Research Briefing

26 June 2023

By CJ McKinney,
Seasonal Worker visas and UK
Sarah Coe,
Iona Stewart
agriculture

Summary
1 The UK’s agricultural workforce
2 History of agricultural worker visa schemes
3 The Seasonal Worker visa scheme today
4 Working conditions and exploitation
5 Does the Seasonal Worker scheme meet farmers’ needs?

commonslibrary.parliament.uk
Number CBP-9665 Seasonal Worker visas and UK agriculture

Image Credits
Chris via Flickr

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Seasonal Worker visas and UK agriculture

Contents

Summary 4

1 The UK’s agricultural workforce 7

1.1 Total workforce 7

1.2 Reliance on seasonal workers 10
1.3 Foreign seasonal workers 11

2 History of agricultural worker visa schemes 13

2.1 The Seasonal Agricultural Workers Scheme, 1945-2014 13

2.2 No seasonal worker scheme, 2014-2019 16
2.3 Return of seasonal visas, 2019-present 18

3 The Seasonal Worker visa scheme today 22

3.1 Who qualifies for a visa? 22

3.2 What work is allowed? 23
3.3 Who can sponsor people for visas? 24
3.4 Where are workers recruited from? 26
3.5 What is the future of the scheme? 28

4 Working conditions and exploitation 31

4.1 Concerns about exploitation 31

4.2 Prevention of exploitation 34

5 Does the Seasonal Worker scheme meet farmers’ needs? 37

5.1 Industry views 37

5.2 Alternatives to migrant workers 38
5.3 Independent review of labour shortages 40

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Seasonal Worker visas and UK agriculture

Summary

There are 471,000 people in the UK’s agricultural workforce. A significant

proportion of this – at least 58,000 – is seasonal or casual labour. Farmers
rely on workers coming from abroad to fill these seasonal roles.

UK farmers have relied on European migrant

workers for decades
A visa scheme for migrant farm workers was in place in some form between
1945 and 2014. Participants were typically students from European countries.

The most recent incarnation, the Seasonal Agricultural Workers Scheme, was
restricted to Romanian and Bulgarian citizens from 2008. It was then
scrapped altogether in 2014. The government considered that demand could
be met by EU workers allowed to come to the UK without visas, particularly
from Eastern European countries.

Following reports of labour shortages and concerns about the effect of ending
EU free movement, a new Seasonal Worker Pilot scheme was announced in
2018. The Migration Advisory Committee said “if there is no such scheme it is
likely that there would be a contraction and even closure of many businesses”
in the horticultural sector.

The current Seasonal Worker visa scheme has

a quota of 45,000-55,000 a year
The new Seasonal Worker scheme launched in March 2019 initially had a
quota of 2,500 places per year. Free movement of EU workers has since
ended. In 2023 and 2024, there are at least 45,000 places per year (plus
another 2,000 for poultry workers). This can be increased by another 10,000
a year if the government considers it necessary to meet demand.

When the pilot began, workers mostly came from Ukraine and Russia. Today a
much wider range of nationalities is represented, including from Central
Asian countries such as Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. They are
allowed to do certain types of work (such as crop harvesting) in edible and
ornamental horticulture for up to six months in any year.

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Seasonal Worker visas and UK agriculture

The Johnson Government said that the Seasonal Worker scheme would be in
place at least until the end of 2024, but that the quota would be gradually
reduced. By contrast, the Sunak Government increased the quota for 2023
and 2024.

The visas are temporary, with limited rights

and extra safeguards
Seasonal Worker visas are issued by the Home Office. The criteria are set out
in the Immigration Rules. Visa holders are not allowed to remain in the UK
long-term, claim benefits or bring their families.

The government has authorised a small number of recruitment companies,

known as ‘scheme operators’, to arrange Seasonal Worker visas. Farmers
must hire their overseas workers through those companies and must
demonstrate that they are actively trying to recruit UK-based workers as well.
They cannot sponsor Seasonal Worker visas directly.

As part of the visa sponsorship arrangements, scheme operators have explicit

duties to look after workers’ welfare and make sure they are paid properly.

In 2022, one of the seven scheme operators was stripped of its licence and a
second suspended.

There are increasing concerns about

exploitation of migrant workers
The government recognises that Seasonal Worker visa holders “may be more
vulnerable and open to exploitation than other workers”. As the numbers
have increased, so have instances and allegations of exploitation or poor
working conditions. These include examples of workers paying overseas
recruiters to secure work in the UK; the need to pay off the resulting debt
makes them more dependent on their UK employer.

Scheme operators must have a licence from the Gangmasters and Labour
Abuse Authority and can have it revoked if they failed to abide by certain
standards. But the regulator does not routinely carry out inspections on farm
premises and says it is not the “lead agency” on the rights of seasonal
workers. The Independent Chief Inspector of Borders and Immigration has
reported a “lack of clarity about who is holding farmers and scheme
operators accountable”.

The Migration Advisory Committee and House of Lords Horticulture Sector

Committee are both holding inquiries into the Seasonal Worker scheme,
including the treatment of workers.

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Seasonal Worker visas and UK agriculture

Government policy is to reduce reliance on

overseas workers
The government wants farmers to gradually replace overseas workers with
domestic labour and machines. A review of automation in horticulture has
recommended that the Seasonal Worker scheme continue to play a major role
until technology such as robot crop pickers becomes widely available.

The Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs has commissioned
an Independent Review into Labour Shortages in the Food Supply Chain. Its
findings, which are overdue, will inform decisions on the future of the
Seasonal Worker scheme beyond 2024.

The National Farmers’ Union says reliance on overseas labour “will continue
to increase” for the foreseeable future. Farming industry representatives,
including the NFU, want the Seasonal Worker scheme to be guaranteed five
years ahead and for visas to last nine months instead of six.

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 Seasonal Worker visas and UK agriculture

1 The UK’s agricultural workforce

1.1 Total workforce

In 2022, the United Kingdom’s agricultural workforce was 471,000. This had
increased by 1% from 467,000 in 2021. 1

The majority (64%) of this workforce was in England with 301,000, followed
by Scotland with 67,000 (14%), Wales with 52,000 (11%) and Northern
Ireland with 50,000 (11%).

The total agricultural workforce across all four parts of the UK has remained
fairly stable from 2015 to 2022.

Agricultural workforce by UK country, 2015-2022

Thousands
500

Wales
400
N. Ireland
Scotland
300

200
England
100

0
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022

Source: Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, Agricultural Workforce in the United
Kingdom at 1 June

1 Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs (Defra), Agricultural Workforce in the United
Kingdom at 1 June. All figures are rounded to the nearest 1,000.

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Seasonal Worker visas and UK agriculture

Age of holders
Agriculture typically has an aging workforce. In the UK, around a third of all
holders (38%) were over the typical retirement age of 65, while the proportion
of young people aged under 35 was around 3%. The holder is defined as the
person in whose name the holding is operated.

In 2016, the average age for holders in the UK was 59 years old. This is the
median average: the middle value when all holders’ ages are ranking in
order.

Proportion of holders in each age group, 2016

Number of holders Percentage of holders
Under 35 years 5,362 3%
35-44 years 14,130 8%
45-54 years 39,806 22%
55-64 years 50,797 28%
65 years and over 68,555 38%
All 178,649 100%
Notes:
a) The data in this table relate to all holders whether or not the holder is also the manager of the
holding.
b) Holdings run by an organisation (such as limited companies or institutions) do not have
a holder and are therefore excluded from these figures.
c) Figures relate to commercial holdings only.

Source: Defra, Farm Structure Survey 2016, Agricultural labour in England and the UK

Workers by farm type

Each holding is classified to a farm type depending on the main economic
activities of the holding. The Farm Structure Survey collects farm type data on
workers who are family (holder and member of the holder's family), non-
family (regular and non-regular) and contractual (workers not directly
employed by the holding).

There is a considerable degree of part-time working in agriculture. The

working time of each person who works on the farm is therefore measured in
Annual Work Units (AWU). One AWU corresponds to the work performed by a
person engaged in full-time agricultural work. The annual working time of
such a worker is 1,800 hours (225 working days of eight hours per day).

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Seasonal Worker visas and UK agriculture

Annual Work Units (AWU) of workers by farm type, 2016

Thousands

Non-Family workers

Family workers

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Field crops Horticulture Permanent crops

Grazing livestock Pigs and poultry Mixed cropping
Mixed livestock Mixed crops and livestock Non-classified

Source: Defra, Farm Structure Survey 2016, Agricultural labour in England and the UK

According to AWUs in 2016, the largest proportion of workers were on grazing

livestock farms, followed by field crop farms. For family workers, 64% worked
on grazing livestock farms, 20% on field crop farms and 4% on pigs and
poultry. Non-family workers had greater variety: 32% worked on grazing
livestock farms, 31% on field crop farms and 13% on horticulture farms.

