1
Amazigh Music and Poetry as Instruments of
Resistance and Identity
By
Agnese Billi
Course : Economic Challenges in the MENA Region
Semester: Fall 2024
Study Program: UIR-MENASA International Program
Professor:P r. Jamal Bahmad
2
Introduction
Music and poetry are integral components of the rich cultural heritage of the Imazighen, the
Indigenous peoples of North Africa. For centuries, these art forms have served as potent instruments
of resistance, preserving their language, identity, and collective memory in the face of numerous
challenges, including colonization, Arabization, and cultural marginalization. 12 Amazigh music and
poetry, specifically young artist’s productions, gained renewed significance in the period of the Arab
Spring, and has act as a catalyst for expressing dissent, mobilizing for social change, and asserting
identity. 3 The Amazigh oral tradition, transmitted across generations, express itself through a great
variety of musical and poetic genres that played a pivotal role in preserving the Tamazight language
and transmitting stories, values and a particular and unique worldview to the Imazighen. Those artists
have voiced their defiance against the abuse of power, discrimination, and the denial of their cultural
rights.45 With the advent of the Arab Spring, these art forms became a tool for expressing frustration,
aspirations, and the demand for social change. Particularly young artists used their music and poetry
to give voice to their generation, narrating their experience and claiming their place in society.6
The aim of this paper is to explore the multifaced role of Amazigh music and poetry as
instruments of resistance and identity, with focus on the production of young artists within the Arab
Spring. Through the analysis of lyrics, melodies, and social contexts, it will seek to understand how
these art forms have shaped the Amazigh experience, contributing to the preservation of their culture
and the struggle for the recognition of their rights.
Amazigh poetic and musical forms
The Amazigh oral tradition, transmitted through generations, include a great variety of musical
and poetic genres. These genres are deeply rooted in the Amazigh worldview and ethos. For instance,
the women's poetic genre of Izli addresses themes of love, loss, and daily life, and it’s use to express
1
El Guabli, Brahim, and Aomar Boum. “The Amazigh Republic of Letters.” Review of Middle East Studies, 2024.
2
Almasude, Amar. “The New Mass Media and the Shaping of Amazigh Identity.” In Revitalizing Indigenous
Languages. Presented at the Annual Stabilizing Indigenous Languages Symposium, Louisville, Kentucky, 1998.
3
H. Chafii, A Linguistic Investigation of the Main Concepts of Amazigh Poetry in Morocco and Algeria, Transnational
Literature Vol. 8 no. 1, November 2015.
4
B. El Guabli, Musicalizing Indigeneity: Tazenzart as a Locus for Amazigh Indigenous Consciousness, Tamazgha
Studies Journal, Vol. 2, 2024.
5
A. Aoudjit, From the Heights of the Atlas: A Panorama of Traditional Poetry in Tamazight, Review of Middle East
Studies (2023), 56, 200–218.
6
Tayeb, Leila. “Our Star: Amazigh Music and the Production of Intimacy in Revolutionary Libya.” The Journal of
North African Studies 23, no. 5 (2018): 834–850.
3
desires, hopes and frustrations of Rifi women. 78 Poems offer them a glimmer into their daily lives,
struggles, and aspirations. 9 Another poetic form is Asefru which is characterized by the use of
metaphors and symbolism. 10 Those poems often reflect the natural world and its connection to
Amazigh identity and cultural values, which let us understand the meaning of nature in Amazigh
poetic tradition. 11 Instead, Tamdyazt is a musical genre used with dances and celebrations. 12 Tamdyazt
is also a universal literary term for poetry in Tamazight. It often features rhythmic and melodic
patterns that are unique to Amazigh musical traditions. 13 Finally, Tayffrt is both a musical and poetic
genre that addresses social and political themes. In this case, songs and poems serve for social
commentary, critique, and resistance against injustice and oppression. 14 Amazigh music and poetry
play a crucial role in asserting Amazigh cultural identity. Thanks to themes of language, land,
community, and history, these art forms reinforce a sense of belonging and rootedness. This is
particularly important in the context of globalization and increasing cultural homogenization. 1516
In conclusion, Amazigh music and poetry are dynamic and potent expressions of resistance,
identity, and social change. Through these art forms, the Imazighen continue to assert their unique
culture and advocate for recognition of their rights. 17
7
M. D. Spaulding, Language as a Bridge to the Soul: The Role of the Urban, Language as a Bridge to the Soul: The
Role of the Urban, Multilingual, Literate Amazigh Woman and Tarifit in Preserving Multilingual, Literate Amazigh
Woman and Tarifit in Preserving Amazigh Ethnic Identity in the Rif, Channels: Where Disciplines Meet: Vol. 8: No. 1,
Article 1.
