01.

Explain the structure and functions of the cell with a neat labelled
diagram.

What is a Cell?
A cell is defined as the smallest and basic unit of life that is responsible for all of life’s
processes.
Structure and Functions of a Cell
●​ All living things need to breathe (respire), break down food (digest), and remove waste.
●​ Cells do all these important activities.
●​ That’s why we say cells are the “functional units” of life.
●​ Inside a cell, there are small parts called organelles. Each organelle has a specific
job, just like how each organ (like the heart or lungs) works in our body.
Types of Cells
Cells are grouped into two main types:
1.​ Prokaryotic cells – Simple cells without a nucleus (like bacteria).
2.​ Eukaryotic cells – Complex cells with a nucleus (like plants, animals, and humans).

"Cell Membrane"
​ The "cell membrane" is the outer covering of the cell.
​ It "protects" the cell and "controls" what goes in and out.
​ It's found in "all cells" and is also called the "plasma membrane".
​ It has "tiny pores" that allow only certain substances to pass.
​ It separates the "cell from its surroundings" and keeps organelles inside safe.

"Cell Wall"
​ Found "only in plant cells", outside the cell membrane.
​ Made of "cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin".
​ It is "strong and rigid", giving the cell "shape and protection".
 ​ Helps plants stay strong and safe from injury.

Cytoplasm
​ A "jellylike fluid" inside the cell.
​ Fills the space between the nucleus and cell membrane.
​ "Organelles float" in it, and many "chemical reactions" happen here.

Nucleus
​ The "control center" of the cell.
​ Contains "DNA", which carries genetic information.
​ Tells the cell when to "grow, divide, or die".
​ Protected by a "nuclear membrane".

02.Mention the differences between plant cell and animal cells.

1.​ Cell Wall:
○​ Plant cells have a cell wall around the cell membrane.
○​ Animal cells do not have a cell wall.
2.​ Chloroplasts:
○​ Present in plant cells for photosynthesis.
○​ Absent in animal cells.
3.​ Vacuole:
○​ Plant cells have one large central vacuole.
○​ Animal cells have small or no vacuoles.
4.​ Shape:
○​ Plant cells have a fixed, boxlike shape.
○​ Animal cells are usually round or irregular.
5.​ Structure:
○​ Plant cells are more ruged due to the cell wall.
○​ Animal cells are softer and flexible.
03.What are stem cells? Explain the classification and application of
stem cells

What are Stem Cells?

Stem cells are special cells in the body that can:
●​ Become any other type of cell, like muscle, nerve, or blood cells.
●​ Repair damaged tissues and help the body heal.
●​ Have great potential in treating diseases like paralysis, cancer, and Alzheimer’s.

Classification of Stem Cells

1. Embryonic Stem Cells
●​ Found in earlystage embryos.
●​ Can turn into any cell type in the body.
●​ Types:
○​ Totipotent – Can become any cell including embryo and placenta.
○​ Pluripotent – Can become any body cell (but not placenta).
○​ Multipotent – Can become related cells (e.g., blood cells).
○​ Oligopotent – Can become a few specific cell types.
○​ Unipotent – Can become only one type of cell (e.g., muscle cell).
2. Adult Stem Cells
●​ Found in mature tissues like bone marrow.
●​ Help repair and maintain the tissue where they are found.
●​ Example: Hematopoietic stem cells make blood cells.
3. Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs)
●​ Created in the lab by reprogramming normal cells to act like embryonic stem cells.
●​ Used in disease research and drug testing.
4. Mesenchymal Stem Cells
●​ Found in connective tissues (like bone marrow).
●​ Can become bone, fat, or cartilage.
●​ Used in regenerative medicine and treatment of tissue injuries.

Applications of Stem Cells

1.​ Tissue Regeneration
○​ Grow new tissues or organs (e.g., skin, liver, kidney).
○​ Used in skin grafts for burn patients.
2.​ Treatment of Heart Disease
○​ Stem cells used to create blood vessels to repair heart damage.
3.​ Treatment of Brain Disorders
○​ Help treat Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s by replacing damaged brain cells.
4.​ Treatment of Blood Diseases
○​ Treat cancers, anemia, and immune disorders using bone marrow stem cells.