Annual Work Units (AWU) of workers by farm type

Thousands (1000s)
Family workers Non-Family workers
AWU Percentage AWU Percentage
Field crops 14,744 20% 18,766 31%
Horticulture 1,344 2% 7,749 13%
Permanent crops 705 1% 3,344 5%
Grazing livestock 46,723 64% 19,371 32%
Pigs and poultry 3,188 4% 6,315 10%
Mixed cropping 459 1% 1,012 2%
Mixed livestock 1,130 2% 752 1%
Mixed crops and livestock 4,863 7% 3,978 6%
Non-classified 66 0% 152 0%
All 73,221 100% 61,438 100%

Source: Defra, Farm Structure Survey 2016, Agricultural labour in England and the UK

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 Seasonal Worker visas and UK agriculture

1.2 Reliance on seasonal workers

A significant proportion of the agricultural workforce is defined as seasonal,

casual or gang labour. As shown in the chart below, there were around
58,000 such workers in 2022, making up 15% of the total in Northern Ireland,
14% in England and 12% in Scotland. Data is not available for Wales.

In 2022, 64% of the UK agricultural labour force (470,000) comprised of

farmers, business partners, directors and spouses (302,000) and 36%
comprised of regular employees, salaried managers and casual workers
(169,000).

Northern Ireland and Wales had the highest proportion of the workforce
comprising of farmers, business partners, directors and spouses (77%),
followed by Scotland (64%) and England (60%).

Composition of agricultural workforce by UK country, 2022

Thousands (1000s)
England Scotland Wales N. Ireland UK
Total labour force (incl. farmers
and spouses) 301.1 67.4 49.9 52.2 470.6
Farmers, business partners,
directors and spouses 179.8 43.3 38.4 40.4 301.8
Full time 94.1 15.2 18.2 20.3 147.9

Part time 85.7 28.0 20.2 20.1 154.0

Regular employees, salaried

managers and casual workers 121.4 24.1 11.5 11.8 168.8

Regular employees 79.6 16.1 n/c 3.8 ..

Full time 52.6 9.9 n/c 2.2 ..

Part time 27.0 6.3 n/c 1.6 ..

Seasonal, casual or gang labour 41.7 8.0 n/c 8.0 ..
Notes:
a) Part time is defined as less than 39 hours per week in England and Wales, less than 38
hours per week in Scotland and less than 30 hours per week in Northern Ireland.
B) n/c signifies that data has not been collected

Source: Defra, June Survey of Agriculture, Annual time series

Out of the farmers, business partners, directors and spouses in the UK,
approximately half worked full time and half worked part time. Scotland was
the exception, with 35% working full time and 65% working part time.

Out of the regular employees, approximately 60% worked full time and 40%
worked part time in England, Scotland and Northern Ireland. The data for
Wales was not collected.

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 Seasonal Worker visas and UK agriculture

There were 42,000 people working as seasonal, casual or gang labour in

England, and 8,000 in both Scotland and Northern Ireland.

Composition of agricultural workforce by UK country, 2022

Thousands
Farmers, business partners,
directors and spouses (Full time)
Farmers, business partners,
N. Ireland
directors and spouses (Part time)
Regular employees (Full time)

Regular employees (Part time)

Wales

Seasonal, casual or gang labour

Scotland

England

0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Notes:
Part time is defined as less than 39 hours per week in England and Wales, less than 38 hours
per week in Scotland and less than 30 hours per week in Northern Ireland.
Data is not collected on regular or seasonal labour in Wales.

Source: Defra, June Survey of Agriculture, Annual time series

The government estimates that between 50,000 and 60,000 seasonal

workers are needed annually to bring in the harvest across the UK. 2

1.3 Foreign seasonal workers

It is difficult to estimate what proportion of the seasonal workforce is from

overseas. While visa data provides figures for those coming from abroad (see
section 3.4), there is no official data collected on domestic recruitment.

The EFRA Committee has said:

It is a matter of concern that there continues to be no single, agreed figure for

the aggregate number and the breakdown by nationality of seasonal
agricultural workers, given the importance of this data for the formulation of
policy. 3

2
PQ HL946 [on Horticulture: Seasonal Workers], 14 June 2022
3
Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Committee, The UK’s new immigration policy and the food
supply chain, HC 231 2019-21, 22 December 2020, p33

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Seasonal Worker visas and UK agriculture

NFU
The National Farmers’ Union (NFU) Supply of Seasonal Labour data is the only
data source that identifies the nationality of all seasonal agricultural
workers. It does this by asking recruiters where their seasonal workers are
recruited from.

According to the NFU’s 2022 mid-season survey, the proportion of seasonal

workers that were domestic was 3.3%. It was between 1-7% at the end of 2021
and between 6-9% at the end of 2020. 4

This is an increase on pre-pandemic levels. The NFU estimated that 99% of

horticultural seasonal labour was provided by EU workers in 2017. Its survey
for that year found that over two-thirds (67%) of the seasonal labour force
were EU2 nationals (Romanians and Bulgarians) and nearly one-third (32%)
were EU8 nationals (Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania,
Poland, Slovenia and Slovakia). 5

UK citizens accounted for less than 1% of the horticultural seasonal workforce

when employed through an agency or labour provider in 2017. However, it is
likely that the true proportion recruited from the UK is slightly underestimated
by the NFU survey as labour providers predominantly recruit from Europe.

Defra
The Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra), in its Food
Security Report 2021, agreed that almost all seasonal workers come from
outside the UK. 6

4
Economic Affairs Committee, UK labour supply, Ev 24
5
ONS, Labour in the agriculture industry, UK: February 2018, 6 February 2018
6
Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs, UK Food Security Report 2021, 16 December 2021

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 Seasonal Worker visas and UK agriculture

2 History of agricultural worker visa

schemes

2.1 The Seasonal Agricultural Workers Scheme,

1945-2014

1945-2008: European students

The UK has a long history of reliance on foreign agricultural workers. The first
Seasonal Agricultural Workers Scheme (SAWS) was introduced in 1945 in
response to labour shortages after World War 2.

The Migration Advisory Committee, or MAC, gave a brief history in a 2013

report. It noted that participants historically tended to be students from
European countries providing short-term labour during harvest time:

The scheme originated after the Second World War and was designed to
facilitate the movement of young people from across Europe to work in
agriculture, primarily as an additional source of labour in peak season. It was
originally set up as an opportunity for cultural exchange for young people but
has developed and changed with trends in demand and supply of labour as
well as the policy environment.

[…]

While there have been changes in the eligibility rules, quota size and operation
of the scheme, the scheme has remained essentially the same [up to 2013],
enabling workers (usually students) to come to the UK for short periods,
specifically to live and work on farms during peak seasons. A number of labour
providers became operators for the scheme and came to have an increasingly
important role by recruiting participants, allocating them to employers and
monitoring pay and conditions. 7

In 1949, for example, Minister of Labour George Isaacs told the House that
20,000 foreign agricultural workers had been recruited under “official
schemes” the previous year (not counting German former prisoners of war). 8

Comprehensive historical statistics are not available, but the MAC obtained
and published some comparatively recent data for its 2013 report. They show
that the annual quota rose from 5,000 in the mid-1990s, to 10,000 in the late

7
Migration Advisory Committee, Migrant seasonal workers, 1 May 2013, paras 3.6-3.8
8
HC Deb 24 March 1949 c586

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Seasonal Worker visas and UK agriculture

1990s, and then rapidly to a peak of 25,000 in 2004. The quota figures do not
necessarily represent the actual uptake, though.

Detailed figures are available from 2004. That year, the main nationalities
taking up SAWS visas were Ukrainian, Bulgarian, Russian, Belarussian, Polish
and Romanian. 9

Also in 2004, Poland joined the European Union along with seven other
Central and Eastern European countries (the so-called ‘A8’). Citizens of those
countries, who accounted for one third of SAWS take-up, could now work in
the UK visa-free. In response, the government reduced the SAWS quota by a
similar proportion, from 25,000 to 16,250. 10

More broadly, the government decided to phase out the SAWS and similar
quota-based schemes, as the need for lower-skilled workers could be met by
migration from the expanding EU. 11 Bulgaria and Romania joined in 2007,
although the Labour Government opted to apply transitional restrictions to
Bulgarian and Romanian workers’ free movement rights. It also limited SAWS
eligibility to citizens of those two countries from the beginning of 2008. As the
immigration minister, Phil Woolas, told the House of Commons:

from 1 January 2008, the SAWS was restricted to nationals of Romania and
Bulgaria. In addition, the requirement to be in full-time education was lifted, to
open up the pool of available labour. That was of course a break with a
tradition going back to the 1940s. 12

Successful applicants received a work card permitting them to work in the UK,
for a specific employer, for a maximum of six months.

2008-2014: Bulgarians and Romanians only

In response to reports of labour shortages, the MAC recommended that the
quota increase to 21,250, which was implemented in 2009. Over the next few
years, roughly 20,000 Romanian and Bulgarian workers came to the UK each
year (a take-up rate of well over 90% of the quota). They were particularly
concentrated in Kent, Herefordshire, parts of the East of England and the east
coast of Scotland. 13

Under EU law, transitional restrictions on Romanian and Bulgarian workers

could only be kept in place until 1 January 2014. 14 After that, they could move
to the UK visa-free. The Coalition Government then had to decide whether to

9
Migration Advisory Committee, Migrant seasonal workers, 1 May 2013, figure 3.2
10
As above, para 3.10
11
Home Office, Controlling our borders: Making migration work for Britain, Cm 6472, 7 February 2005,
p16
12
HC Deb 5 November 2008 c103WH
13
Migration Advisory Committee, Migrant seasonal workers, 1 May 2013, para 13
14
See Commons Library briefing SN/HA/06606, Ending of transitional restrictions for Bulgarian and
Romanian workers

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Seasonal Worker visas and UK agriculture

rely entirely on EU workers to fill the relevant jobs, or to open the SAWS back
up to some non-EU citizens.