8
T. B. Joseph, Poetry as a Strategy of Power: The Case of Riffian Berber Women, Signs, Vol. 5, No. 3. (Spring, 1980),
pp. 418-434.
9
J. Izlan & Radouani, Dr. F. Chafyq, Unearthing Amazigh/Rifi Female Identity through Oral Poetry in Colonial
Morocco, Culture and Identity Studies: Proceedings of the Annual Conference on “Language, Literature, and Media”,
Cultural & Identity Studies Series, 2023.
10
A. Aoudjit, From the Heights of the Atlas: A Panorama of Traditional Poetry in Tamazight, Review of Middle East
Studies (2023), 56, 200–218.
11
H. Chafii, A Linguistic Investigation of the Main Concepts of Amazigh Poetry in Morocco and Algeria, Transnational
Literature Vol. 8 no. 1, November 2015.
12
El Guabli, Brahim. “The Amazigh Musical Style of Rouicha: Transcending Linguistic and Cultural Boundaries.”
Review of Middle East Studies, 2024.
13
B. El Guabli, Musicalizing Indigeneity: Tazenzart as a Locus for Amazigh Indigenous Consciousness, Tamazgha
Studies Journal, Vol. 2, 2024.
14
A. Aoudjit, From the Heights of the Atlas: A Panorama of Traditional Poetry in Tamazight, Review of Middle East
Studies (2023), 56, 200–218.
15
M. D. Spaulding, Language as a Bridge to the Soul: The Role of the Urban, Language as a Bridge to the Soul: The
Role of the Urban, Multilingual, Literate Amazigh Woman and Tarifit in Preserving Multilingual, Literate Amazigh
Woman and Tarifit in Preserving Amazigh Ethnic Identity in the Rif, Channels: Where Disciplines Meet: Vol. 8: No. 1,
Article 1.
16
H. Chafii, A Linguistic Investigation of the Main Concepts of Amazigh Poetry in Morocco and Algeria, Transnational
Literature Vol. 8 no. 1, November 2015.
17
Tayeb, Leila. “Our Star: Amazigh Music and the Production of Intimacy in Revolutionary Libya.” The Journal of
North African Studies 23, no. 5 (2018): 834–850.
4
Themes of Resistance in Traditional Music and Poetry
Themes of resistance that have reverberated for centuries may be found when examining the
lyrics and melodies of traditional Amazigh poetry and music. These creative forms, which have their
roots in an oral tradition that has preserved cultural memory and identity, offer insights into the
Amazigh people's past struggles and ambitions.
In their song ‘Abriḏ inu ḏ wa’ (‘This Is My Way’, 2002) the musical band Thidrin sing:
Although they sent me away to the limits of the world
and left me naked and barefooted,
Although they broke my bones with the warplane,
and electrified my ears endlessly,
This is my way, I have always wanted it.
Do not cry mother, do not shed a single tear for me.
This is my way, I have always wanted it
The Imazighen of the Rif area are known for their defiant tone, which is evident in the song.
The vocalist of "This Is My Way" highlights a recurrent theme in Amazigh song by expressing
struggle against tyranny and asserting their identity while being forced to relocate. 18
Social inequality, injustice, and the denial of cultural rights have long been topics in Amazigh
poetry and song. Rifi women can express their experiences and worries in a patriarchal culture
through Izlan poetry in particular. These verses often tackle themes related to the roles of women in
Amazigh society, such as marriage and family life, and may also express the desire for greater
mobility and freedom. The article “Unearthing Amazigh/Rifi Female Identity through Oral Poetry in
Colonial Morocco” provides examples of Izlan poetry where women express their desires and
frustrations, touching upon themes of luck, beauty, and even the challenges of migration.
I walked under the fig tree / I counted the branches
I met there my lover / If you only know how much he wept
Oh my bleeding heart / Its injury is as deep as a groove
Oh dear God / Will it cure or never
18
Dahraoui, Abdelbasset. Amazigh Culture and Media: Migration and Identity in Songs, Films and Websites. Doctoral
dissertation, University of Amsterdam, 2014.
5
Oh cars’ way / where bitter melon grows
Oh find me my luck / in which land it is entombed
Oh me who was / the olive oil of an olive tree
Telling someone good morning / I became valueless
Oh bunch of grapes / hanged to the mirror
He who wants beauty / should go Tafarsit (name of a village)
I got on a car / It has no doors
Oh farewell mother / farewell homeland
Oh go, just go / Since you no more care about me
Seven mountains of the Rif / To whom you are leaving me?