Sources of Stem Cells

●​ Embryonic stem cells – From 5dayold embryos (blastocysts).
 ●​ Adult stem cells – From tissues like bone marrow, skin, or fat.
●​ iPSCs – Labgenerated from adult body cells.

04.Explain in detail the properties and applications of Nucleic acids What are
Nucleic Acids?

Nucleic acids are large molecules found in all living cells. They store and pass on genetic
information.

There are two main types:

●​ DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

●​ RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)

Properties of Nucleic Acids

●​ Nucleic acids are made of repeating units called nucleotides.
●​ Each nucleotide contains:
○​ A sugar (deoxyribose in DNA, ribose in RNA)
○​ A phosphate group
○​ A nitrogenous base (A, T, G, C in DNA; A, U, G, C in RNA)
●​ DNA stores genetic instructions for growth, development, and reproduction.
●​ RNA helps in protein synthesis and gene expression.
●​ Complementary base pairing:
○​ In DNA: A pairs with T, G pairs with C
○​ In RNA: A pairs with U, G pairs with C
●​ Structure:
○​ DNA is usually double-stranded (double helix)
○​ RNA is usually single-stranded

●​ Function in inheritance and protein production:

○​ DNA replicates itself to pass on genetic information.
○​ RNA is synthesized from DNA and used to make proteins.
●​ Chemical stability:
○​ DNA is more stable due to its double-helix structure and deoxyribose sugar.
○​ RNA is less stable, allowing it to degrade quickly after use.

Applications of Nucleic Acids

●​ DNA is used to change how living things grow and work.
●​ It helps make GMOs, insulin, and fix genes.
●​ DNA and RNA tests find diseases like HIV and COVID-19.
 ●​ DNA helps solve crimes and find parents.
●​ Gene therapy tries to fix broken genes in the body.
●​ mRNA vaccines protect us from viruses like COVID-19.
●​ DNA and RNA help make better medicines.
●​ Scientists use them to study how cells and genes work.
●​ CRISPR is a tool that can cut and change genes.
●​ DNA helps us learn how living things are related

05.What are the key properties, advantages and limitations of cellulose -

based water filter.

🔹 What Are They?

●​ Made from cellulose, a natural material found in plants.
●​ Used to clean water by removing dirt, germs, and other harmful substances.
●​ A natural and eco-friendly alternative to plastic filters.

🔹 Properties
●​ Has tiny holes that let water pass but stop dirt and germs.
●​ Breaks down naturally, so it’s safe for the Earth.
●​ Costs less than plastic filters.
●​ Strong and doesn’t tear easily.
●​ Can handle many chemicals without getting damaged.
●​ Has a big surface, so it filters faster and better.

🔹 Advantages
●​ Made from plants and safe for nature.
●​ Cheap to make and easy to buy.
●​ Cleans water by removing common dirt and germs.
●​ Can be used at home, on farms, and in factories.
●​ Strong and keeps working without breaking.

🔹 Limitations
●​ Can get damaged by high heat.
●​ May not remove heavy metals like lead or mercury.
●​ Doesn’t last as long and needs to be replaced more often.
●​ Hard to clean fully.
●​ Can get blocked if the water is too dirty.

🔹 Importance
 ●​ Provides clean, safe water in a low-cost, eco-friendly way.
●​ Great for developing areas and sustainable solutions..

06.Describe the use of 1.Whey protein 2. Meet analogues and 3. Plant based
proteins as food with examples.

1. Whey Protein
What is it?​
Whey protein is a type of protein taken from cow’s milk. It is commonly used as a supplement to
help build muscle and improve nutrition.

✅ Uses:
●​ Helps build and fix muscles after exercise.
●​ Keeps you full longer and supports fat loss.
●​ Boosts the immune system and may help the heart.
●​ Used in shakes and bars as a quick, healthy meal.

🥤 Common Forms:
●​ Protein powders
●​ Protein bars
●​ Ready-to-drink shakes

2. Meat Analogues (Meat Substitutes)

What are they?​
Plant-based foods are made to look and taste like real meat. They are usually made from soy,
wheat, peas, or other plants.