The MAC was asked to look at the impact of allowing the scheme to expire. In
its 2013 report, the committee concluded that closing the scheme was unlikely
to cause problems in the short term but that farms could face recruitment
problems over time:

We found little evidence that, following the closure of the current scheme at
the end of 2013, the current supply of seasonal workers from Bulgaria and
Romania and the A8 countries will decline in the short term. However, in the
medium term, farmers are likely to experience increasing difficulties sourcing
the required level of seasonal labour from the EU (including the UK) labour
market. A new source of seasonal labour is likely to be required, or the
horticulture sector will need to consider alternatives if increased labour costs
cannot be absorbed without impacting on its size […] to secure long-term
investments in horticulture, it would be helpful for farmers to know what the
Government will do post-2013 as soon as is practicable. 15

In September 2013, immigration minister Mark Harper announced that the

Coalition Government did not intend to open a new SAWS for non-EU workers
after lifting restrictions on Bulgarians and Romanians. The government’s view
was that there should be sufficient workers from within the UK and EU labour
markets to meet the needs of the horticultural industry. The minister
promised to keep the situation under review:

The government recognises that the SAWS has for many years provided an
efficient supply of labour for the horticultural sector. The Department for Work
and Pensions has been working with JobCentre Plus, LANTRA (the sector skills
council), the National Farmers’ Union and others, including growers and
horticultural recruitment firms, to help unemployed UK residents into
horticultural work through training and guaranteed interviews. A pilot scheme
to encourage unemployed UK residents to apply for, train and secure jobs on
arable farms has shown encouraging results with a high proportion of
participants going on to secure employment in the sector. We want to build on
this and other innovative approaches. The government… looks forward to
working with the sector to monitor and address the issues, and will keep the
situation under review. 16

The SAWS duly closed from the start of 2014. The government also ended a
similar scheme for the food processing sector, which had been in place since
2003 and was later restricted to Bulgarians and Romanians only. 17 Defra set
up a working group to monitor the supply of seasonal labour. 18

15
Migration Advisory Committee, Migrant seasonal workers, 1 May 2013, para 24
16
HC Deb 12 September 2013 c60WS
17
Migration Advisory Committee, Migrant seasonal workers, 1 May 2013, chapter 2
18
PQ 129968 [on Seasonal Agricultural Workers’ Scheme], 27 February 2018

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 Seasonal Worker visas and UK agriculture

2.2 No seasonal worker scheme, 2014-2019

Between 2014 and early 2019, there was no seasonal worker visa. EU free
movement was possible throughout this period. It would not ultimately end
until 31 December 2020. 19

Calls for a SAWS replacement

Nevertheless, there was debate during this period about the desirability of re-
establishing a seasonal work scheme for non-EU nationals. In March 2016 the
National Farmers’ Union called on the government to allow agricultural
students from all over the world to undertake seasonal harvest work in the
UK. The request followed an NFU survey showing growers struggled to source
an adequate supply of seasonal workers to meet their needs. 20

These discussions took on a renewed urgency following the Brexit referendum

vote in June 2016 and possible end of free movement as a result.

In response to a parliamentary question in November 2016, Defra said:

With regard to seasonal labour, until we leave the EU, there are no changes to
labour movements. Defra is very aware that migrant workers from other EU
countries will be one of the complex issues that will have to be resolved as part
of our exit negotiation and future relationship with the EU. 21

The NFU renewed its call for a “global, seasonal agricultural workers scheme”
in December 2016. Describing the labour shortages as a “red alert”, NFU
deputy president Minette Batters warned that fruit and vegetable crops would
be “rotting in the fields” without action. 22

In a 2017 BBC survey, some fruit and salad growers said they might not have
enough migrant workers to harvest their crops. 78% of respondents said
recruitment had been more difficult than last year, with 20% saying it had
been the hardest for years. 23

Migration Watch, a think tank campaigning for lower immigration, argued

that a new seasonal agricultural workers’ scheme should be a “last resort”
following Brexit.

Importing seasonal labour perpetuates low productivity in the agricultural

sector and denies opportunities to British workers who are unemployed or are
seeking part time work. If it were to be considered in the context of the Brexit
negotiations any scheme should be transitional and tapered. 24

19
Immigration and Social Security Co-ordination (EU Withdrawal) Act 2020, s1
20
National Farmers’ Union, NFU End of Season Labour Survey 2015 (PDF), 29 March 2016
21
PQ HL3098 [on Agriculture: Seasonal Workers], 8 November 2016
22
“NFU issues warning on potential labour shortage”, Farmers Weekly [online], 2 December 2016
23
“Fruit and veg farmers facing migrant labour shortages”, BBC News [online], 22 June 2017
24
Migration Watch UK, MW 393: The Seasonal Agricultural Workers Scheme, 18 October 2016

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Seasonal Worker visas and UK agriculture

Ministers initially declined to revive SAWS in the immediate post-referendum

period. A July 2017 Library briefing reported “the Government has been
consistent in saying that there ought to be no new Seasonal Agricultural
Workers Scheme whilst the UK remains part of the EU”.

The Labour Party, however, called for “another SAWS”. Defra minister George
Eustice replied that the department had kept labour shortages “under
review” since SAWS closed and that the post-SAWS working group had
recently discussed “anecdotal reports that things are getting harder”. He
added “the Home Office intends to commission the Migration Advisory
Committee to do a major piece of work in this area”. 25

At the end of July 2017, the Home Secretary commissioned the MAC to report
on immigration from the EU and on “the role of migration in the wider
economy and society”. 26 The commissioning letter explicitly mentioned
seasonal work. The MAC worked on the commission for a year.

In the meantime, ministers began to signal that a scheme for non-EU

seasonal workers might be possible even while EU free movement continued.
In February 2018, the Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural
Affairs, Michael Gove, told the NFU conference that the argument for a new
scheme was “compelling”. 27

Resolution of the House of Commons, 1 March 2018

“That this House recognises that seasonal migrant workers make a
substantial and positive impact on the UK economy; believes that easy access
to seasonal migrant workers is vital for economic prosperity; and calls on the
Government to bring forward proposals to allow businesses to continue to
access seasonal migrant workers from EU and non-EU countries.” 28

Pilot scheme announced

The Home and Defra Secretaries announced a pilot seasonal worker scheme
on 6 September 2018, shortly before the MAC published its report. The scheme
would have a quota of 2,500 places and run from early 2019 to the end of
2020. 29 Workers would be able to stay for up to six months. The ministers
emphasised that “farmers must also look at ways that technology can reduce
demands for labour”.

25
HC Deb 6 July 2017 cc211WH-216WH
26
Home Office, Commissioning letter to the Migration Advisory Committee, 27 July 2017
27
Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs, A Brighter Future for Farming, 20 February 2018
28
HC Deb 1 March 2018 c1044
29
Home Office, Defra and Office of the Secretary of State for Scotland press release, UK farmers given
support for seasonal labour with new pilot scheme, 6 September 2018

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 Seasonal Worker visas and UK agriculture

The MAC published its report on post-Brexit immigration policy on 18

September 2018. It did not recommend for or against a seasonal worker
scheme, but noted the pros and cons:

The labour market for seasonal agricultural labour is completely separate

from the market for resident workers in a way that is unlike any other labour
market. According to the ONS, 99 per cent of seasonal agricultural workers
are from EU countries and it is difficult to imagine a scenario in which this
workforce can come from the resident labour market…

If there is no such scheme it is likely that there would be a contraction and

even closure of many businesses in the parts of agriculture in the short-run, as
they are currently very dependent on this labour…

If there is a scheme for seasonal agricultural workers one has to be very clear
that it would give privileged access to migrant labour for one sector which is
generally low-wage and low-productivity. It is important that this scheme is
restricted to genuine seasonal agricultural workers and does not become used
by others.

There is also the risk that the sector would use a SAWS scheme to avoid the
need for higher productivity…

We think that the sector should pay something in return for this privileged
access to labour. We propose that employers are required to pay a higher
minimum wage in order to encourage increases in productivity… 30

The pilot opened for applications on 6 March 2019. 31

2.3 Return of seasonal visas, 2019-present

Since its revival in 2019, the seasonal worker visa scheme has steadily
expanded.

The scheme began as the Seasonal Workers Pilot with 2,500 places for 2019.
Defra said “the Pilot did not aim to meet all labour shortages in the sector,
but to test an immigration route subcategory for seasonal workers”. Almost
all the places were taken up (2,481). 32

A review of the 2019 pilot concluded, among other things, that it had shown
itself able to contribute towards supporting growers during peak production
periods. Satisfaction rates amongst workers was relatively high and the
majority were paid on time and in full. But it also highlighted some welfare
issues and potential abuses (see section 4 below).

30
Migration Advisory Committee, EEA migration in the UK: final report, 18 September 2018, paras 7.56-
7.62
31
Home Office and Defra press release, Seasonal workers pilot opens, 6 March 2019
32
Home Office and Defra, Seasonal workers pilot review 2019, 24 December 2021

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Seasonal Worker visas and UK agriculture

The scheme was expanded to 10,000 places for 2020. Defra said “the
expansion will support these farmers over this year’s busy summer harvest,
while allowing government to test the pilot further”. It emphasised that the
higher quota was still “not designed to meet the full labour needs of the
horticultural sector”, noting that EU citizens could still travel for seasonal
work under free movement laws. 33

At the end of 2020, the pilot was extended for another year, and the quota
further expanded to 30,000 places for 2021. The announcement mentioned
the particular needs of Scottish farmers; the need to encourage UK-based
workers to take on seasonal jobs; and a forthcoming Defra review of labour-
saving automation in horticulture. 34 EU free movement ended on 31 December
2020.

