and services in accordance to their need and budget. Thus, all of these
initiatives contribute greatly towards the integration of the market and connecting it.

Approaches to Consider for a Fair Globalisation

Fair globalisation is expected to increase the chances of development in any country. There
are certain approaches that the government can implement to support fair globalisation. Some
of the approaches are as follows:

• The government can formulate strategies for small producers to support them and also
encourage them to improve their performance.

• Labour laws are important. Hence, the government must ensure that the labour laws are
being appropriately implemented and the labours are getting their rights.

• WHO can also play a significant role in fair globalisation and therefore the government
needs to negotiate with them.

• Lastly, the government needs to come forward and take the necessary steps towards the
domination of developed countries to reach the objective of fair globalisation.

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 Revision Notes for Class 10 Social Science

Economics Chapter 2 – Sectors of the Indian Economy

Economic Activity Sectors

Introduction

Sectors are groups of people who engage in diverse activities including the production of
commodities or services. Economic activities are those that result in revenue and profit. A
farmer, for example, harvests crops in order to sell and profit; an industry, on the other hand,
produces things or services for people in order to profit.

Different Sectors of the Indian Economy

1. Primary Sector: The primary sector is when we make a product by extracting and
collecting natural resources. Farming, forestry, hunting, fishing, and mining are just a few
examples.

2. Secondary Sector: It includes operations that include the transformation of natural goods
into new forms through various manufacturing processes. After primary school, it's time to go
on to secondary school. In this case, some production steps are required. The industrial sector
is another name for it. For example, we spin yarn and make cloth from the plant's cotton fiber.
Sugar or Gur is produced using sugarcane as a basic ingredient.

3. Tertiary Sector: Activities that aid in the growth of the elementary and secondary sectors
are included in the tertiary sector. These actions do not generate a good in and of itself, but
they help or support the production process. It's also known as the service sector. Teachers,
doctors, washermen, barbers, cobblers, lawyers, call centres, software businesses, and so on
are some examples.

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Difference Between the Three Sectors of the Economy

All three sectors, primary, secondary, and tertiary, are interdependent and interconnected in
the day-to-day performance of diverse economic activities. It's nearly hard to keep track of all
the activities that go into producing the final goods or services.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP): The sum of the output that is once done through primary,
secondary, and tertiary activities is known as the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The value
of all of these final goods from all three sectors would be counted into the gross domestic
product, and when we talk about the net domestic product, we eliminate any depreciation from
that gross number to get the net product.

The below graph shows how the GDP varies from each sector

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Historical Changes in Sectors:

1. The primary sector was the most important sector of economic activity in a country
throughout its early phases of development.

2. The agriculture sector began to generate significantly more food than before as a result of
technological advancements in farming processes.

3. People began working in factories. Some persons are also involved in the transportation
industry.

4. The secondary sector gradually became the most important in terms of the economy and
employment.

5. A great variety of industries relating to food processing, equipment manufacturing, and

textiles are present.

6. This resulted in the establishment of services such as banking, health care, and education.

7. In terms of total production, the service industry has overtaken manufacturing as the most
significant sector, and it has begun to employ more people.

Where are Most of the People Employed?

The tertiary sector overtook the primary sector as India's largest producing sector in 2013-14.
The tertiary sector in India has been increasingly important for the following reasons:

1. Hospitals, educational institutions, post and telegraph services, police stations, courts,
village administrative offices, municipal corporations, defense, transportation, banks,
insurance businesses, and other services are considered vital for everyone.

2. Agriculture and industry expansion lead to the expansion of services such as transportation,
commerce, and storage.

3. As people's incomes rise, they expect more luxuries like dining out, tourism, shopping,
private hospitals, private schools, professional training, and so on.

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4. During the recent decade, several new information and communication technology-based
services have become increasingly important and indispensable.

Disguised Unemployment: Unemployment is the only aspect of the economy that has no
bearing on overall output. When productivity is low and there are too many people for too few
jobs, this happens. It can apply to any group of people that aren't working to their full potential.

How to Create More Employment?

People can find work by locating industries and services in semi-rural areas and identifying,
advertising, and locating them. Every state or region has the potential to boost its residents'
income and job opportunities. Tourism, regional craft industries, and emerging services like
IT can all help. According to NITI Aayog, research undertaken by the Planning Commission,
approximately 20 lakh employments can be produced in the education sector alone.

In 2005, the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) was
enacted by the central government of India to implement the Right to Work in about 625
districts across the country.

Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREG):

• It is primarily used by persons who live in rural areas who are able and willing to work.
Every year, the MGNREGA gives at least 100 days of work to rural households that
voluntarily volunteer to conduct unskilled work.

• The MGNREGA scheme is open to any Indian citizen over the age of 18 who lives in
a rural area.

• Another goal of the MGNREGA act is to give rural communities long-term assets such
as roads, wells, and ponds.

• If the government fails to produce jobs, the people will be forced to rely on
unemployment benefits.

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 • It is implemented without the use of contractors or agents in gram panchayats.

• This law aids in the preservation of the village environment, the empowerment of rural
women, the promotion of social equality, the reduction of migration to urban regions,
and the provision of essential services, among other things.

Different Sectors in Terms of Operations

Organised Sector Unorganised Sector

Provides fixed and secure employment, Government has little influence over this
with work based on motivation and sector.
qualifications.

Adheres to government norms and Workers do not have the same level of job
regulations. security as those in the organised sector.

Employees have job security. Overtime work is not compensated.

Employment terms are fixed, regular, and Consists of small, scattered units largely
employees receive assured work. outside government control.

Registered with the government and must Rules and regulations exist but are often not
adhere to laws, rules, and regulations (e.g., followed due to lack of registration.
Factories Act, Minimum Wages Act).

Fixed working hours with overtime pay Jobs are low-paid, irregular, and lack fixed
provided by the employer. working hours.

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 Provision for paid leave, holidays, No provision for overtime, paid leave,
provident fund, gratuity, etc. holidays, or sick leave.

Employees receive medical benefits, and No such facilities or benefits are provided.
facilities like drinking water and a safe
working environment are ensured. Retirees
receive pensions.

Examples: Government employees, private Examples: Street vendors, farming, domestic

corporate jobs, school teachers, etc. work, labourers, etc.

How to Protect Workers in Unorganised Sector?

There is a need for workers in the unorganised sector to be protected and supported. Here are
a few pointers to get you started.

• The government has the authority to set the minimum pay and working hours.

• Self-employed workers can get low-cost loans from the government.

• The government can supply these workers with low-cost, accessible fundamental
amenities such as education, health care, and food.

• The government can enact new legislation that allows for overtime, paid leave, and sick
leave, among other things.

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Different Sectors in Terms of Ownership

Public Sector Private Sector

The government controls most assets and is Asset ownership and service delivery are in the
responsible for all services in the public hands of private individuals or corporations.
sector.

The public sector's goal isn't only to make Profit is the primary motivator for private-
money; its main goal is to benefit the sector activity.
general population.