✅ Uses:
●​ Great for vegetarians, vegans, and people who want to eat less meat.
●​ Gives protein without cholesterol or animal fat.
●​ Made from plants like soy, peas, and wheat.
●​ Looks, cooks, and tastes like real meat.
●​ Used in burgers, sausages, nuggets, and more.
●​ Better for the environment than animal meat.
 ●​ Helps reduce animal farming and pollution.
●​ Can be part of a healthy diet when eaten in balance

🍔 Examples:
●​ Tofu: Soft, white soy product; used in stir-fries, soups, and salads.
●​ Tempeh: Fermented soybeans with a nutty flavor; good for sandwiches or grilling.
●​ Seitan: Wheat gluten with a meat-like texture; ideal for stir-fries and curries.
●​ Veggie Burgers: Made from soy, beans, grains, and vegetables.
●​ Meatless Meatballs: Plant-based balls for spaghetti and other dishes.
●​ Plant-Based Sausages: Look and taste like sausages but made from peas or soy.

3. Plant-Based Proteins
What are they?​
Proteins from plants such as beans, grains, nuts, and seeds.

✅ Uses:
●​ Sold as powders and bars to add protein.
●​ Used in meat substitutes, protein snacks, and drinks.
●​ Lower in fat and cholesterol than animal protein.
●​ Ideal for people avoiding animal products.
●​ Helps muscles recover after workouts.​ ​

🌱 Examples:
●​ Soy Protein
●​ Pea Protein
●​ Lentil and Chickpea Protein
●​ Hemp Protein

07.With an example explain the development of vaccines for the treatment

of rabies

✅ What is Rabies?
Rabies is a dangerous virus that spreads to humans through the bite or scratch of an infected animal,
usually a dog. It affects the brain and can be fatal if not treated quickly.
💉 How Was the Rabies Vaccine Developed
📌 Example: First Rabies Vaccine
●​ In 1885, a scientist named Louis Pasteur created the first rabies vaccine.
●​ A 9-year-old boy, Joseph Meister, was bitten by a rabid dog.
●​ Pasteur gave him a series of injections using a weakened form of the virus.
●​ The boy survived – this was the first successful use of a rabies vaccine in a human.

🔬 Modern Rabies Vaccines

Today’s rabies vaccines are

●​ Safe and made using dead (inactivated) virus.

●​ Given as injections in the arm.

✅ Two main uses:

1.​ After a bite (Post-exposure):
○​ Given to people after they are bitten by a possibly rabid animal.
○​ Also includes an injection of rabies antibodies to stop the virus.
2.​ Before exposure (Pre-exposure):
○​ For people who work with animals (like vets), travelers, etc.

📌 Summary
Topic Details

Disease Rabies – spreads through animal bites

First vaccine by Louis Pasteur in 1885

First saved case 9-year-old boy Joseph Meister

Vaccine type Dead (inactivated) virus

Use After bite or for prevention

📍 Example in Real Life

If a child is bitten by a street dog, doctors will give:

●​ Rabies vaccine (4-5 doses)

●​ Rabies immunoglobulin to give quick protection

This helps stop the virus before it causes damage.

08.Illustrates the properties and applications of PHA

✅ Properties of PHA (Polyhydroxyalkanoates)

1.​ Biodegradable – Breaks down naturally into water and carbon dioxide; eco-friendly.
2.​ Biocompatible – Safe to use in the human body (e.g., stitches, implants).
3.​ Good Strength – Similar strength and flexibility to regular plastic.
4.​ Easy to Process – Can be shaped using normal plastic-making methods (like molding and
extrusion).