Non-agricultural seasonal visas

In late 2021, amid reports of labour shortages elsewhere in the food supply
chain, the government temporarily adjusted the Seasonal Worker scheme to
cover certain jobs outside horticulture: poultry workers, pork butchers and
heavy goods vehicle drivers. Applications were only possible for a short time,
and the visas lasted between six weeks and six months. 35
The number of applications in each sector was considerably below quota.
Many industry stakeholders felt that the visa provision was “too little, too
late”. 36 The government says it “does not plan to re-introduce similar
temporary visa schemes in the future”. 37
However, the British Poultry Council described the poultry worker visa scheme
(which attracted over 1,800 applicants) as a “success”. The government
decided to expand the Seasonal Worker scheme to cater for poultry workers,
with 2,000 visas a year available in the run-up to Christmas (when demand
for turkey and other poultry increases). 38
This is reminiscent of the previous Sectors Based Scheme, which provided
temporary visas for non-EU food processing workers between 2003 and 2013. 39

33
Home Office and Defra press release, 10,000 workers to boost British farming sector, 19 February
2020
34
Home Office, Defra and Office of the Secretary of State for Scotland press release, Up to 30,000
workers to help reap 2021 harvest, 22 December 2020
35
Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Committee, Labour shortages in the food and farming sector, 6
April 2022, HC 713 2021-22, table 1.
36
As above, para 28
37
Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Committee, Labour shortages in the food and farming sector:
Government Response to the Committee Fourth Report of Session 2021-22, HC 412 2022-23, 23 June
2022, p3
38
Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs, Seasonal worker visa route RFI notice, 27 June
2022
39
Madeleine Sumption and Mariña Fernández-Reino, Exploiting the Opportunity? Low-Skilled Work
Migration After Brexit, Migration Observatory at the University of Oxford, 30 August 2018, section 6

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Seasonal Worker visas and UK agriculture

In December 2021, Defra and the Home Office announced that the scheme
would last until the end of 2024. The ‘pilot’ terminology was dropped, with the
scheme now referred to as the ‘Seasonal Worker visa route’. The quota for
2022 was at least 30,000 places, with the possibility of another 10,000. The
scheme was also opened to ornamental, as well as edible, horticulture (ie
growing flowers and trees, not just food).

But the announcement also warned that the number of visas “will begin to
taper down from 2023”. It added “more must be done to attract UK workers
through offering training, career options, wage increases and to invest in
increased automation technology”. 40

Abortive plan for quota reduction after 2022

The Johnson Government had committed to gradually reducing the Seasonal
Worker visa quota after 2022. The then immigration minister, Kevin Foster,
told the EFRA Committee in December 2021: “there will be 30,000, 30,000
and 28,000 over the next three years”. 41 Defra envisaged that “growers will
increasingly recruit domestically”. 42

Instead, quotas have increased. First, the option to raise the 2022 quota by
10,000 places (to 40,000 in total) was triggered. 43 Of those, 2,000 were for
the poultry sector, making the revised horticultural worker quota 38,000
places for 2022.

Boris Johnson announced his resignation on 7 July 2022. 44 During her

successful campaign to replace him, Liz Truss supported an increase in the
quota. 45 On 28 September 2022, Defra said that a “similar number” to the
38,000 visas for 2022 would be “rolled forward for 2023… having regard to
the Prime Minister’s stated support for a short-term expansion of the visa
route”. 46

Liz Truss announced her resignation as Prime Minister on 20 October 2022.

The Times initially reported that the new Sunak Government was “not
expected” to increase the quota from the 2022 base level of 30,000. 47

In the event, Defra announced that there would be at least 45,000 places for
2023, and potentially 10,000 more “if necessary”. Farming minister Mark
Spencer said “while it is right that we offer long term support to increase the

40
Home Office and Defra press release, Industry given certainty around seasonal workers but told to
focus on domestic workforce, 24 December 2021
41
Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Committee, Oral evidence: Labour shortages in the food and
farming sector, HC 713, 14 December 2021, Q356
42
PQ HL946 [on Horticulture: Seasonal Workers], 14 June 2022
43
Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs, Government food strategy, 13 June 2022
44
Prime Minister’s Office, Prime Minister Boris Johnson's statement in Downing Street, 7 July 2022
45
“I’ll let more migrants in to pick fruit on farms, says Liz Truss”, The Telegraph [online], 31 July 2022
46
PQ 51839 [on Horticulture: Seasonal Workers], 20 September 2022
47
“Rishi Sunak heads for migration clash with Suella Braverman”, The Times [online], 27 October 2022

20 Commons Library Research Briefing, 26 June 2023

Seasonal Worker visas and UK agriculture

use of domestic labour, we also need to support businesses on the back of

what has been a challenging year for food producers”. 48

Traditionally, the quota for each calendar year was confirmed the preceding
December. But in May 2023, the government confirmed that there would
again be 45,000-55,000 places for 2024. 49 This was to give “further
certainty” to the sector, “enabling them to plan ahead for the picking
season”. 50

As discussed in section 3.5 below, the future of the scheme beyond 2024 has
not been confirmed at time of writing.

The table below shows the evolution of the Seasonal Worker scheme since
2019. It includes the temporary provision for HGV drivers, pork butchers and
poultry workers in late 2021, and the provision for poultry workers from 2022.

Seasonal Worker visas

a b
2019 2020 2021 2022
Quota 2,500 10,000 30,000 38,000
Scheme operators 2 2 4 4-5
Visas issued 2,493 7,211 29,587 26,575
Top nationalities Ukraine (91%) Ukraine (87%) Ukraine (67%) Ukraine (21%)
Moldova (7%) Moldova (4%) Russia (8%) Kyrgyzstan (13%)
Russia (2%) Belarus (3%) Bulgaria (4%) Uzbekistan (12%)
Notes:
(a) 2021 includes 2,015 visas issued to poultry workers, pork butchers and HGV
food drivers. These additional visas are not divided by nationality, therefore have
been included in the 2021 figures.
(b) 2022 includes up to 2,000 poultry workers.

Source: Library analysis of Defra announcements, Immigration Rules and Home Office immigration
statistics quarterly.

48
Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs press release, Government provides boost to
horticulture industry with certainty over seasonal workers, 16 December 2022
49
Prime Minister’s Office and Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs, An update following
the UK Farm to Fork summit held at 10 Downing Street on 16 May 2023, 16 May 2023
50
Prime Minister’s Office and Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs press release,
Government backs British farmers with new package of support, 15 May 2023

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 Seasonal Worker visas and UK agriculture

3 The Seasonal Worker visa scheme today

Seasonal Worker visas are issued by the Home Office. The criteria are set out
in the Immigration Rules. They include some features not present in other
work visa categories, such as explicit duties on visa sponsors to look after
workers’ welfare and make sure they are paid properly.

In 2023 and 2024, the Seasonal Worker quota for horticulture is 45,000 visas
a year. This can be increased by another 10,000 a year if the government
deems it necessary. 51 Kent is by far the most common area of the country for
people to work in, followed by Herefordshire. 52

This chapter describes the rules for horticultural workers. The rules for poultry
workers are covered briefly at the end.

3.1 Who qualifies for a visa?

From the applicant’s perspective, there are few formal requirements involved
in getting a Seasonal Worker visa. The main stipulation is to have a job offer
from a company licensed to provide seasonal workers, known as a ‘scheme
operator’ (see below). No English language ability is required.

The scheme operator offering the job will issue the worker with a ‘certificate
of sponsorship’. This needs to confirm, among other information, that the
person will be paid at least £10.42 per hour (the National Living Wage) and
guaranteed at least 32 hours’ work per week. The person can then use the
certificate of sponsorship to apply for their visa.

The resulting visa lasts no more than six months in any 12-month period and
cannot be extended. 53 Workers cannot bring their families or claim benefits. 54

51
PQ 905133 [on Food: Supply Chains], 18 May 2023. A further 2,000 visas are available for the poultry
sector.
52
Independent Chief Inspector of Borders and Immigration, An inspection of the immigration system
as it relates to the agricultural sector May to August 2022, 19 December 2022, Annex B
53
Home Office, Immigration Rules Appendix Seasonal Worker, para SAW 7.1
54
As above, para SAW 7.2

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 Seasonal Worker visas and UK agriculture

3.2 What work is allowed?

There are restrictions on what kind of work is permitted for Seasonal Worker
visa holders.