The public sector includes entities like Tata Iron and Steel Company Limited (TISCO)
railways and post offices. and Reliance Industries Limited (RIL) are
examples of private companies.

Counting Goods and Services

The health and number of the goods and services sectors in a country reflect its economic
condition - whether it is good or bad. But a country produces so many goods and services.
Counting all of them will result in chaos. So Economics Class 10 Ch 2 Notes suggest that we
should not count the number of goods and services. Rather we should count the value of these
goods and services. We should also remember that while counting the value of the goods and
service we must count the final product - The product that reaches the end consumers.

So now, if we count the values of all the final products in a sector we will get the value of the
total production of that sector. The notes of Economics Class 10 Chapter 2 informs that if we
add the total production of all the three sectors we get the GDP of the country.

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The Growth of the Service Sector in India

When India gained independence, the economy was mostly based on agriculture. Later we
started bringing out more minerals and metals from our resources. Now as these basic sectors
got developed, the demand to sustain these sectors increased. And how do you sustain these
Primary sectors? By building a service or Tertiary sector around these sectors - like transport,
storage etc.

Again as the standard of living of the Indians improved, their demands and aspirations got
higher. This resulted in the advent of more service sectors - like restaurants, cinema halls etc.
This is specifically true in urban areas.

Furthermore, in the past 20 years or so, the IT sector in India has flourished a lot. Many
overseas companies find it cost-effective to outsource their IT related work to India. Indians
are hardworking and they know English well. So they, unlike the Chinese, can easily mingle
with the foreign companies and work well with them.

Imbalance Among the Sectors

It is true that the IT sector and other such advanced sectors hire educated people and give them
handsome salaries. There are, however, many people who are not fortunate enough to work in
these sectors primarily because of the lack of education and secondarily because there are not
enough jobs in the service sectors.

Even in this 21st century, most Indians are still connected with the primary sector - especially
the agricultural sector. Our class 10 Economics Chapter 2 Notes explain these imbalances in
detail.

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Government Responsibilities

The government is responsible for many key activities, including:

1. Funding Services: The government raises money through taxes and other means to cover
the costs of its services.

2. Infrastructure Development: It undertakes major spending on building roads, bridges,

railways, harbours, generating electricity, and providing irrigation through dams. It ensures
these facilities are accessible to everyone.

3. Supporting the Private Sector: The government supports certain activities to encourage
private sector production and business.

4. Subsidising Essentials: In India, the government buys wheat and rice from farmers at fair
prices and sells them at lower rates through ration shops to support both farmers and
consumers.

5. Providing Essential Services: The government is responsible for running schools, offering
quality education, and providing health services for all.

6. Human Development: It also focuses on human development aspects such as safe drinking
water, housing for the poor, food and nutrition, and addressing the needs of the most neglected
regions.

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 Revision Notes for Class 10 Social Science

Economics Chapter 1 – Development

What Development Means - Different Goals for Different People

Development goals can vary widely among individuals. What one person views as progress
may not be seen the same way by another and could even be detrimental to someone else.

1. Introduction

• Developmental goals of any particular idea vary from person to person.

• Apart from personal development, we should definitely think of a country's

development.

• Development is defined as the people’s economic growth, along with the growth of
their basic needs like education, health, lifestyle, etc.

• The main aim of development is to update as per the demand of time.

• For example: to generate electricity, a dam is constructed over a river where nearby
mass is considered for construction resulting in the development of society and country.

• It causes destruction for farmers and the lives of people living nearby.

2. Income and other goals

• Money is considered to be the basic need of people and to fulfil their daily requirements
making money or income is very important.

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 • Money is required to buy materialistic things as well as freedom, security, treatment,
respect to maintain a quality lifestyle.

• Hence, developmental goals are necessary to get a better income and other things in
life.

3. National Development

• It is defined as a country’s ability to enhance the living standards of its residents.

• For people, belief in nations' development is different.

• Improvement in people’s living standards, providing basic things to citizens like food,
education, social service, medical aid, etc, and increase in per capita income, is referred
to as National development.

4. How can you differentiate different countries or states?

• Income is a key feature to compare countries.

• Countries that have higher income are called developed countries and vice versa.

• The income of a country is about the income of the citizens of that country.

• National income: it is the sum of the total value of the country’s goods and services
produced in a year. As every country has a different population rate, so National income
cannot be considered to compare between different countries.

• Per capita income: it is also called average income, defined as a country's total earnings
divided by the whole population. It shows the living standard of the citizens of the
country.

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 • The average income of the country is the ratio of the overall income of the country to
the overall population of the country.

Average Income is calculated by dividing a country’s total income by its total population. It’s
also known as per capita income.

Average Income = Country’s total income/total population

World Development Reports use per capita income to classify countries.

In 2017, countries with a per capita income of US$ 12,056 or more were classified as rich
countries. Conversely, countries with a per capita income of US$ 955 or less were considered
low-income countries, such as India.

5. Income and other criteria

• To achieve a goal, people earn more and want respect from others, the security of their
lives, and freedom.

• If we consider per capita in the country’s development, then Goa is the most developed
and Bihar is the least developed state in India.

• Net attendance ratio: defined as the total number of children, the age group from 14
years attending the school from the total percentage of children in the same age group.

• Literacy rate: it is the total number of people above 7 years who can write, read and
understand. If the literacy rate is high, then the state is considered to be developed.
Kerala has the highest literacy rate of 96.2% and Andhra Pradesh has the lowest literacy
rate of 66.4%.

• Infant mortality rate: it is the total number of children that die in one year of age as a
proportion of 1000 births in a year. It shows how efficient health facilities are in any
country. Kerala has the lowest infant mortality rate, that is deaths per 1000 live births
and Madhya Pradesh has the highest mortality rate that is 48 per 1000 live births in
India.

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6. Human Development Index

• The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) prepares this index, in which
an annual report of human development is published every year.

• The major parameters include per capita income, literacy rate, and durability of a
person’s life, which measure the countries’ development.

• Countries are marked as very high, high, medium, and low developed countries
respectively.

• Apart from infant mortality rate, literacy rate, net attendance ratio; the BMI index also
plays an important role.

7. Body mass index (BMI) is measured to measure the adults who are undernourished by
calculating the weight of the person (kg) divided by the square of the height. If the value is
less than 18.5, the person is undernourished and if it is more than 25, then the person is highly
obese.

8. Public Facilities

• Public facilities play a major role in the development of the country.

• These are the facilities provided by the government like schools, transportation,
electricity, hospitals, residences, community halls, etc.

• These facilities are important as we cannot purchase every major facility.

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9. Sustainable Development

• It is the development that meets all needs of today’s generation.

• It is the development of a nation without affecting the environment.

• To achieve sustainable development, we should use non-renewable resources such as

carbon-based fuel wisely.