Oh big house / that whose walls are medium
You’re surrounded by / oranges and Safri pomegranades
You’re wall is tall / the owner is manly
I won’t drink tea / I won’t clean the cups
I am asking God / Help me go Aliman (Germany)19
The use of metaphors and imagery that allude to the fight for cultural survival is another way
that resistance is expressed. For instance, singer Rouicha uses repetition in his songs to highlight the
need for change and to evoke a sense of urgency, like in "Awra, awra, awra" ("come, come, come"). 20
The fight of the Imazighen to maintain their culture and language against assimilation is reflected in
his lyrics, which frequently deal with themes of love, grief, and longing for home. The article “The
Amazigh music Style of Rouicha” by Brahim El Guabli discusses how Rouicha's use of the lion as a
symbol of strength and resilience connects to the Amazigh people's historical relationship with their
natural environment and their resistance against external threats. In some of Chamkh's songs, the
19
J. Izlan & Radouani, Dr. F. Chafyq, Unearthing Amazigh/Rifi Female Identity through Oral Poetry in Colonial
Morocco, Culture and Identity Studies: Proceedings of the Annual Conference on “Language, Literature, and Media”,
Cultural & Identity Studies Series, 2023.
20
El Guabli, Brahim. “The Amazigh Musical Style of Rouicha: Transcending Linguistic and Cultural Boundaries.”
Review of Middle East Studies, 2024.
6
argan tree is used as a symbol, underscoring the opposition against the seizure of ancestral lands and
reinforcing the link between land and Amazigh identity. 21
Take a lion as a friend, and the mountain as a refuge
As for the human, treachery is one his traits, he is not to be trusted
How can one sleep when his home place is changed?
I did not have patience when my beloved hated me
Whatever it is, my faith is in God’s hands
Take a lion as a friend, and the mountain as a refuge
As for the human, treachery is one his traits, he is not to be trusted
Those who despise you… and you are an orphan
Take a lion as a friend, and the mountain as a refuge
As for the human, treachery is one his traits, he is not to be trusted
You who dig my grave, let me tell you my story
Take a lion as a friend, and the mountain as a refuge
As for the human, treachery is one of his traits, he is not to be trusted.22
Amazigh musical and literary production were significantly impacted by the Arab Spring,
which served as an opportunity for a creative and activist explosion. Young artists were inspired to
utilize their art as a vehicle for expressing their frustrations, aspirations, and calls for greater freedom
and respect of cultural rights by the climate of revolt and the need for change. As stated in the article
“Our Star: Amazigh Music and the Production of Intimacy in Revolutionary Libya” by Leila Tayeb,
the 2011 Libyan revolution, part of the broader Arab Spring uprisings, provided a context for Amazigh
artists like Dania Ben Sasi to express their aspirations for freedom and self-determination through
music. During the Libyan revolution, the song "Agrawli itri nneɣ" was released, celebrating the
"spring of freedom" and the return of Amazigh dignity. Sung in Tamazight, the lyrics express a sense
of pride and hope shared by the Amazigh population, illustrating how music developed into a potent
instrument for bringing them together and organizing during this crucial time.
21
B. El Guabli, Musicalizing Indigeneity: Tazenzart as a Locus for Amazigh Indigenous Consciousness, Tamazgha
Studies Journal, Vol. 2, 2024.
22
El Guabli, Brahim. “The Amazigh Musical Style of Rouicha: Transcending Linguistic and Cultural Boundaries.”
Review of Middle East Studies, 2024.
7
Agrawli itri nneɣ Revolutionary, our star
Yeqqam leɣfa win-nneɣ You restored our dignity
Tafsut n tinelli (tilelli) The spring of freedom
Tafut n arrac-nneɣ The light of our youth
These artistic expressions were further expanded by the internet's and social media's
accessibility, which allowed artists to communicate with a larger audience and spread their messages
internationally. Virtual communities were made possible by internet platforms, which strengthened
relationships between the diaspora and their country and promoted a sense of unity and shared
identity. 23 For example, the article “The New Mass Media and the Shaping of Amazigh Identity” by
Amar Almasude, discusses how the internet has helped Imazighen from all over the world establish
a virtual community where they can discuss issues related to their culture and language.