First, Defra stipulates that seasonal workers must not be employed for work
that requires labour all year round, or that is done in an office. 55

Second, the workers must only be doing certain tasks:

• Crop maintenance

• Crop harvesting

• Tunnel construction and dismantling

• Irrigation installation and maintaining

• Crop husbandry

• Packing and processing of crops on employer’s premises

• Preparing and dismantling growing areas and media

• General primary production work in edible and ornamental horticulture

• Activities relating to supervising teams of horticultural workers 56

Third, the job must be in the “horticulture sector”. This is defined as those
growing:

• Vegetables in greenhouses

• Vegetables outdoors, including herbs, leafy salads and potatoes

• Soft fruit, in greenhouses or outdoors

• Fruit in orchards, including apples, plums, cherries and apricots

• Vine and bines, including hops and grapes

• Mushrooms

• Bulbs and cut flowers, indoors or outdoors, including daffodils

• Pot plants, including pansies, violas, geraniums and poinsettias

55
Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs, Seasonal worker visa route RFI notice, 27 June
2022. These restrictions are not in the Immigration Rules.
56
As above

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 Seasonal Worker visas and UK agriculture

• “Hardy ornamental nursery stock”, including Christmas trees, shrubs,

roses, ornamental trees and perennials

• Tree and forest nurseries 57

The Skilled Worker alternative

If farms wish to hire overseas workers for other roles, they may need to
sponsor them for a Skilled Worker visa instead. Roles eligible for Skilled
Worker sponsorship include veterinarians, farmers, gardeners and various
agricultural and horticultural trades (such as market gardener, beekeeper
and tree surgeon).

Many relevant occupations are explicitly not eligible for Skilled Worker
sponsorship. These include tractor drivers, farm labourers, shepherds,
mushroom pickers and nursery workers. 58

This route is unlikely to be suitable for casual labour in any event. Sponsors
must have a Home Office licence to issue visa endorsements. Applicants must
have intermediate English language skills and satisfy minimum salary
requirements, normally £26,200. Jobs on the shortage occupation list can be
paid at a lower rate (but not less than £20,960). According to a May 2022
survey, 5% of food growers and manufacturers had recruited using the Skilled
Worker route. 59

3.3 Who can sponsor people for visas?

Employers cannot sponsor people for Seasonal Worker visas directly. Instead,
a small number of ‘scheme operators’ are responsible for recruiting,
sponsoring and safeguarding the welfare of workers. Farms must source their
workers from the scheme operators.

A company applying to become a scheme operator must:

• Be licenced by the Gangmasters and Labour Abuse Authority 60

• Be capable of providing workers to businesses across the UK

• Have adequate systems, processes and policies in place to ensure

immigration compliance and prevent workers being exploited 61

57
Home Office, Immigration Rules Appendix Seasonal Worker, para SAW 4.1(f)
58
Home Office, Immigration Rules Appendix Skilled Occupations, table 5
59
Association of Labour Providers, Food Supply Chain Labour Survey Results (PDF), May 2022, p19
60
UK Visas and Immigration, Workers and Temporary Workers: guidance for sponsors – sponsor a
seasonal worker, version 04/2023, 12 April 2023, para SE 2.5
61
Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs, How to submit a response for the request for
information (RFI), 27 June 2022

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Seasonal Worker visas and UK agriculture

At time of writing there are six scheme operators for horticulture:

• AGRI-HR

• Concordia

• ethero (trading as TELPASC)

• Fruitful Jobs

• HOPS Labour Solutions

• Pro-Force

There had been a seventh, AG Recruitment, but the Home Office revoked its
licence in early 2023 for “failing to meet the sponsor duties”. 62 Fruitful Jobs
also had its licence suspended and, reportedly, downgraded. 63

There are also two scheme operators for the 2,000 visas available for poultry
workers (Pro-Force and RE Recruitment).

Responsibilities of scheme operators

Scheme operators are subject to the normal compliance duties that apply to
all companies licenced to sponsor migrant workers. But they also have
additional responsibilities, some of which reflect the concern that seasonal
workers are particularly susceptible to exploitation. These additional duties
include:

• Monitoring workers’ welfare under 16 separate headings, such as

workplace safety, proper breaks and standard of accommodation;

• Allowing workers to request a change of employer;

• Not charging migrants for the offer of work. 64

Operators will lose their licence if they fail to meet immigration compliance
targets. In any 12-month period:

• 95% of workers sponsored by the scheme operator must be granted their

visas;

• 97% of workers granted visas must turn up at their place of employment;

62
PQ 171512 [on Visas: Seasonal Workers], 22 March 2023. The Home Office refused to disclose the
nature of the breaches but the Guardian’s Emily Dugan reported that Indonesian workers
overstaying their visas after running up debts to brokers was the “primary reason”.
63
PQ 171513 [on Visas: Seasonal Workers], 22 March 2023; “Fruitful Jobs seasonal worker licence is
reinstated”, The Grocer [online], 11 May 2023
64
UK Visas and Immigration, Workers and Temporary Workers: guidance for sponsors – sponsor a
seasonal worker, version 04/2023, 12 April 2023, paras SE 3.4, 3.7-3.9

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 Seasonal Worker visas and UK agriculture

• 97% of workers granted visas must leave the UK on time. 65

Other requirements reflect underlying policy goals. Scheme operators “must

only place workers with growers who have demonstrated to you that they are
actively engaging with Jobcentre Plus to recruit UK based workers”. 66

3.4 Where are workers recruited from?

Several factors have impacted the profile of migrant seasonal workers

coming to the UK. This includes the end of EU free movement from 1 January
2021, the impact of Covid-19 and the recent reduction in the number of
Ukrainian men coming to the UK on this visa since Russia’s full-scale invasion.

The table below shows the number of Seasonal Worker visas granted to each
nationality from 2019 onwards. Both the number of visas and the proportion
of visas granted to different nationalities has increased over time.

Seasonal Worker visas

a b
2019 2020 2021 2022
Ukraine 2,261 6,297 19,894 7,318
Kyrgyzstan 0 1 304 4,341
Uzbekistan 0 2 556 4,233
Tajikistan 0 2 980 3,894
Nepal 0 0 518 2,747
Kazakhstan 4 11 391 2,672
Moldova 180 285 865 2,230
Indonesia 0 0 0 1454
Romania 0 0 660 1,137
Bulgaria 0 0 1,110 1,029
Macedonia 0 0 123 666
Russia 47 195 2,276 534
Other 1 418 1,910 2,277
Total 2,493 7,211 29,587 34,532
Notes:
(a) 2021 includes 2,015 visas issued to poultry workers, pork butchers and HGV food
drivers. These additional visas are not divided by nationality, therefore have been
included in the 2021 figures.
(b) 2022 includes up to 2,000 poultry workers.

Source: Home Office, Entry clearance visas detailed datasets, Vis_D02

65
UK Visas and Immigration, Workers and Temporary Workers: guidance for sponsors – sponsor a
seasonal worker, version 04/2023, 12 April 2023, para SE 3.16
66
As above, para SE 3.12

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Seasonal Worker visas and UK agriculture

The growth in seasonal worker visas reflects the quota increases from 2,500
visas in 2019 to 40,000 in 2022, including 2,000 visas for temporary migrants
to work in the UK poultry sector. 67 The quota for 2023 is 47,000 visas, of which
45,000 are for the horticultural sector and 2,000 for the poultry production
sector. 68

Seasonal Worker visas

Thousand

40

35

30

25

20

15 Quota
Visas
10 issued

0
2019 2020 2021 2022

Notes:
2021 includes 2,015 visas issued to poultry workers, pork butchers and HGV food drivers.
These additional visas are not divided by nationality, therefore have been included in the
2021 figures.
2022 includes up to 2,000 poultry workers.

Source: Home Office, Entry clearance visas detailed datasets, Vis_D02

Since the Seasonal Worker scheme restarted in 2019, the most important
country of recruitment has been Ukraine. The proportion has declined
significantly since the escalation of the Russian invasion, but Ukrainians have
received more visas than any other nationality in each year of the scheme,
with 91% of visas (2,300) in 2019, 87% (6,300) in 2020, 67% (20,000) in 2021
and 21% (7,300) in 2022.

In 2021, 8% of Seasonal Workers (2,300) came from Russia, making it the

second-biggest source of Seasonal Worker visa holders after Ukraine. Since
the Russian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, visa applications from
Russian citizens have been subject to “additional and robust checks”. 69 The

67
Home Office, Why do people come to the UK? To work, 23 February 2023
68
UK Visas and Immigration, Workers and Temporary Workers: guidance for sponsors: sponsor a
seasonal worker, 12 April 2023
69
PQ 51765 [on Visas: Russia], 20 September 2022

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 Seasonal Worker visas and UK agriculture

Home Office also refused 45% of Seasonal Worker visa applications from
Russians decided in 2022 (up from 1% refused in 2021). 70

Many workers now come from central Asia. In 2022, the proportion of
Seasonal Worker visa holders from Kyrgyzstan was 13% (4,300), Uzbekistan
was 12% (4,200) and Tajikistan was 11% (3,900).

8% of all UK work visas issued in 2022 were in the Seasonal Worker category.
If dependants are excluded, Seasonal Worker visas accounted for 13%. 71

Help for Ukrainian citizens

In the aftermath of Russia’s full-scale military invasion of Ukraine in February
2022, the Home Office announced that Ukrainian Seasonal Worker visa
holders would have their visas extended to 31 December 2022. 72
Separately, the Ukraine Extension Scheme is open to Ukrainian citizens with
current or recently expired visas. It is free to apply and gives up to three
years’ permission to live, work, study and access public funds.
A Seasonal Worker visa holder could apply to switch to the Ukraine Extension
Scheme. Successful applicants would no longer be restricted to doing
seasonal agricultural work and would be able to sponsor family members to
join them under the Homes for Ukraine scheme. The deadline for applications
is 23 November 2023. 73

3.5 What is the future of the scheme?

Will the Seasonal Worker scheme continue past 2024?