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 Revision Notes for Class 10 Social Science

Geography Chapter 2 - Forest and Wildlife Resources

Biodiversity is extremely diverse on Earth and works interdependently. It is a system of

closely-knit networks that sustains the ecosystem.

India has the world’s largest biodiversity thriving on its land and 10 per cent of the recorded
wild flora and 20 per cent of its mammals are on the threatened list.

According to the list generated by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and
Natural Resources (IUCN), the species can be classified as follows–

1. Normal species: They have population levels normal for survival. Examples: pine,
rodents, etc.

2. Endangered Species: They are in danger of extinction and will eventually decline if the
present conditions continue.

Example: crocodile, rhino, lion tale macaque etc.

3. Vulnerable species: These species are vulnerable to fall into the endangered category in
the near future.

Example: Asiatic elephant, dolphin, blue sheep etc.

4. Rare species: They have a small population that can move to an endangered or vulnerable
category in the near future if the present conditions for their survival sustain themselves.

Example: Asiatic buffalo, hornbill etc.

5. Endemic species: These species are only found in a limited geographical area.

Example: Andaman teal, Nicobar pigeon, Andaman wild pig, Mithun in Arunachal Pradesh.

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6. Extinct species: These species are not found in the areas they were likely to be found.

Example: Asiatic cheetah, pink head duck.

Causes of environmental degradation

• Between 1951 and 1980, according to the Forest Survey of India, over 26,200 sq. km.
of forest area was converted into agricultural land all over India and substantial parts
of the tribal belts, especially in northeastern and central India were deforested to
practice shifting cultivation (jhum), a type of ‘slash and burn’ agriculture.

• Around 5,000 sq km of forest lands have been cleared to progress river valley
projects, since 1951. For example: About 40,000 hectares of forests were cleared for
the Narmada Sagar Project in Madhya Pradesh.

• Mining also causes large-scale deforestation.

• The Buxa Tiger Reserve in West Bengal is threatened by the ongoing dolomite
mining.

• There are various factors like poaching, over-exploitation, pollution, hunting, forest
fire etc. that contribute to declining in the vast biodiversity India harbours.

• Overpopulation in third-world countries is a prime cause of environmental

degradation.

Conservation of Forest and Wildlife in India

• Conservation is vital since it will help us to protect our environment and protect our
ecosystem which in turn helps to preserve the genetic diversity that the ecosystem
has.

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 • The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act was implemented in 1972, which made various
provisions for protecting habitats.

• The central government also announced several projects for protecting specific
animals, which were gravely threatened, including the tiger, the one-horned
rhinoceros, the Kashmir stag or hangul, three types of crocodiles – freshwater
crocodile, saltwater crocodiles and the Gharial are some of animals.

• The government has also provided partial or full legal protection to animals such as
Indian elephants, black buck, snow leopards etc. to protect them from extinction.

Project Tiger

• The tiger population in 1973 declined to 1,827 from the estimated 55,000 and hence
forced the authorities to take serious action towards the same.

• Tigers face major threats and are on the verge of extinction because of the shrinkage
of their habitat due to the growing human population, poaching, depletion of prey
base species etc.

• The trade of tiger skins and the use of their bones in traditional medicines, especially
in Asian countries has left the tiger population on the verge of extinction.

• “Project Tiger”was launched in 1973 and was not only an effort to save tigers but also
to preserve the biotypes.

• Corbett National Park in Uttarakhand, Sunderbans National Park in West Bengal,

Bandhavgarh National Park in Madhya Pradesh, Sariska Wildlife Sanctuary in
Rajasthan, Manas Tiger Reserve in Assam and Periyar Tiger Reserve in Kerala are
some of the tiger reserves of India.

• Wildlife Act of 1980 and 1986 added several hundred butterflies, moths, beetles, and
one dragonfly to the list of protected species.

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Types and Distribution of Forest and Wildlife Resources

The forests are classified as follows:

(i) Reserved Forests: These are the most vital for the conservation of forest and wildlife and
about half of the total forest land has been placed under this category.

(ii) Protected Forests: The Forest Department had declared one-third of the total forest area
as protected forest which saves it from further depletion.

(iii) Unclassed Forests: Both private individuals, government and communities own these
lands. They mostly include forests and wasteland.

Community and Conservation

• In Sariska Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan, villagers have fought against mining by citing
the Wildlife Protection Act.

• In five villages located in the Alwar district of Rajasthan, the inhabitants have
declared 1200 hectares of forest as the Bhairodev Dakav ‘Sonchuri’. They don’t allow
hunting in these regions and hence protect the wildlife from an outside harm.

• Sacred groves do not have religious sentiments attached but also saves a wealth of
rare species. These beliefs have preserved several virgin forests in pristine form called
Sacred Groves (the forests of God and Goddesses).

• Mahua is worshipped by the the Mundas and the Santhal of Chota Nagpur region
while tamarind and mango are worshipped by the tribes of Odisha and Bihar during
weddings. In Indian Hindu society, peepal trees is considered sacred.

• Blackbuck, peacocks and nilgai are seen as an integral part of the Bishnoi villages in
Rajasthan and aren’t harmed or killed.

• The Chipko moment has successful helped in saving the flora but has also brought
people together to save the environment.

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 • Beej Bachao Andolan in Tehri and Navdanya has promoted people to stop using
synthetic chemicals as sufficient crop harvest can be produced even without the use of
chemical fertilizers.

• Joint forest management (JFM) programme involves local people and communities to
restore forests. It was first started in Odisha in 1988.

Importance of Forests

• Ecological Balance:

o Forests are crucial for maintaining ecological balance. They provide habitat for
a diverse range of plant and animal species, regulate the climate by absorbing
carbon dioxide, and prevent soil erosion through root systems that stabilise the
soil.

• Economic Benefits:

o Forests offer numerous economic benefits including the provision of timber,

fuelwood, and non-timber products such as fruits, nuts, and medicinal plants.
They also support industries like paper, furniture, and pharmaceuticals,
contributing significantly to the economy.

• Environmental Services:

o Forests contribute to carbon sequestration, which helps mitigate the effects of

climate change by absorbing greenhouse gases. They also maintain the water
cycle, enhance groundwater recharge, and improve air quality by filtering
pollutants.

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Types of Forests in India

• Tropical Rainforests:

o Location: Western Ghats, northeastern India, and parts of Andaman and

Nicobar Islands.

o Characteristics: Dense vegetation, high biodiversity, evergreen trees that do

not shed leaves seasonally. Examples include mahogany, ebony, and a variety
of ferns and orchids.

• Temperate Forests:

o Location: Himalayan region and northern India.

o Characteristics: Experience seasonal variations with cold winters and warm

summers. Include a mix of deciduous trees (e.g., oak, maple) and coniferous
trees (e.g., pine, fir).

• Deciduous Forests:

o Location: Central and southern India.

o Characteristics: Trees shed leaves during the dry season to conserve water.
Common species include teak, sal, and bamboo. These forests support wildlife
such as the Indian bison and sambar deer.