✅ Applications of PHA Bioplastics

●​ Used in food packs like boxes, cups, and containers.
●​ Used in medical tools like stitches, body implants, and medicine carriers.
●​ Used in clothes and fabric for making eco-friendly clothes and furniture covers.
●​ Used in farming for plastic sheets that cover soil and keep it moist.
●​ Used in daily items like toys, phone covers, and water bottles.
●​ Used in car parts like air vents and light covers.
●​ Used in electronic items like parts of phones and laptops.
●​ Used in airplanes for wire holders and insulation parts.
●​ Used in sports gear like golf tees and fishing tools.
●​ Used in buildings for wall insulation and soundproof materials

09. With neat diagram explain the working principle of Heart - Lung
machine.

Heart-Lung Machine

A heart-lung machine is a device used during open-heart surgery to temporarily take over the job of
the heart (pumping blood) and lungs (adding oxygen to blood).

●​ It helps doctors perform surgery by keeping the patient's blood flowing and oxygenated while
the heart is stopped.

How It Works (Step by Step):

1.​ Low-oxygen blood is sent from the body to the machine.

 2.​ The blood collects in a storage bag (reservoir).
3.​ It is then pumped into an oxygenator that:
●​ Adds oxygen
●​ Removes carbon dioxide
●​ Controls the blood’s temperature
4.​ The oxygen-rich blood goes through a filter to remove air bubbles or clots.
5.​ Finally, the clean blood is returned to the body through a tube into the main artery (aorta).

Additional Functions:

●​ Controls blood temperature (warming or cooling as needed)

●​ Provides suction inside the heart to keep the area clear during surgery
●​ Delivers a cardioplegia solution (a mix of blood and chemicals) to stop the heart safely for
surgery

10. Explain in detail Brain as a CPU

●​ The brain is like a Central Processing Unit (CPU) of a computer — it controls and manages all
body functions.
●​ Both the brain and CPU receive inputs, process information, and give outputs.
●​ The brain can learn, adapt, and grow smarter over time, but a CPU cannot learn on its own.
●​ The brain also handles emotions, creativity, and thinking, which a CPU cannot do.
●​ A computer CPU processes data in one place, but the brain uses many parts together, working
at the same time.
●​ The brain is made of billions of neurons, connected like a big network, which helps it work fast.
●​ These neurons send signals like a CPU uses wires and circuits to transfer data.
●​ The brain has special parts for different jobs, like:
○​ The prefrontal cortex for planning and decision making
○​ The visual cortex for seeing
○​ The motor cortex for movement
 ●​ Like a CPU uses RAM to store quick data, the brain uses short-term memory.
●​ The brain also has long-term memory, like a hard drive, for storing information for years.
●​ While a CPU follows fixed programs, the brain is flexible and can solve new problems in different
ways.
●​ The brain works on very low energy (about 20 watts), while computers often need much more
power.

11.What is ECG? Describe Various parts of the ECG.

✅ What is ECG?
●​ ECG means Electrocardiogram.
●​ It is a test that records the electrical signals of the heart.
●​ Doctors use it to check if the heart is beating normally or if there are any problems like heart
attacks or irregular heartbeats.​

✅ Parts of an ECG (Waves)

An ECG shows a wave with different parts. Each part tells us how the heart is working:

1.​ P wave
○​ Shows the upper chambers of the heart (atria) are squeezing (contracting).
2.​ QRS complex
○​ Shows the lower chambers (ventricles) are squeezing.
○​ It's the biggest part of the wave and has three parts:
■​ Q wave – small dip before the spike
■​ R wave – big spike
■​ S wave – small dip after the spike
3.​ T wave
○​ Shows the heart is relaxing after pumping.
4.​ PR interval
○​ Time between the start of P wave and QRS.
○​ Shows how long the signal takes to move from the top to the bottom of the heart.
5.​ ST segment
○​ A flat part after QRS and before T wave.
○​ Shows the heart is getting ready to relax.
6.​ QT interval
○​ From the start of Q to the end of T.
○​ Shows how long the heart takes to pump and relax.

12.What are Pacemakers? Briefly Explain various kinds of Pacemakers.

✅ What is a Pacemaker?
●​ A pacemaker is a small medical device placed in the chest to help keep the heart beating
regularly.
●​ It is used when the heart beats too slowly or irregularly.
●​ It sends electrical signals to the heart to keep it beating at the right speed.
●​ The pacemaker is implanted through a small surgery and works only when needed.
●​ Some pacemakers adjust the heart rate during exercise by sensing body movement or breathing.