Ministers have referred to “the Seasonal Worker visa route 2022-24”. 74 The
government has not yet made an announcement on the long-term future of
the scheme, beyond 2024.

In April 2022, the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Committee called on
the government to “make the scheme permanent; and commit to announcing
visa numbers in future on a rolling five-year basis”. 75

70
Home Office, immigration statistics, year ending March 2023, entry clearance visas detailed
datasets, table Vis_D02
71
As above
72
Home Office, Ukrainian nationals in the UK: visa support, 15 September 2022
73
Home Office, Statement of changes to the immigration rules, HC719, 18 October 2022
74
PQ 11700 [on Agriculture: Seasonal Workers], 1 June 2022
75
Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Committee, Labour shortages in the food and farming sector, 6
April 2022, HC 713 2021-22, p3

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Seasonal Worker visas and UK agriculture

Defra said in response: “an evidence-based decision on the future of the visa
route will be made in 2024”. 76
An Independent Review into Labour Shortages in the Food Supply Chain is
underway and was due to report in spring 2023. The review’s chair, John
Shropshire, said in late March that the report “will be issued in a couple of
months”. 77 Defra has said the outcome of the review “will inform our thinking
on the Seasonal Workers scheme” beyond 2024. 78

What if there were no Seasonal Worker visas?

In its 2019 report on post-Brexit immigration policy, the Migration Advisory
Committee said “if there is no such scheme it is likely that there would be a
contraction and even closure of many businesses”. But it added that this
outcome was manageable in the overall context:

while the failure to have some type of SAWS would be bad for the sector it is a
small, low-wage, low-productivity sector in the wider UK context so this should
not be seen as catastrophic for the economy as a whole. It may lead to
modestly higher prices for consumers for certain horticultural products. 79

Academics from the Universities of Oxford and Leeds add “relying on food
imports would not be a major change, as the UK already imports a
substantial share of its food and Britain has a globalised diet that reaches
well beyond the limited fruit and vegetables that can be produced on home
soil”. But they also say “one lesson learned from the Covid-19 pandemic is
that domestic food production is an essential component of the nation’s food
security”. 80

Government policy, as expressed in the June 2022 food strategy, is to

“broadly maintain the current level of food we produce domestically”. The
strategy also committed to “boosting production in sectors where there are
growth opportunities", including horticulture, with cucumbers and tomatoes
mentioned specifically. 81

76
Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Committee, Labour shortages in the food and farming sector:
Government Response to the Committee Fourth Report of Session 2021-22, HC 412 2022-23, 23 June
2023, p8
77
House of Lords Horticulture Sector Committee, Corrected oral evidence: The horticultural sector, 23
March 2023, Q43
78
PQ 60195 [on Horticulture: Seasonal Workers], 10 October 2022
79
Migration Advisory Committee, EEA migration in the UK: final report, 18 September 2018, para 65
80
Roxana Barbulescu, Carlos Vargas-Silva and Bethany Robertson, Without freedom of movement
who will pick the fruit?, UK in a Changing Europe, 14 April 2021
81
Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs, Government food strategy, CP 698, 13 June 2022,
para 1.3.1

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Seasonal Worker visas and UK agriculture

What about poultry workers?

On 18 October 2022, the Seasonal Worker rules were amended to cater for
poultry as well as horticultural workers. 82 There is an annual quota of 2,000
poultry visas, guaranteed until the end of 2024. 83
Some of the rules are different for poultry workers. The visas last a matter of
weeks, not months, from 2 October to 31 December each year.
The Immigration Rules define what counts as poultry work. The person must
be doing one of the following jobs:
• Butcher
• Bird/game dresser
• Killer and plucker
• Plucker
• Poulterer
• Poultry processor
• Poultry sticker
• Trusser
• Food operative
• Poultry catcher/handler
• Poultry vaccinator
• Poultry meat packer
For most of the occupations listed above (butchers to food operatives), the
person must be paid the pro rata equivalent of £26,200 a year. The rest (food
operatives to poultry meat packers) can be paid £10.42 an hour, as with
horticultural workers.

82
Home Office, Statement of changes to the immigration rules, HC719, 18 October 2022, pp43-45.
Poultry workers were also allowed to apply in late 2021, but this was envisaged as a one-off
measure.
83
National Farmers’ Union, Poultry seasonal worker visa labour providers confirmed, 14 September
2022

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 Seasonal Worker visas and UK agriculture

4 Working conditions and exploitation

4.1 Concerns about exploitation

Seasonal agricultural workers around the world are particularly vulnerable to

exploitation and ill-treatment, some experts say. 84

Focus on Labour Exploitation (FLEX), a charity, notes that temporary

migration schemes are “associated with increased risks of labour abuse and
exploitation”. It identifies various factors that contribute to the risks, some of
which are reflected in the terms of the Seasonal Worker visa:

• Debt bondage from illegal recruitment fees

• Barriers to changing job or sector

• Temporariness and lack of pathways to permanent residence

• No recourse to public funds

• Multiple dependencies on employer or third party

• Lack of guaranteed working hours 85

The Independent Chief Inspector of Borders and Immigration has highlighted

the “risk of exploitation running through the agricultural sector” in the UK. 86
Similarly, the Migration Advisory Committee has pointed to “specific
difficulties” with the Seasonal Worker scheme, including

fees being charged by recruitment agencies in migrant source countries; how

isolated the locations can be; and the large migrant workforce due to the
reliance on migrants to fill these roles. 87

The Director of Labour Market Enforcement rates the threat of seasonal

agricultural workers being exploited as “severe”. 88

84
For example, University of Nottingham Rights Lab, Modern Slavery Act Reporting in the Agricultural
Sector (PDF), October 2019
85
Focus on Labour Exploitation, New report highlights risks of human trafficking on UK Seasonal
Workers Pilot, 15 March 2021
86
Independent Chief Inspector of Borders and Immigration, An inspection of the immigration system
as it relates to the agricultural sector May to August 2022, 19 December 2022, para 1.18
87
Migration Advisory Committee, MAC Annual Report, 13 December 2022, p16
88
Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy, United Kingdom Labour Market Enforcement:
annual report 2019 to 2020, 9 June 2022, table 3

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Seasonal Worker visas and UK agriculture

A review of the scheme as it operated in 2019, published in December 2021,

identified no instances of modern slavery. But it did identify potential welfare
issues and allegations, including lack of health and safety equipment and
workers not given an employment contract in their native language. 89

Responding to the findings of the review, the Independent Anti-Slavery

Commissioner noted that “while no cases of modern slavery were identified…
there were strong indicators of labour exploitation, and these have continued
in recent seasons”. She suggested that these issues may be more widespread
than reported, in part because of low survey response rates. 90
FLEX’s response to the review criticised the conclusion that pay rates and
satisfaction were generally high amongst workers. It included findings from
FLEX research about problems with the scheme, including the risk that
workers were not free to transfer employers. 91
The Work Rights Centre, a charity supporting migrant workers, has also
highlighted barriers to reporting labour exploitation. 92 A subsequent briefing
noted the increased risk of illegal recruitment fees as scheme operators
expand recruitment into new countries (see section 3.4 above). 93

Recent issues
As seasonal worker numbers have increased, so have instances and
allegations of exploitation or poor working conditions. These include:

• A series of articles by the Bureau of Investigative Journalism and VICE

World News reported “widespread mistreatment of migrants working
at more than 20 UK farms, nurseries and packhouses in 2022”. These
included examples of unlawful wage deductions and low-quality
accommodation. 94

• A report by the immigration inspectorate covering May to August 2022

noted that eight out of 19 Home Office reports following compliance
visits to farms identified “significant [welfare] issues”. This included a
man forced to pull his own tooth for lack of dental treatment. Officials

89
Home Office and Defra, Seasonal workers pilot review 2019, 24 December 2021. The government has
not published a review of the scheme in subsequent years but told the Independent Chief Inspector
of Borders and Immigration that it would carry one out by April 2023.
90
Independent Anti-Slavery Commissioner, IASC raises concerns over labour exploitation risk for
migrant agricultural workers, 25 January 2022
91
Focus on Labour Exploitation, FLEX’s response to the Government’s review of the first year of the
Seasonal Workers Pilot, 13 January 2022
92
Work Rights Centre, Weed out exploitation, 2 March 2022
93
Work Rights Centre, Seasonal Work after the War in Ukraine, 18 June 2022
94
The Bureau of Investigative Journalism, “‘They treat you like an animal’: How British farms run on
exploitation”, 27 March 2023; “Migrant workers are being ripped off by employers on farms”, 5 April
2023; “‘It’s almost the same as living on the streets: this is how people picking your vegetables have
to live”, 13 April 2023

32 Commons Library Research Briefing, 26 June 2023

Seasonal Worker visas and UK agriculture

“did not act promptly or seriously” on such concerns and there was
“no effective process in place for follow-up action”. 95

• In August 2022, the Guardian covered allegations that Indonesian

citizens were charged up to £5,000 by local “brokers” to secure
employment. 96 The scheme operator in question has since lost its
sponsor licence. 97 The remaining scheme operators have stopped
recruiting Indonesian seasonal workers. 98

• In March 2023, a Nepali recruitment company lost its licence to supply

labour to the UK after charging people £12,000-£13,000 per head. 99
The scheme operators have stopped recruiting Nepalese seasonal
workers. 100

• Former seasonal workers giving evidence to the House of Lords

Horticulture Sector Committee in June 2023 highlighted personal
experience of working 18-hour days and sleeping in poorly heated
caravans. Some employers reportedly threatened to have people sent
home if they complained. 101

The Horticulture Committee had previously heard evidence that the main
common areas of exploitation were incorrect pay, illegal recruitment fees,
accommodation standards, inability to transfer employer and discrimination
based on nationality. 102 Experts also highlighted that some migrants who had
run up debt to come to the UK did not end up getting enough work to pay it
off. 103 The committee’s report is due by the end of November 2023.