• Montane Forests:

o Location: Higher altitudes of the Himalayas.

o Characteristics: Flora adapted to cooler temperatures and high rainfall.

Includes alpine vegetation and coniferous trees like spruce. Fauna includes the
snow leopard and Himalayan blue sheep.

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Flora and Fauna

• Flora:

o Tropical Rainforests: Diverse species including mahogany, ebony, and a wide

range of tropical plants and trees with high biodiversity.

o Temperate Forests: Deciduous trees like oak and maple, and coniferous trees
such as pine and fir. Seasonal changes influence the types of flora.

o Deciduous Forests: Includes trees like teak and sal, which shed leaves in the
dry season, and various species of bamboo.

o Montane Forests: Alpine plants, coniferous trees, and shrubs adapted to high
altitudes.

• Fauna:

o Tropical Rainforests: Bengal tigers, Indian elephants, and various bird species
such as the great hornbill.

o Temperate Forests: Himalayan tahr, red foxes, and pheasants.

o Deciduous Forests: Indian bison, sambar deer, and various reptiles and birds.

o Montane Forests: Snow leopards, Himalayan blue sheep, and mountain birds
adapted to cold environments.

Wildlife Resources

• Significance of Wildlife:

o Wildlife is crucial for maintaining ecological balance. Animals contribute to

the pollination of plants, the dispersal of seeds, and control of pest populations.
They play a role in the health of ecosystems and contribute to biodiversity.

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 • Major Wildlife Species:

o India is known for its diverse wildlife including Bengal tigers, Asiatic lions,
and Indian rhinoceroses. The country also hosts numerous bird species such as
the Indian peafowl and the lesser adjutant stork. Protected areas like national
parks and wildlife sanctuaries are essential for conserving these species.

Conservation Efforts

• Protected Areas:

o India has established numerous national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and

biosphere reserves to protect its forest and wildlife resources. Examples
include Jim Corbett National Park, known for its tiger population, and
Kaziranga National Park, famous for its one-horned rhinoceroses.

• Afforestation and Reforestation:

o Efforts to plant trees and restore deforested areas are crucial for increasing
forest cover and improving ecological health. These initiatives help to
replenish degraded forests and support biodiversity.

• Wildlife Protection Laws:

o The Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 provides legal protection to wildlife and
regulates hunting and trade in endangered species. This act is a key tool in
conserving wildlife and their habitats.

• Community Involvement:

o Local communities are actively involved in conservation efforts through

practices like community forestry, which manages and protects forest
resources. Eco-development programs also support sustainable use of
resources and involve local stakeholders in conservation activities.

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Challenges in Forest and Wildlife Conservation

• Deforestation:

o The clearing of forests for agriculture, logging, and urban expansion leads to
habitat loss, decreased biodiversity, and increased greenhouse gas emissions.
Addressing deforestation requires sustainable land management and forest
conservation practices.

• Wildlife Poaching:

o Illegal hunting and trade of wildlife pose a significant threat to endangered

species. Poaching disrupts ecosystems and can lead to the extinction of
vulnerable species.

• Habitat Degradation:

o Pollution, climate change, and human activities contribute to habitat

degradation. This affects forest health and wildlife survival by reducing the
quality and availability of habitats.

• Human-Wildlife Conflicts:

o Conflicts occur when wildlife encroaches on human settlements, resulting in

damage to crops, property, and livestock. Effective management strategies are
needed to mitigate these conflicts and promote coexistence.

Measures for Effective Management

• Sustainable Practices:

o Adopting sustainable forestry practices, such as selective logging and

agroforestry, helps to reduce environmental impact and maintain forest health.
Promoting eco-friendly products and responsible resource use supports
conservation efforts.

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• Education and Awareness:

o Raising awareness about the importance of forests and wildlife encourages

public support for conservation initiatives. Educational programs and
campaigns can help foster a conservation-minded society.

• Research and Monitoring:

o Ongoing research and monitoring of forest ecosystems and wildlife

populations are essential for understanding their needs and implementing
effective management strategies. Data collected from research helps in making
informed decisions for conservation.

• Policy and Legislation:

o Strengthening policies and enforcement of conservation laws ensures the

protection of forests and wildlife. Collaboration between government agencies,
non-governmental organizations, and local communities is vital for successful
conservation.

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 CBSE Notes Class 10 Social Science Geography
Chapter 1 - Resources and Development
Chapter 1 of Class 10 Geography introduces you to resources and its classification. Furthermore, going
into the depth of the chapter, you will learn the development of resources and resource planning in
India. You will know about land resources and the classification of different types of soils found in India.
In the end, the chapter discusses Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation. All these topics are discussed in
detail in “CBSE Notes Class 10 Geography Chapter 1 - Resources and Development“. Go through
these CBSE notes and make your studies more effective.

Resources
Everything in our environment which can be used to satisfy our needs and is technologically accessible,
economically feasible and culturally acceptable is termed as ‘Resource’. Human beings themselves
are essential components of resources. They transform material available in the environment into
resources and use them.

Classification of Resources
Resources can be classified in the following ways:

(a) On the basis of origin – biotic and abiotic

(b) On the basis of exhaustibility – renewable and non-renewable
(c) On the basis of ownership – individual, community, national and international
(d) On the basis of the status of development – potential, developed stock and reserves

(a) On the Basis of Origin – Biotic and Abiotic

Biotic Resources are obtained from the biosphere and have life.
Eg: Human beings, flora and fauna, fisheries, livestock etc.

Abiotic Resources: All those things which are composed of non-living things are called abiotic
resources.
Eg: rocks and metals.

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 CBSE Notes Class 10 Social Science Geography
Chapter 1 - Resources and Development
(b) On the Basis of Exhaustibility - Renewable and Non-Renewable
The resources which can be renewed or reproduced by physical, chemical or mechanical processes
are known as Renewable or Replenishable Resources. The renewable resource may further be
divided into continuous or flow.
Eg: Solar and wind energy, water, forests and wildlife, etc.

Non-Renewable Resources occur over a very long geological time. These resources take millions of
years in their formation. Some of the resources like metals are recyclable and some like fossil fuels
cannot be recycled and get exhausted with their use.
Eg: Minerals and fossil fuels.

(c) On the Basis of Ownership – Individual, Community, National and International

Individual Resources are owned privately by individuals. In villages people own lands whereas in
urban areas people own plots, houses and other properties.
Eg: Plantation, pasture lands, ponds, water in wells etc.

Community Owned Resources are accessible to all the members of the community.
Eg: Grazing grounds, burial grounds, public parks, picnic spots, playgrounds etc.

National Resources are owned by a nation or country. All the minerals, water resources, forests,
wildlife, land within the political boundaries and oceanic area up to 12 nautical miles (22.2 km) from the
coast termed as territorial water and resources therein belong to the nation.
Eg: Roads, canals, railways etc.

International Resources are regulated by international institutions. The oceanic resources beyond 200
nautical miles of the Exclusive Economic Zone belong to open ocean and no individual country can
utilise these without the concurrence of international institutions.