✅ Main Parts of a Pacemaker

1.​ Pulse Generator
○​ A small metal box with a battery and electronic circuits.
○​ It creates and sends the electrical pulses.
2.​ Leads (Wires)
○​ Thin, flexible wires that carry the signals to the heart.
○​ Some modern pacemakers are leadless and placed directly inside the heart.

✅ Types of Pacemakers
1.​ Single-Chamber Pacemaker
○​ Sends signals to one chamber of the heart (usually the right ventricle).
2.​ Dual-Chamber Pacemaker
○​ Sends signals to two chambers – the right atrium and right ventricle.
○​ Helps keep the upper and lower chambers in proper rhythm.
3.​ Biventricular Pacemaker (CRT – Cardiac Resynchronization Therapy)
○​ Sends signals to both lower chambers (right and left ventricles).
○​ Used for people with heart failure to help the heart pump better.

13.Explain the following. 1. Bionic leaf 2. Photovoltaic cells.

✅ 1. Bionic Leaf
●​ A bionic leaf is a man-made system that works like a plant.
●​ It uses sunlight to split water into hydrogen and oxygen.
●​ The hydrogen can be used as clean fuel.
●​ It has a solar panel (to catch sunlight) and a bacteria or chemical (to split water).
●​ It can help make energy in places without electricity.
●​ It's good for the environment — no smoke or pollution.
●​ Helps reduce the use of petrol, diesel, and other dirty fuels.

✅ 2. Photovoltaic Cells (Solar Cells)

●​ These are devices that turn sunlight into electricity.
 ●​ They are used in solar panels.
●​ Made of special material like silicon that catches sunlight.
●​ Work like plants, but instead of food, they make electricity.
●​ Used in homes, calculators, lights, and more.
●​ They use free sunlight and don't cause pollution.
●​ Help in making clean and green energy.

14.Write a note on Bioremediation and Biomining via microbial surface

adsorption.

●​ Bioremediation uses microbes to clean polluted soil, water, or air.

●​ It removes harmful metals like lead, mercury, cadmium, and arsenic.
●​ Biomining uses microbes to get useful metals like copper, gold, and nickel from rocks.
●​ Microbes stick to metals by surface adsorption (metal attaches to microbe surface).
●​ They absorb or change metals into safer forms.
●​ Helps clean the environment (bioremediation) or collect metals (biomining).
●​ Eco-friendly – no harmful chemicals used.
●​ Cost-effective – saves money and energy.
●​ Used in pollution cleanup and green mining.
●​ Safe for nature and supports sustainable practices.

15. What Echolocation? Explain Ultrasonography and Sonars

✅ Echolocation
●​ Echolocation is the process of sending sound waves and listening to their echoes to understand
surroundings.
●​ Animals like bats and dolphins use it to find food and move around in the dark.
●​ The sound waves hit objects and bounce back as echoes.
●​ By hearing these echoes, animals can tell how far, what size, and where an object is.
●​ It is a natural navigation system used mostly in darkness or underwater.

✅ Ultrasonography (Ultrasound)
●​ Ultrasonography is a medical test that uses high-frequency sound waves to see inside the
body.
●​ The sound waves go into the body and bounce back from organs and tissues.
●​ The echoes are turned into images on a screen.
●​ It is used to check organs like the liver, heart, kidney, and also during pregnancy to see the
baby.
●​ It is safe, painless, non-invasive, and has no harmful radiation.
●​ Ultrasound machines are also portable and cost-effective.
✅ Sonar (Sound Navigation and Ranging)
●​ SONAR is a technology that uses sound waves to detect objects underwater.
●​ It sends sound signals into water; when the sound bounces back from objects, it detects their
location, size, and depth.
●​ Used in submarines, ships, and fishing boats to find underwater rocks, submarines, or fish.
●​ It is also used in ocean exploration and naval defense.