A Migration Advisory Committee inquiry into the Seasonal Worker scheme,

announced in March 2023, will also cover “the potential for exploitation and
poor labour market practice”. 104

95
Independent Chief Inspector of Borders and Immigration, An inspection of the immigration system
as it relates to the agricultural sector May to August 2022, 19 December 2022
96
“Revealed: Indonesian workers on UK farm ‘at risk of debt bondage’”, The Guardian [online], 5 April
2022. See also “Migrant fruit pickers charged thousands in illegal fees to work on UK farms”, The
Bureau of Investigate Journalism [online], 27 May 2022
97
PQ 171512 [on Visas: Seasonal Workers], 22 March 2023
98
Home Office, Immigration statistics, year ending March 2023, entry clearance visas detailed
datasets, table Vis_D02 (showing that no Seasonal Worker visas were issued to Indonesian citizens
in Q4 2022 or Q1 2023).
99
Gangmasters & Labour Abuse Authority, Nepalese recruitment agency loses GLAA licence, 13 March
2023
100
“UK farmers stop recruiting Nepalese workers after exploitation warning”, Financial Times [online],
27 January 2023. No Seasonal Worker visas were issued to Nepalese citizens in Q1 2023.
101
Horticulture Sector Committee, Oral evidence, 22 June 2023 (transcript not available at time of
writing)
102
Horticulture Sector Committee, Corrected oral evidence: The horticulture sector, 11 May 2023, Q107
103
As above, Q102, Q105
104
Migration Advisory Committee, Letter to Immigration Minister on Seasonal Worker visa inquiry, 24
March 2023

33 Commons Library Research Briefing, 26 June 2023

 Seasonal Worker visas and UK agriculture

4.2 Prevention of exploitation

The Migration Observatory at the University of Oxford says preventing

exploitation is a complex problem. Policy options, aside from robust policing
of the low-wage labour market in general, include:

• Providing workers’ rights information in multiple languages;

• Monitoring of migrant workers’ pay and conditions after arrival;

• Proactive inspections;

• Allowing visa holders to switch employers;

• Regulation and supervision of recruitment agencies, including

cooperation with the authorities in countries of origin. 105

The government recognises that Seasonal Worker visa holders “may be more
vulnerable and open to exploitation than other workers” and says it takes the
issue of migrant welfare “very seriously”. 106

Responding to a parliamentary question in May 2023, farming minister Mark

Spencer emphasised the responsibilities of scheme operators:

The Home Office sponsor licence regime places a broad range of

responsibilities on the operators of the Seasonal Workers visa route to
safeguard migrant workers under the scheme, including protecting their rights
and ensuring effective enforcement of UK employment laws.

The Government keeps these protections under close and ongoing review. A
new team within the Home Office compliance network focuses on ensuring
sponsors are abiding by workers’ rights by improving training and processes
for compliance inspectors and creating clear policies and guidance for robust
action for scheme operators where workers are at risk of exploitation. Should
any of the selected operators fall short in these duties action will be taken, up
to and including the revocation of their sponsor licence. 107

One of the seven scheme operators had their licence revoked in 2023, while a
second operator was suspended. 108

In addition to the Home Office sponsor licence, scheme operators must have a
licence from the Gangmasters and Labour Abuse Authority (GLAA). 109
Gangmasters are people who provide workers for farms and certain other

105
Madeleine Sumption and Mariña Fernández-Reino, Exploiting the Opportunity? Low-Skilled Work
Migration After Brexit, Migration Observatory at the University of Oxford, 30 August 2018, section 7.2
106
PQ 11700 [on Agriculture: Seasonal Workers], 1 June 2022
107
PQ 183940 [on Agriculture: Migrant Workers], 5 May 2023
108
PQ 171513 [on Visas: Seasonal Workers], 22 March 2023
109
Home Office, Immigration Rules Appendix Seasonal Worker, para SAW 4.2(c)

34 Commons Library Research Briefing, 26 June 2023

Seasonal Worker visas and UK agriculture

food industries. 110 It is a criminal offence to operate as, or hire, a gangmaster

without a GLAA licence. 111

The requirements for getting and keeping a GLAA licence cover:

• Acting in a “fit and proper manner” at all times;

• Paying workers properly and registering with HMRC;

• Forced labour and mistreatment of workers;

• Quality of accommodation (if provided) for workers;

• Working conditions, such as breaks and trade union membership;

• Health and safety on the farm or other place of work;

• Recruitment and contractual arrangements, including a ban on charging

fees to workers;

• No subcontracting except to a fellow GLAA licence holder. 112

There are almost 1,100 licenced gangmasters. 113 The GLAA carried out 94
compliance inspections in 2019-20, 83 in 2020-21 and 61 in 2021-22. 114 Its
business plan calls for an increase. 115

Home Office funding for the GLAA in 2022-23 was £6.6 million. 116 This covers
both its work in the agricultural sector as well as prevention of labour abuse
across the wider economy (for example car washes and the garment
industry). Critics say this is less than the Home Office stationary budget. 117 The
GLAA says financial constraints are a “significant challenge on our ability to
deliver against our strategic plan”. 118

The GLAA regulates overseas businesses that recruit on behalf of scheme

operators. Its guidance states that “a GLAA licence holder, whether based in
the UK, or overseas, must not use the services of an unlicensed person or
business anywhere, whether they are based in the UK or overseas”. 119 In May

110
Gangmasters (Licensing) Act 2004, ss3-4
111
As above, ss6, 12, 13
112
Gangmasters and Labour Abuse Authority, Licensing Standards (PDF), January 2020
113
Gangmasters and Labour Abuse Authority, Annual Report and Accounts 2021-22, 12 December 2022,
p9
114
As above, p18; Annual Report and Accounts 2020-21, p39
115
Gangmasters and Labour Abuse Authority, Business Plan 2022/23 (PDF), undated, p19
116
PQ 11838 [on Seasonal Workers: Visas], 1 June 2022
117
“Watchdog disputes Braverman’s claim modern slavery laws being ‘gamed’”, The Guardian [online],
9 October 2022
118
Gangmasters and Labour Abuse Authority, Business Plan 2022/23 (PDF), undated, p13
119
Gangmasters and Labour Abuse Authority, GLAA Brief 79 - How licensing applies to businesses
outside of the UK, July 2022

35 Commons Library Research Briefing, 26 June 2023

Seasonal Worker visas and UK agriculture

2023, it signed an agreement with the governments of Kyrgyzstan and

Uzbekistan to increase oversight of firms recruiting seasonal workers there. 120

But the GLAA says it is not the “lead agency” on the rights of seasonal
workers. 121 Nor does it routinely inspect farms employing people on Seasonal
Worker visas. 122 It regulates labour providers, not employers. 123

The Home Office does carry out on-the-ground inspections. There were 25
such compliance visits between June 2021 and February 2022, interviewing
900 workers. 124 It aims to cover 5% of the workforce. 125

With effect from 12 April 2023, the department introduced a new requirement
that seasonal workers be guaranteed at least 32 hours’ paid employment per
week. 126

The Independent Chief Inspector of Borders and Immigration found a “lack of

clarity about who is holding farmers and scheme operators accountable”. 127 It
recommended that the Home Office publish a reference document showing
“who is responsible for what” between central government, devolved
executives and local authorities, underpinned by a memorandum of
understanding. 128 The Home Office agreed to put together a document
showing who does what within the department, and to share that with other
organisations, but not necessarily to publish anything. 129

Various non-governmental projects and initiatives aim to safeguard the

welfare of seasonal workers in the UK. These include an information app
launched in June 2022. 130 Supermarkets are reportedly funding “audits”
involving surveys of seasonal workers on farms as part of an industry “task
force”. 131

120
Gangmasters and Labour Abuse Authority press release, GLAA signs landmark agreements with
Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan, 30 May 2023. The Bureau of Investigative Journalism says that the GLAA
has refused to publish the text of the agreement.
121
“Revealed: Indonesian workers on UK farm ‘at risk of debt bondage’”, The Guardian [online], 14
August 2022
122
PQ 51713 [on Gangmasters and Labour Abuse Authority: Inspections], 20 September 2022
123
PQ 59819 [on Gangmasters: Licensing], 10 October 2022
124
Independent Chief Inspector of Borders and Immigration, An inspection of the immigration system
as it relates to the agricultural sector May to August 2022, 19 December 2022, para 8.10
125
As above, para 8.31
126
Home Office, Statement of changes to the Immigration Rules, HC 1160, 9 March 2023, para APP
SAW2; PQ 174225 [on Agriculture: Seasonal Workers], 27 March 2023
127
Independent Chief Inspector of Borders and Immigration, An inspection of the immigration system
as it relates to the agricultural sector May to August 2022, 19 December 2022, para 9.10
128
As above, p8
129
Home Office, A response to an inspection of the immigration system as it relates to the agricultural
sector, 19 December 2022
130
Gangmasters and Labour Abuse Authority, Sector-wide collaboration to improve workers’
experience on Seasonal Workers’ Scheme, 7 June 2022. Other apps are available.
131
“UK supermarkets to fund audits on farms to prevent worker exploitation”, Financial Times [online],
10 March 2023; “New taskforce to protect seasonal worker welfare”, Fresh Produce Journal [online],
17 March 2023

36 Commons Library Research Briefing, 26 June 2023

 Seasonal Worker visas and UK agriculture

5 Does the Seasonal Worker scheme meet

farmers’ needs?