(d) On the Basis of the Status of Development – Potential, Developed Stock and Reserves
Potential Resources are the resources which are found in a region but have not been utilised.
Eg: Rajasthan and Gujarat have enormous potential for the development of wind and solar energy, but
so far these have not been developed properly.

Developed Resources: Resources which are surveyed and their quality and quantity have been
determined for utilisation. The development of resources depends on technology and level of their
feasibility.

Materials in the environment which have the potential to satisfy human needs but human beings do not
have the appropriate technology to access these, are called Stock.
Eg: Hydrogen can be used as a rich source of energy. But we do not have advanced technology to use
it.

Reserves are the subset of the stock, which can be put into use with the help of existing technical
‘know-how’ but their use has not been started. These can be used for meeting future requirements.
Eg: Water in the dams, forests etc. is a reserve which can be used in the future.

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 CBSE Notes Class 10 Social Science Geography
Chapter 1 - Resources and Development
Development of Resources
Resources have been used by human beings indiscriminately and this has led to the following major
problems.
 Depletion of resources for satisfying the greed of a few individuals.
 Accumulation of resources in a few hands, which, in turn, divided the society into two segments
i.e rich and poor.
 It has led to global ecological crises such as global warming, ozone layer depletion,
environmental pollution and land degradation.

Resource planning is essential for the sustainable existence of all forms of life. Sustainable Economic
Development means “development should take place without damaging the environment, and
development in the present should not compromise with the needs of future generations.”

Resource Planning
In India, there are some regions which can be considered self-sufficient in terms of the availability of
resources and there are some regions which have acute shortage of some vital resources. This calls for
balanced resource planning at the national, state, regional and local levels.

Resource Planning in India

Resource planning is a complex process which involves:

(i) Identification and inventory of resources across the regions of the country. This involves surveying,
mapping and qualitative and quantitative estimation and measurement of the resources.

(ii) Evolving a planning structure endowed with appropriate technology, skill and institutional set up for
implementing resource development plans.

(iii) Matching the resource development plans with overall national development plans.

Resources can contribute to development only when they are accompanied by appropriate
technological development and institutional changes. India has made concerted efforts towards
achieving the goals of resource planning, right from the First Five Year Plan launched after
Independence.

To overcome irrational consumption and over-utilisation of resources, resource conservation at various

levels is important.

Land Resources
Land is a natural resource of utmost importance. It supports natural vegetation, wildlife, human life,
economic activities, transport and communication systems. India has land under a variety of relief
features, namely; mountains, plateaus, plains and islands as shown below:

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 CBSE Notes Class 10 Social Science Geography
Chapter 1 - Resources and Development

Land Utilisation
Land resources are used for the following purposes:
1. Forests
2. Land not available for cultivation
a) Barren and wasteland
b) Land put to non-agricultural uses
3. Fallow lands
4. Other uncultivated lands (excluding fallow land)
5. Net sown area

Land Use Pattern in India

The use of land is determined
1. Physical factors: such as topography, climate, soil types
2. Human factors: such as population density, technological capability and culture and traditions
etc.

The data below represents the land use pattern in India.

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 CBSE Notes Class 10 Social Science Geography
Chapter 1 - Resources and Development

Waste land is the land put to other non-agricultural uses which include rocky, arid and desert areas,
roads, railways, industry etc.

Continuous use of land over a long period of time without taking appropriate measures to conserve and
manage it, has resulted in land degradation.

Land Degradation and Conservation Measures

Human activities such as deforestation, overgrazing, mining and quarrying have contributed
significantly to land degradation. Mining sites leave deep scars and traces of over-burdening the land.
In recent years, industrial effluents as waste have become a major source of land and water pollution in
many parts of the country.

Some of the ways through which we can solve the problems of land degradation are:
1. Afforestation and proper management of grazing.
2. Planting of shelter belts of plants.
3. Stabilisation of sand dunes by growing thorny bushes.
4. Proper management of waste lands.
5. Control of mining activities.
6. Proper discharge and disposal of industrial effluents and wastes after treatment.

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 CBSE Notes Class 10 Social Science Geography
Chapter 1 - Resources and Development
Soil as a Resource
Soil is the most important renewable natural resource. It is the medium of plant growth
and supports different types of living organisms on the earth.

1. It takes millions of years to form soil upto a few cms in depth. Various forces of nature such as
change in temperature, actions of running water, wind and glaciers, activities of decomposers
etc contribute to the formation of soil.
2. Parent rock or bedrock, climate, vegetation and other forms of life and time are important factors
in the formation of soil.
3. Chemical and organic changes which take place in the soil play an important role.
4. Soil also consists of organic (humus) and inorganic materials.

Classification of Soils
On the basis of the factors responsible for soil formation, colour, thickness, texture, age, chemical and
physical properties, the soils of India are classified in different types as mentioned below.

Alluvial Soils

1. The entire northern plains are made of alluvial soil.

2. The Alluvial Soil is deposited by 3 important Himalayan river systems - the Indus, the Ganga
and the Brahmaputra.

3. It is also found in Rajasthan, Gujarat and eastern coastal plains particularly in the deltas of the
Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri rivers.
4. The alluvial soil consists of various proportions of sand, silt and clay. As we move inlands
towards the river valleys, soil particles appear to be bigger in size whereas in the upper side of the river
valley, the soils are coarse.
5. Based on age, Alluvial soils can be classified as:
a. Old Alluvial (Bangar): The Bangar soil has a higher concentration of kanker nodules than the
Khadar.
b. New Alluvial (Khadar): It has more fine particles and is more fertile than the Bangar.

6. Alluvial soils are very fertile. These soils contain an adequate proportion of potash, phosphoric
acid and lime, which are ideal for the growth of sugarcane, paddy, wheat and other cereal and pulse
crops.

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 CBSE Notes Class 10 Social Science Geography
Chapter 1 - Resources and Development
Black Soil

1. This soil is black in colour and is also known as regur soil. Climatic conditions along with the
parent rock material are the important factors for the formation of black soil.

2. The soil is ideal for growing cotton and is also known as black cotton soil.

3. This type of soil is typical of the Deccan trap (Basalt) region spread over northwest Deccan
plateau and is made up of lava flows.

4. The soil covers the plateaus of Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa, Madhya Pradesh and
Chhattisgarh and extends in the south-east direction along the Godavari and the Krishna valleys.
5. The black soils are made up of extremely fine i.e. clayey material and well-known for their
capacity to hold moisture.
6. Black soil is nutrients rich and contains calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash and lime.
7. The soil is sticky when wet and difficult to work on unless tilled immediately after the first shower
or during the pre-monsoon period.

Red and Yellow Soils

1. This type of soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks in areas of low rainfall in the eastern and
southern parts of the Deccan plateau.

2. These soils develop a reddish colour due to diffusion of iron in crystalline and metamorphic
rocks. It looks yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form.