16.Write a note on Hemoglobin- based oxygen carriers (HBOCs).and per

flourocarbons (PFCs)

✅ Hemoglobin-Based Oxygen Carriers (HBOCs) – Key Points

1.​ HBOCs are artificial blood substitutes made from purified hemoglobin.
2.​ They help carry oxygen to the body when real blood is not available.
3.​ Can carry more oxygen than natural blood in some cases.
4.​ Do not require blood group matching – can be used for any person.
5.​ Have a longer shelf life compared to real blood.
6.​ Safer from infections – no risk of viruses or bacteria from donors.
7.​ Useful in emergencies, remote areas, military, and disaster zones.
8.​ Have a short lifespan in the body – may need to be given more often.
9.​ May reduce nitric oxide levels, causing blood vessels to narrow.
10.​ Some HBOCs can damage the kidneys (renal toxicity).
11.​ May cause allergic reactions or immune system issues in some people.

✅ Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) – Key Point.

1.​ PFCs are man-made compounds that can carry and release oxygen.
2.​ Made from carbon and fluorine atoms.
3.​ They work by dissolving large amounts of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
4.​ Need to be mixed with emulsifiers (like milk) to be used in the body.
5.​ Very small in size – can reach very narrow blood vessels.
6.​ Can be used for any person – no blood type needed.
7.​ Do not carry risk of disease – no infection transmission.
8.​ Stable and easy to store – long shelf life.
9.​ Need to be used in a high-oxygen environment to work well.
10.​ Do not stay in the body for long – work for a short time only.
11.​ May cause mild side effects like fever or flu-like symptoms.

17.Explain the mechanism and bioengineering solutions for muscular

dystrophy and osteoporosis.

✅ Muscular Dystrophy (MD)

🧬 Mechanism:
1.​ MD is a genetic disorder that weakens the muscles over time.
2.​ It happens due to mutations in genes responsible for producing dystrophin, a protein that helps
keep muscle cells intact.
3.​ Without dystrophin, muscle fibers get damaged easily, causing muscle wasting, weakness, and
reduced mobility.
4.​ It often affects skeletal muscles, and in some types, also heart and respiratory muscles.
5.​ The most common type is Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD), which mostly affects boys.

🔬 Bioengineering Solutions:
1.​ Gene Therapy – Inserting a correct version of the dystrophin gene to help muscles make the
missing protein.
2.​ CRISPR-Cas9 – A gene-editing tool used to fix faulty genes at the DNA level.
3.​ Stem Cell Therapy – Injecting healthy muscle stem cells that can regenerate damaged muscle
tissue.
4.​ Exon Skipping Drugs – Help cells “skip” faulty gene parts so they can still produce a functional
(shortened) dystrophin protein.
5.​ Biomaterials & Scaffolds – Engineered muscle scaffolds to support muscle regeneration and
repair.
6.​ Wearable Exoskeletons – Assistive robotic devices to help patients walk or move.

✅ Osteoporosis
🧬 Mechanism:
1.​ Osteoporosis is a bone disease where bones become weak and brittle.
2.​ It occurs when the body loses too much bone, makes too little bone, or both.
3.​ Bones become porous and can break easily, especially hips, spine, and wrists.
4.​ It is more common in older adults, especially post-menopausal women due to lower estrogen
levels.
5.​ Bone remodeling becomes imbalanced – more bone resorption than formation.

🔬 Bioengineering Solutions:
1.​ Bone Tissue Engineering – Using stem cells, scaffolds, and growth factors to regenerate lost bone.
2.​ Biomimetic Scaffolds – Artificial bone-like materials that help new bone grow in damaged areas.
3.​ 3D Bioprinting – Creating customized bone implants for bone defects or fractures.
4.​ Calcium and Vitamin D Nanocarriers – Advanced delivery systems to improve bone health.
5.​ Smart Wearables – Sensors and wearables to monitor bone strength and prevent falls.
6.​ Mechanical Stimulation Devices – Low-intensity vibration platforms to stimulate bone growth.

18.Explain the role of Bio-imaging. And AI in disease diagnosis.