Many young artists and poets rose to prominence during the Arab Spring. Besides Dania Ben
Sasi, whose work was discussed earlier, Abdelhadi Iggout of Izenzaren incorporated Indian and
Tibetan melodies into Amazigh music, demonstrating an innovative approach to tradition and cultural
fusion. Some of Izenzaren's most well-known songs were adapted from existing folklore by poet
Mohammed El Hanafi, while some of the lyrics have been disputed as his original work. El Guabli's
work, "Musicalizing Indigeneity: Tazenzart as a Locus for Amazigh Indigenous Consciousness," adds
another level of insight into the dynamics within Amazigh artistic manifestations by mentioning
Izenzaren and the disputes surrounding the songwriting. The analysis of these musicians and their
creations shows how, throughout the Arab Spring, young artists utilized their art to give voice to a
generation that demanded independence, change, and acknowledgment of their cultural rights. Their
music and poetry continue to resonate, inspiring the struggle for social justice and the preservation of
Amazigh culture.
Land as the foundation of Amazigh identity
It is clear how closely land is tied to the Amazigh culture's fight for self-determination,
territorial rights, and the protection of natural resources. In addition to being a geographical location,
land, or akāl, is the foundation of Amazigh identity, culture, and collective memory. Poetry and music,
especially the creations of young artists who reinterpret the concept of land in light of current issues,
Tayeb, Leila. “Our Star: Amazigh Music and the Production of Intimacy in Revolutionary Libya.” The Journal of
23
North African Studies 23, no. 5 (2018): 834–850.
8
are important manifestations of this connection. Environmental degradation and land dispossession
have long been themes in Amazigh music. Chamkh songs, for example, openly denounce state land-
grabbing practices in ‘Bughāba’, highlighting how the Forest Service has taken land from Amazigh
communities for questionable purposes such as the creation of reserves for wild boars. The song
emphasises the intergenerational consequences of this dispossession, reiterating that land has been
handed down by ancestors and should be protected for future generations. 24 The connection between
the land and the Amazigh identity is also manifested through the use of nature-related images and
metaphors. Chamkh's song ‘Argan d umāzīgh’, for example, celebrates the argan tree, a species
endemic to south-western Morocco, as a silent witness to the history and ancestral presence of the
Imazighen in that land. The argan tree becomes a symbol of resilience and deep connection to the
natural environment. El Guabli explains it in these words:
It starts with a very powerful opening, inviting those who are ignorant to discover that “yān usghār irā dawn iml
timitār” (one type of tree will show you the signs). This tree is called the argan, which the poem qualifies as being
the “first to be in our place [land].” Thus, the argan is given precedence over any other tree or person, making it a
timeless witness. As such, argan will:
ⴰⴷⴰⴽ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⴽⴰⵍ
give you the testimony about water and land
ⴰⴷⴰⴽ ⵏⵎⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⵏ ⵢⵓⵔⵓⵏ
show you Imazighen and their ancestors
ⴰⴷⴰⴽ ⵉⵎⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵏⵙ
show you the homeland and its generations
B. El Guabli, Musicalizing Indigeneity: Tazenzart as a Locus for Amazigh Indigenous Consciousness, Tamazgha Studies
Journal, Vol. 2, 2024.
The inclusion of natural elements in the poetic texts further strengthens this connection. Words
such as ‘amān’ (water), ‘llouz’ (almond tree), ‘tizwit’ (bee), ‘ayyi’ (horse), ‘igger’ (field), ‘tamazirt’
(village/land of origin) and ‘wul’ (soul/heart) appear frequently in Usman's songs, evoking a sense of
belonging to the land and nature. Furthermore, in response to contemporary concerns like
urbanization, migration, and climate change, young Amazigh artists have redefined the idea of land.
Forced migration, in particular, has resulted in a feeling of alienation from one's homeland, a problem
that Rouicha tackles in songs such as "Awra." The lyrics discuss the challenges of adjusting to a new
24
B. El Guabli, Musicalizing Indigeneity: Tazenzart as a Locus for Amazigh Indigenous Consciousness, Tamazgha
Studies Journal, Vol. 2, 2024.