3. Found in parts of Odisha, Chhattisgarh, southern parts of the middle Ganga plain and along the
piedmont zone of the Western Ghats.

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 CBSE Notes Class 10 Social Science Geography
Chapter 1 - Resources and Development

Laterite Soil

1. The laterite soil develops under tropical and subtropical climate with the alternate wet and dry
season.

2. This soil is the result of intense leaching due to heavy rain.

3. Lateritic soils are acidic (pH<6.0) in nature and generally deficient in plant nutrients. This type of
soil is found mostly in Southern states, Western Ghats region of Maharashtra, Odisha, some parts of
West Bengal and North-east regions.

4. The soil supports deciduous and evergreen forests but humus poor.

5. This soil is very useful for growing tea and coffee.

Arid Soils

1. Arid soils range from red to brown in colour.

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 CBSE Notes Class 10 Social Science Geography
Chapter 1 - Resources and Development
2. This soil is generally sandy in texture and saline in nature. In some areas, the salt content is
very high and common salt is obtained by evaporating the water.

3. Arid soil lacks humus and moisture.

4. The lower horizons of the soil are occupied by Kankar because of the increasing calcium
content downwards. The Kankar layer formations in the bottom horizons restrict the infiltration of
water.

Forest Soils

1. These soils are found in the hilly and mountainous areas.

2. The soil texture is loamy and silty in valley sides and coarse grained in the upper slopes.

3. In the snow covered areas of Himalayas, these soils experience denudation and are acidic with
low humus content. The soil is fertile on the river terraces and alluvial fans.

The map below shows the different types of soils found in India.

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 CBSE Notes Class 10 Social Science Geography
Chapter 1 - Resources and Development

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 CBSE Notes Class 10 Social Science Geography
Chapter 1 - Resources and Development
Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation
The denudation of the soil cover and subsequent washing down is described as soil erosion. The soil
erosion is caused due to human activities like deforestation, over-grazing, construction and mining etc.
Also, there are some natural forces like wind, glacier and water which lead to soil erosion. Soil erosion
is also caused due to defective methods of farming.

The running water cuts through the clayey soils and makes deep channels as gullies. The land
becomes unfit for cultivation and is known as bad land. When water flows as a sheet over large areas
down a slope and the topsoil is washed away, it is known as sheet erosion. Wind blows loose soil off
flat or sloping land known as wind erosion.

Different Ways for Soil Conservation

1. Ploughing along the contour lines decelerate the flow of water down the slopes. This is called
Contour Ploughing.

2. Terrace cultivation restricts erosion. This type of agriculture practice is done in Western and
Central Himalayas.

3. When a large field is divided into strips and strips of grass are left to grow between the crops.
Then, this breaks up the force of the wind. This method is known as Strip Cropping.

4. Planting lines of trees to create shelter helps in the stabilisation of sand dunes and in stabilising
the desert in western India. Rows of such trees are called Shelter Belts.

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 CBSE Notes Class 10 Political Science
Chapter 2 – Federalism
In Chapter 1, you have learned that the division of power among different levels of government is one
of the major forms of power sharing in modern democracies. In this chapter, you will understand the
theory and practice of federalism in India. Towards the end of the chapter, you will know about the local
government, a new and third tier of Indian federalism.

Here we have compiled the “CBSE Notes Class 10 Political Science Chapter 2 - Federalism”, which will
provide a clear insight into the chapter and all the important concepts.

Download CBSE Notes Class 10 Political Science Chapter 2 -

Federalism PDF

What is federalism?
Federalism is a system of government in which power is divided between a central authority and
various constituent units of the country.

A federation has two levels of government. Both these levels of governments enjoy their power
independent of the other.

1. One is the government for the entire country that is usually responsible for a few subjects of
common national interest.
2. Governments at the level of provinces or states that look after much of the day-to-day
administering of their state.

Difference Between Unitary System and Federal System

Unitary System Federal System

There is only one level of government or the There are two or more levels
sub-units are subordinate to the Central Government. (or tiers) of government.

The Central Government can pass on orders to the The Central Government
provincial or local government. cannot order the state
government to do something.

The central government is supreme, and the administrative State Government has powers
divisions exercise only powers that the central government of its own for which it is not
has delegated to them. Their powers may be broadened answerable to the central

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and narrowed by the central government government.

Key Features of Federalism

Some of the key features of federalism system are:

1. There are two or more levels (or tiers) of government.

2. Different tiers of government govern the same citizens, but each tier has its own
JURISDICTION in specific matters of legislation, taxation and administration.

3. The existence and authority of each tier of government is constitutionally guaranteed.

4. The fundamental provisions of the constitution cannot be unilaterally changed by one level of
government. Such changes require the consent of both the levels of government.

5. Courts have the power to interpret the constitution and the powers of different levels of
government.

6. Sources of revenue for each level of government are clearly specified to ensure its financial
autonomy.

7. The federal system has dual objectives:

i) To safeguard and promote the unity of the country
ii) Accommodate regional diversity.

Different Routes Through Which Federations Can be Formed

Two aspects are crucial for the institutions and practice of federalism: mutual trust between the
government of different levels and agreement to live together. There are two kinds of routes through
which federations have been formed.

1. The first route involves independent States coming together on their own to form a bigger unit.
This kind of “coming together” federations is formed in the USA, Switzerland and Australia.

2. The second route is that a large country decides to divide its power between the constituent
States and the national government. This kind of ‘holding together’ federations is followed in
India, Spain and Belgium countries.

What Makes India a Federal Country?

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All the features of the federal system apply to the provisions of the Indian Constitution. The Indian
Constitution is a three-fold distribution of legislative powers between the Union Government and the
State Governments. The 3 lists are mentioned below:

1) Union List: It includes subjects of national importance such as the defence of the country, foreign
affairs, banking, communications and currency. The Union Government alone can make laws relating
to the subjects mentioned in this list.

2) State List: It contains subjects of State and local importance such as police, trade, commerce,
agriculture and irrigation. The State Governments alone can make laws relating to the subjects
mentioned in this list.

3) Concurrent List: It includes subjects of common interest to both the Union Government as well as
the State Governments. The list includes education, forest, trade unions, marriage, adoption and
succession. Both the Union as well as the State Governments can make laws on the subjects
mentioned in this list. If their laws conflict with each other, the law made by the Union Government will
be considered.

How is Federalism Practised?

The real success of federalism in India is attributed to its nature of democratic politics. Have a look at
some of the major ways in which federalism is practised in India.

Linguistic States
The creation of linguistic States was the first and a major test for democratic politics in India. From 1947
to 2017, many old States have vanished and many new States have been created. Areas, boundaries
and names of the States have been changed. Some States has been formed of the people who spoke
the same language. These states are known as the Linguistic States.

Language Policy
A second test for Indian federation is the language policy. Hindi was identified as the official language.
Besides Hindi, there are 21 other languages recognised as Scheduled Languages by the Constitution.
States too have their own official languages and government work takes place in the official language
of the concerned State.