✅ Bio-imaging in Disease Diagnosis

 1.​ Bio-imaging helps see inside the human body without surgery.
2.​ It is used to find and diagnose diseases like cancer, bone fractures, organ damage, etc.
3.​ It gives clear pictures of organs, tissues, and cells.
4.​ Doctors use bio-imaging to track disease progress and plan treatments.
5.​ Common bio-imaging tools include:
○​ X-rays – for bones and lungs
○​ CT scans – for detailed body scans
○​ MRI – for brain, spine, and soft tissues
○​ Ultrasound – for organs and fetal imaging
○​ PET scans – to see metabolic activity of tissues
○​ Optical Imaging – for cells and tissues using light

✅ Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Disease Diagnosis

1.​ AI helps doctors analyze medical data quickly and accurately.
2.​ It can read images (like X-rays, MRIs) and detect diseases early.
3.​ AI systems learn from large amounts of data to spot patterns in symptoms or scans.
4.​ It supports early diagnosis of cancer, heart disease, eye disorders, and more.
5.​ AI tools can predict patient outcomes, helping in planning better treatments.
6.​ It reduces human error and saves time for doctors and hospitals.
7.​ AI chatbots or apps can also guide patients by checking symptoms digitally.

19.Write a note i.Self healing bio concrete ii. Bioremediation.

🧱 Self-Healing Bio Concrete – Key Points

1.​ Self-healing bio concrete is a smart material that repairs its own cracks using bacteria.
2.​ It contains special bacteria and nutrients added during mixing.
3.​ When cracks form and water enters, the bacteria activate and produce limestone.
4.​ The limestone seals the cracks naturally, without human intervention.
5.​ It helps make concrete more durable and extends the structure’s lifespan.
6.​ Reduces maintenance costs and prevents water from damaging steel reinforcements.
7.​ Uses non-toxic, naturally occurring microbes, making it environmentally friendly.
8.​ It can be used in buildings, bridges, tunnels, and other critical infrastructure.
9.​ Reduces the carbon footprint by lowering the need for new concrete production.
10.​ Allows for longer-lasting construction in remote or difficult-to-access areas.

🌿 Bioremediation – Key Points

1.​ Bioremediation is a process where microorganisms clean up polluted environments.
2.​ It is used to treat contaminated soil, water, and air.
3.​ Microbes break down or absorb harmful substances like oil, chemicals, or heavy metals.
 4.​ Common pollutants removed include lead, cadmium, mercury, and arsenic.
5.​ Bioremediation can occur naturally or be accelerated by adding specific microbes.
6.​ It is a natural, safe, and eco-friendly method – no harmful chemicals needed.
7.​ Cost-effective compared to physical or chemical cleanup methods.
8.​ Helps restore ecosystems in industrial sites, oil spills, and landfills.
9.​ Plays a vital role in sustainable environmental management.
10.​ Supports long-term pollution control and healthier surroundings.

20. Write a note on bio printing techniques and materials.

Bioprinting

1.​ Bioprinting is a 3D printing method to make living tissues using special materials called
bioinks.
2.​ It is used in medicine to make tissues, organs, or for testing drugs.
3.​ Bioinks contain cells and gels that help cells grow and stay alive.

Types of Bioprinting

4.​ Inkjet bioprinting – sprays small drops of bioink.

5.​ Extrusion bioprinting – pushes out lines of bioink (good for big tissues).
6.​ Laser bioprinting – uses laser to place cells very accurately.
7.​ Light-based printing (SLA) – uses light to harden soft gels into shapes.

Materials Used (Bioinks)

8.​ Hydrogels – jelly-like, keep cells wet and safe.

9.​ ECM (Extra Cell Material) – supports and feeds the cells.
10.​ Cell groups – clumps of cells used directly.
11.​ Plastic-like materials – used to give strength (not always cell-friendly).

3D Printer vs Bioprinter

12.​ 3D printer – prints plastic or metal objects.

13.​ Bioprinter – prints real living tissues using cells.
14.​ Bioprinters are used in healthcare, not just for making things.

Uses

15.​ Making body parts like skin or bones.

16.​ Testing new medicines without using animals.
17.​ Fixing damaged organs or tissues.

Problems

18.​ Hard to keep cells alive during printing.

19.​ Needs a way to make blood flow in printed tissues.
 20.​ Not easy to make big or working organs yet.​