9
metropolitan setting as well as longing for the homeland 2526. Increasing urbanisation has led to a
disconnect between the new generations and traditional practices related to the land. The poem Izlan,
for example, reflects this transformation, with themes shifting from rural experiences to the concerns
of urban life. 27
Conclusion
In conclusion, Amazigh music and poetry emerge as profound vehicles of resistance, identity,
and cultural preservation. It is an ancient tradition with an oral basis whose modern forms keep alive
the stories and identity of the people who originate it in order to fight against their cultural
marginalization. Thus, whether through izli and tayffrt or through other creative transforms shaped
by modern young artists, this creativity has a deep-rooted resilience to language and land and
community. For example, themes of resistance, love, and nostalgia characterize almost all works of
art in the Amazigh sense, but mostly unite in fighting against different political and social forms of
oppression. The metaphorical use of nature as an argan tree or a lion symbolizes strength endurance
and the eternity of the ancestral soil bonding. Likewise, the forced migration and urbanism lyrics refer
to the state of collective yearning for something, emphasizing the recognition of Amazigh rights.
The Arab Spring provided a transformative moment for Amazigh artistry, fueling a surge of
creativity and activism. Music and poetry became space for young artists to raise their voices in the
search for freedom and justice, while the online world and social networking made such voices far-
reaching. In short, this is the new language through which both Amazighs, within North Africa and
the diaspora, conserve their history, develop solidarity, and create transnational dialogues.
In the end, it is a multi-dimensional landscape reflected in the way Amazigh music and poetry
narrate culture. These artistic expressions serve as tools for building intercultural understanding and
unity in addition to being authentic forms of self-expression through their marriage of tradition and
creation. The Imazighen continue to show how culture may preserve identity, motivate resistance,
and support larger social change in a world that is changing quickly.
25
El Guabli, Brahim. “The Amazigh Musical Style of Rouicha: Transcending Linguistic and Cultural Boundaries.”
Review of Middle East Studies, 2024.
26
C. Jay, Playing the ‘Berber’: the performance of Amazigh identities in contemporary Morocco, The Journal of North
African Studies, pp. 60-68, 2016.
27
J. Izlan & Radouani, Dr. F. Chafyq, Unearthing Amazigh/Rifi Female Identity through Oral Poetry in Colonial
Morocco, Culture and Identity Studies: Proceedings of the Annual Conference on “Language, Literature, and Media”,
Cultural & Identity Studies Series, 2023.
10
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Aoudjit, From the Heights of the Atlas: A Panorama of Traditional Poetry in Tamazight, Review
of Middle East Studies (2023), 56, 200–218.
Almasude, Amar, “The New Mass Media and the Shaping of Amazigh Identity.” In Revitalizing
Indigenous Languages. Presented at the Annual Stabilizing Indigenous Languages Symposium,
Louisville, Kentucky, 1998.
B. El Guabli, Musicalizing Indigeneity: Tazenzart as a Locus for Amazigh Indigenous Consciousness,
Tamazgha Studies Journal, Vol. 2, 2024.
C. Jay, Playing the ‘Berber’: the performance of Amazigh identities in contemporary Morocco, The
Journal of North African Studies, pp. 60-68, 2016.
Dahraoui, Abdelbasset. Amazigh Culture and Media: Migration and Identity in Songs, Films and
Websites. Doctoral dissertation, University of Amsterdam, 2014.
El Guabli, Brahim, and Aomar Boum. “The Amazigh Republic of Letters.” Review of Middle East
Studies, 2024.
El Guabli, Brahim. “The Amazigh Musical Style of Rouicha: Transcending Linguistic and Cultural
Boundaries.” Review of Middle East Studies, 2024.
H. Chafii, A Linguistic Investigation of the Main Concepts of Amazigh Poetry in Morocco and
Algeria, Transnational Literature Vol. 8 no. 1, November 2015.
J. Izlan & Radouani, Dr. F. Chafyq, Unearthing Amazigh/Rifi Female Identity through Oral Poetry in
Colonial Morocco, Culture and Identity Studies: Proceedings of the Annual Conference on
“Language, Literature, and Media”, Cultural & Identity Studies Series, 2023.
M. D. Spaulding, Language as a Bridge to the Soul: The Role of the Urban, Language as a Bridge to
the Soul: The Role of the Urban, Multilingual, Literate Amazigh Woman and Tarifit in Preserving
Multilingual, Literate Amazigh Woman and Tarifit in Preserving Amazigh Ethnic Identity in the Rif,
Channels: Where Disciplines Meet: Vol. 8: No. 1, Article 1.
T. B. Joseph, Poetry as a Strategy of Power: The Case of Riffian Berber Women, Signs, Vol. 5, No.
3. (Spring, 1980), pp. 418-434.
Tayeb, Leila. “Our Star: Amazigh Music and the Production of Intimacy in Revolutionary Libya.”
The Journal of North African Studies 23, no. 5 (2018): 834–850.