Centre-State relations
Restructuring the Centre-State relations is one more way in which federalism has been strengthened in
practice. If no single party gets a clear majority in the Lok Sabha, the major national parties can alliance
with many parties including several regional parties to form a government at the Centre. This led to a
new culture of power sharing and respect for the autonomy of State Governments.

Decentralisation in India

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When power is taken away from Central and State governments and given to the local government, it is
called decentralisation. The basic idea behind decentralisation is that there are a large number of
problems and issues which are best settled at the local level. Local people can also directly participate
in the decision making.

A major step towards decentralisation was taken in 1992. The Constitution was amended to make the
third-tier of democracy more powerful and effective. Here are the key features of 3-tier democracy:

1. It is constitutionally mandatory to hold regular elections to local government bodies.

2. Seats are reserved in the elected bodies and the executive heads of these institutions for the
Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes.

3. At least one-third of all positions are reserved for women.

4. State Election Commission has been created in each State to conduct panchayat and municipal
elections.

5. The State governments are required to share some powers and revenue with local government
bodies. The nature of sharing varies from State to State.

Panchayati Raj System

Rural local government is popularly known as Panchayati Raj. Each village, or a group of villages in
some States, has a gram panchayat. This is a council consisting of several ward members, often called
panch, and a president or sarpanch. They are directly elected by all the adult population living in a
village or ward. Gram Panchayat is the decision-making body for the entire village.

The Panchayat works under the overall supervision of the Gram Sabha. All the voters in the village are
its members. It has to meet at least twice or thrice in a year to approve the annual budget of the gram
panchayat and to review the performance of the Gram Panchayat.

When Gram Panchayat are grouped together, they form a Panchayat Samiti or Block or Mandal. The
member of Panchayat Samiti representative are elected by all the Panchayat
members in that area.

All the Panchayat Samitis or Mandals in a district together constitute the Zilla (district) Parishad.
Members of the Lok Sabha, MLAs of the district, and some other officials of other district-level bodies
are the members of Zilla Parishad.

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Municipalities
As Gram Panchayat is for Rural areas, similarly we have Municipalities for urban areas. Big
cities are constituted into Municipal Corporations. Both Municipalities and Municipal Corporations are
controlled by elected bodies consisting of people’s representatives. The Municipal Chairperson is the
political head of the Municipality. In a Municipal Corporation such an officer is called the mayor.

This new system of local government is the largest experiment in democracy conducted anywhere in
the world. Constitutional status for local government has helped to deepen democracy in our country. It
has also increased women’s representation and voice in our democracy.

Keep learning and stay tuned for further updates on CBSE and other competitive exams. Download
BYJU’S App and subscribe to YouTube channel to access interactive Maths and Science videos.

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 CBSE Class 10 Social Science History Notes
Chapter 2 - Nationalism in India
Indian nationalism developed as a concept during the Indian independence movement fought
against the colonial British Raj. In this chapter, students will get to know the story from the 1920s
and study about the nonCooperation and Civil Disobedience Movements. Students will also get to
explore how Congress sought to develop the national movement, how different social groups
participated in the movement, and how nationalism captured the imagination of people. Learn
more about Nationalism in India by exploring CBSE Class 10 Social Science History Notes
Chapter 2. These notes are comprehensive and detailed, yet concise enough to glance through
for exam preparations.

In India, the growth of modern nationalism is connected to the anti-colonial movement. Due to
colonialism, many different groups shared bonds together, which were forged by the Congress
under Mahatma Gandhi.

The First World War, Khilafat and Non-Cooperation

The war created a new economic and political situation in the years after 1919. Income tax
introduced and the prices of custom duties were doubled between 1913 and 1918 which led to a
very difficult life for common people. In 1918-19 crops failed in India, resulting in shortage of food
accompanied by an influenza epidemic. At this stage, a new leader appeared and suggested a
new mode of struggle.

The Idea of Satyagraha

In January 1915, Mahatma Gandhi returned to India from South Africa and started the movement
Satyagraha. Satyagraha emphasised the power of truth and the need to search for truth.
According to Mahatma Gandhi, people can win a battle without non-violence which will unite all
Indians. In 1917, he travelled to Champaran in Bihar to inspire the peasants to struggle against
the oppressive plantation system. In the same year, he organised satyagraha to support the
peasants of the Kheda district of Gujarat. In 1918, Mahatma Gandhi went to Ahmedabad to
organise a satyagraha movement amongst cotton mill workers.

The Rowlatt Act

In 1919, Mahatma Gandhi launched a nationwide satyagraha against the proposed Rowlatt Act.
The Act gives the government enormous powers to repress political activities and allowed
detention of political prisoners without trial for two years. The British government decided to
clamp down on nationalists by witnessing the outrage of the people. On April 10th, police in
Amritsar fired on a peaceful procession, which provoked widespread attacks on banks, post
offices and railway stations. Martial law was imposed and General Dyer took command.

On 13th April Jallianwala Bagh incident took place. A large crowd gathered in the Jallianwala
Bagh where a few people came to protest against the government’s new repressive measures,
while some came to attend the annual Baisakhi fair. General Dyer blocked all the exit points and
opened fire on the crowd killing hundreds. After the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, people became
furious and
 CBSE Class 10 Social Science History Notes
Chapter 2 - Nationalism in India

went on strikes, clashes with police and attacks on government buildings. Mahatma Gandhi had
to call off the movement as it was turning into a violent war.

Mahatma Gandhi then took up the Khilafat issue by bringing Hindus and Muslims together. The
First World War ended with the defeat of Ottoman Turkey. In March 1919, a Khilafat Committee
was formed in Bombay. In September 1920, Mahatma Gandhi convinced other leaders of the
need to start a non-cooperation movement in support of Khilafat as well as for swaraj.

Why Non-cooperation?

According to Mahatma Gandhi, British rule was established in India with the cooperation of
Indians. Non-cooperation movement is proposed in stages. It should begin with the surrender of
titles that the government awarded, and a boycott of civil services, army, police, courts and
legislative councils, schools, and foreign goods. After much hurdles and campaigning between
the supporters and opponents of the movement, finally, in December 1920, the Non-Cooperation
Movement was adopted.

Differing Strands within the Movement

In January 1921, the Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement began. In this movement, various
social groups participated, but the term meant different things to different people.

The Movement in the Towns

Middle-class started the movement and thousands of students, teachers, headmasters left
government-controlled schools and colleges, lawyers gave up their legal practices. In the
economic front, the effects of non-cooperation were more dramatic. The production of Indian
textile mills and handlooms went up when people started boycotting foreign goods. But this
movement slowed down due to a variety of reasons such as Khadi clothes are expensive, less
Indian institutions for students and teachers to choose from, so they went back to government
schools and lawyers joined back government courts.

Rebellion in the Countryside

The Non-Cooperation Movement spread to the countryside where peasants and tribals were
developing in different parts of India. The peasant movement started against talukdars and
landlords who demanded high rents and a variety of other cesses. It demanded reduction of
revenue, abolition of begar, and social boycott of oppressive landlords.

Jawaharlal Nehru in June 1920, started going around the villages in Awadh to understand their
grievances. In October, he along with few others set up the Oudh Kisan Sabha and within a
month 300 branches have been set up. In 1921, the peasant movement was spread and the
houses of talukdars and merchants were attacked, bazaars were looted, and grain boards were
taken over.
 CBSE Class 10 Social Science History Notes
Chapter 2 - Nationalism in India
In the early 1920s, a militant guerrilla movement started spreading in the Gudem Hills of Andhra
Pradesh. The government started closing down forest areas due to which their livelihood was
affected. Finally, the hill people revolted which was led by Alluri Sitaram Raju who claimed that he
had a variety of special powers.

Swaraj in the Plantations

For plantation workers in Assam, freedom means right to move freely in and out and retaining a
link with the village from which they had come. Under the Inland Emigration Act of 1859,
plantation workers were not permitted to leave the tea gardens without permission. After they
heard of the Non-Cooperation Movement, thousands of workers left the plantations and headed
home. But, unfortunately, they never reached their destination and were caught by the police and
brutally beaten up.

Towards Civil Disobedience

In February 1922, the Non-Cooperation Movement was withdrawn because Mahatma Gandhi felt
that it was turning violent. Some of the leaders wanted to participate in elections to the provincial
councils. Swaraj Party was formed by CR Das and Motilal Nehru. In the late 1920s Indian politics
again shaped because of two factors. The first effect was the worldwide economic depression
and the second effect was the falling agricultural prices. The Statutory Commission was set up to
look into the functioning of the constitutional system in India and suggest changes. In 1928,
Simon Commission arrived in India and it was greeted by the slogan ‘Go back Simon’. In
December 1929, under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru, the Lahore Congress formalised the
demand of ‘Purna Swaraj’ or full independence for India. It was declared that 26 January 1930
would be celebrated as Independence Day.

The Salt March and the Civil Disobedience Movement

On 31 January 1930, Mahatma Gandhi sent a letter to Viceroy Irwin stating eleven demands.
Among the demands, the most stirring of all was the demand to abolish the salt tax which is
consumed by the rich and the poor. The demands needed to be fulfilled by 11 March or else
Congress will start a civil disobedience campaign. The famous salt march was started by
Mahatma Gandhi accompanied by 78 of his trusted volunteers. The march was over 240 miles,
from Gandhiji’s ashram in Sabarmati to the Gujarati coastal town of Dandi. On 6 April he reached
Dandi, and ceremonially violated the law, manufacturing salt by boiling seawater. This marked
the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement.

The movement spread across the world and salt law was broken in different parts of the country.
Foreign cloth was boycotted, peasants refused to pay revenue and in many places forest law was
violated. In April 1930, Abdul Ghaffar Khan, a devout disciple of Mahatma Gandhi was arrested.
Mahatma Gandhi was arrested a month later which led to attack in all structures that symbolised
British rule. By witnessing the horrific situation, Mahatma Gandhi decided to call off the movement
 CBSE Class 10 Social Science History Notes
Chapter 2 - Nationalism in India
and entered into a pact with Irwin on 5 March 1931. Gandhi-Irwin Pact, Gandhiji consented to
participate in a Round Table Conference in London. When the conference broke down Mahatma
Gandhi returned to India disappointed and he relaunched the Civil Disobedience Movement, for
over a year, it continued, but by 1934 it lost its momentum.

How Participants saw the Movement

The Patidars of Gujarat and the Jats of Uttar Pradesh were active in the movement. They became
enthusiastic supporters of the Civil Disobedience Movement. But they were deeply disappointed
when the movement was called off in 1931. So when the movement was restarted in 1932, many
of them refused to participate. The poorer peasants joined a variety of radical movements, often
led by Socialists and Communists.

To organise business interests, the Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress in 1920 and the
Federation of the Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industries (FICCI) in 1927 was formed. The
industrialists attacked colonial control over the Indian economy and supported the Civil
Disobedience Movement when it was first launched. Some of the industrial workers did
participate in the Civil Disobedience Movement. In 1930 and 1932 railway workers and dock
workers were on strike.

Another important feature of the Civil Disobedience Movement was the large-scale participation of
women. But, for a long time the Congress was reluctant to allow women to hold any position of
authority within the organisation.

The Limits of Civil Disobedience

Dalits addressed as untouchables were not moved by the concept of Swaraj. Mahatma Gandhi
used to call them as harijans or the children of God without whom swaraj could not be achieved.
He organised satyagraha for the untouchables but they were keen on a different political solution
to the problems of the community. They demanded reserved seats in educational institutions and
a separate electorate.

Dr B.R. Ambedkar, who organised the dalits into the Depressed Classes Association in 1930,
clashed with Mahatma Gandhi at the second Round Table Conference by demanding separate
electorates for Dalits. The Poona Pact of September 1932, gave the Depressed Classes (later to
be known as the Schedule Castes) reserved seats in provincial and central legislative councils.
After the decline of the Non-Cooperation-Khilafat movement, Muslims felt alienated from the
Congress due to which the relations between Hindus and Muslims worsened.

Muhammad Ali Jinnah was willing to give up the demand for separate electorates if Muslims were
assured reserved seats in the Central Assembly and representation in proportion to population in
the Muslim-dominated provinces. But, the hope of resolving the issue at the All Parties
Conference in 1928 disappeared when M.R. Jayakar of the Hindu Mahasabha strongly opposed
efforts at compromise.
 CBSE Class 10 Social Science History Notes
Chapter 2 - Nationalism in India
The Sense of Collective Belonging
Nationalism spreads when people begin to believe that they are all part of the same nation.
History and fiction, folklore and songs, popular prints and symbols, all played a part in the making
of nationalism. Finally, in the twentieth century, the identity of India came to be visually
associated with the image of Bharat Mata. Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay created the image
and in the 1870s he wrote ‘Vande Mataram’ as a hymn to the motherland.

Rabindranath Tagore painted his famous image of Bharat Mata portrayed as an ascetic figure;
she is calm, composed, divine and spiritual. In late-nineteenth-century India, nationalists began
recording folk tales sung by bards and they toured villages to gather folk songs and legends.
During the Swadeshi movement in Bengal, a tricolour flag (red, green and yellow) was designed
which had eight lotuses representing eight provinces of British India, and a crescent moon,
representing Hindus and Muslims. By 1921, Gandhiji designed the Swaraj flag, a tricolour (red,
green and white) and had a spinning wheel in the centre, representing the Gandhian ideal of self-
help.

Conclusion
In the first half of the twentieth century, various groups and classes of Indians came together for
the struggle of independence. The Congress under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi attempted
to resolve differences, and ensure that the demands of one group did not alienate another. In
other words, what was emerging was a nation with many voices wanting freedom from colonial
rule.