5.1 Industry views

Over the last few years, farming organisations have reported labour
shortages and requested that more Seasonal Worker visas be made available
to fill them. Reliance on the visa scheme “will continue to increase” for the
foreseeable future, according to the NFU’s horticulture growth strategy. 132

The Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Committee published a report on

Labour shortages in the food and farming sector in April 2022. It reported
accounts of horticultural labour shortages in 2021:

The National Farmers’ Union (NFU) reported that 24% of the UK daffodil crop
was left unpicked at the start of 2021 “due to a staggering 33% shortage in
seasonal workers”, while Lea Valley Growers’ Association noted that “10% of
cucumber growing members didn’t plant a third crop” in July 2021 due to a
lack of workers. Riviera Produce Ltd reported that it “left over £500,000 of
produce to rot in the fields” due to a lack of staff, and Boxford Suffolk Farms
Ltd said it “had to waste approximately 44 tonnes of fruit this year” due to
labour shortages. 133

An Association of Labour Providers survey, carried out in April/May 2022,

found that “the food industry continues to suffer chronic labour shortages”. Of
the 92 labour supply companies that responded to the survey, 89% were
unable to supply enough workers to meet demand from clients. Of the 87 food
growers and manufacturers that responded, 77% had experienced shortages
of lower-skilled workers. 134
The NFU says the quota increase to 45,000-55,000 for 2023 and 2024
represents a “significant stride forward” and “provides a certain level of
relief”. 135 But it stopped short of endorsing the rise as sufficient to meet
demand and has previously estimated that the sector needs 70,000 seasonal
workers a year. 136

132
National Farmers’ Union, UK horticulture growth strategy (PDF), March 2023, p3
133
Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Committee, Labour shortages in the food and farming sector, 6
April 2022, HC 713 2021-22, para 5
134
Association of Labour Providers, Food Supply Chain Labour Survey Results (PDF), May 2022, pp3-4
135
National Farmers’ Union, 45,000 visas in 2023 goes some way to addressing labour shortages, 16
December 2022; UK horticulture growth strategy (PDF), March 2023, p3
136
National Farmers’ Union, Millions of pounds of fruit and veg wasted due to workforce shortages, 15
August 2022

37 Commons Library Research Briefing, 26 June 2023

 Seasonal Worker visas and UK agriculture

Industry groups, including the NFU, have called for the Seasonal Worker
scheme to be guaranteed five years ahead and for visas to last nine months. 137
NFU Scotland agrees, and also wants the UK Government to consider the
Scottish Government’s proposal for a Rural Visa Pilot Programme. 138

5.2 Alternatives to migrant workers

Crop harvesting and processing could be made less labour intensive, helping
to reduce the need for migrant labour. Hiring more domestic workers is also
frequently canvassed as an alternative to foreign workers.

Government policy is to reduce the horticultural sector’s reliance on overseas

labour. 139 The EFRA Committee said in its April 2022 report “in the longer term,
we agree with the Government that the sector needs to shift its focus away
from immigration and toward domestic workers and technological innovation
and development”. 140

Automation
The government has consistently said that farmers should use technology to
reduce the demand for labour. 141 The Home Secretary, Suella Braverman, said
in October 2022, “if we're going to help them with migration we have to make
it incumbent on farming to innovate, industrialise and use technology to
reduce their reliance on cheap foreign workers”. 142

In July 2022, Defra published the report of a Review of Automation in

Horticulture. It noted that promising technology is being developed. This
includes “autonomous selective harvesting” (robots that can pick crops)
which offer high labour savings. But they are not commercially available yet,
and the technology currently available “will not have a significant impact on
the labour needs of the sector in the short term, or even the medium term”.

As a result, the review noted “the need for a secure source of labour in the
period before mass-adoption of automation technology is feasible”. It
recommended that the Seasonal Worker scheme be kept in place beyond
2024 to bridge the gap.

137
House of Lords Horticulture Sector Committee, British Berry Growers – written evidence (HSI0054), 8
April 2023, para 16; National Farmers’ Union, UK horticulture growth strategy (PDF), March 2023, p3
138
Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Committee, Written evidence submitted by NFU Scotland
(FS0050), September 2022
139
PQ 60195 [on Horticulture: Seasonal Workers], 10 October 2022
140
Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Committee, Labour shortages in the food and farming sector, 6
April 2022, HC 713 2021-22, para 75
141
For example, PQ 25878 [on Agriculture: Seasonal Workers], 27 June 2022
142
The Telegraph / YouTube, In full: Chopper's Politics with Suella Braverman | Conservative Party
conference, 4 October 2022 (31 minutes 18 seconds)

38 Commons Library Research Briefing, 26 June 2023

Seasonal Worker visas and UK agriculture

Excerpt from the Review of Automation in Horticulture

“Recommendation 1: Defra should consider pursuing a long-term Seasonal
Workers Scheme for edible and ornamental horticulture starting in 2022
A long-term Seasonal Workers Scheme would help to stabilise workforce
pressures in the sector, helping growers to better evaluate their labour needs
over time and incentivising long-term capital investments in automation
technology.
While a new Seasonal Workers Visa Route has been announced for 2022 to
2024, the length of any future schemes should ideally match the period
preceding the feasible mass-adoption of automation technology.”

Domestic workers
The government has also said consistently that the industry should hire more
people who already live in the UK. 143 Home Secretary Suella Braverman said in
October 2022, “I don't buy this line that… British people don't want to work
[o]n farms. I'm not persuaded by that”. 144

Migration Watch argues the suggestion that British citizens will not do
seasonal agricultural work is “offensive and inaccurate”. It has recommended
“changes to the welfare system to both make it more flexible for those going
into temporary roles and to increase the incentives to work for those able-
bodied people currently on government assistance”. 145
Industry groups say the reality is that such jobs are unattractive to domestic
workers. For example, the British Growers Association says the government is
“fundamentally wrong” if it thinks British workers can make up for labour
shortages. Its chief executive, Jack Ward, told Farmers Weekly:

Private businesses take these people on and spend a disproportionate amount

of money managing them and listening to their excuses – why they couldn’t get
out of bed, or why they were late for work. 146

In 2020, the government and industry bodies ran a “Pick for Britain”
campaign aimed at encouraging domestic workers into seasonal jobs. The
website was a platform for companies which were recruiting and did not sign

143
Home Office and Defra press release, Industry given certainty around seasonal workers but told to
focus on domestic workforce, 24 December 2021
144
The Telegraph / YouTube, In full: Chopper's Politics with Suella Braverman | Conservative Party
conference, 4 October 2022 (31 minutes 46 seconds). See also “Train fruit pickers and lorry drivers to
cut migration, says Suella Braverman”, BBC News [online], 15 May 2023
145
Migration Watch, Is it true that Britons will not do seasonal agricultural work?, 9 April 2020
146
“UK horticulture careers towards seasonal labour crisis”, Farmers Weekly [online], 3 October 2022

39 Commons Library Research Briefing, 26 June 2023

 Seasonal Worker visas and UK agriculture

workers up directly. As a result, Defra was unable to provide data on the

number of domestic workers recruited through Pick for Britain. 147

Evidence presented to the EFRA Committee suggests that the number of

domestic workers did increase in the first half of 2020. Defra Minister Victoria
Prentis told the committee in November 2020 that “we think we have gone
from about 1% to about 11% native Brit”. An NFU survey showed that the
proportion of British nationals recruited into seasonal jobs each month went
from 0.6% in March 2020 to 3% in April to 15% in May. 148

But this was not sustained. The NFU survey showed the share of British
workers falling to 1% of the total in June, July and August 2020. British Berry
Growers reported “UK residents made up about 8% of the workforce during
the first Covid lockdown, but this promptly fell to about 0.5% as soon as all
the other sectors reopened”, according to Farmers Weekly. 149

The EFRA Committee concluded: “while we commend Defra for standing up

the Pick for Britain scheme so quickly and for promoting it successfully, this
cannot hide the fact that it did not achieve what it hoped to do: attract a
significant number of British works to pick crops”. 150

5.3 Independent review of labour shortages

In August 2022, Defra announced an Independent Review into Labour

Shortages in the Food Supply Chain to “consider the challenges facing food
and farming businesses to recruit and retain the labour they require”.

The review will examine the issues touched upon in this section: migrant
workers, domestic workers and automation. As the name suggests, its scope
is not limited to horticulture but other aspects of farming, as well as fishing,
primary food processing and food/non-alcoholic drink manufacturing. 151

Defra has appointed John Shropshire OBE to chair the review, supported by a
six-person expert panel. It was originally due to report in spring 2023. 152 The
government has said that its response to the review will set out longer-term
policies for access to migrant labour, alongside action to reduce the sector’s
reliance on it. 153

147
PQ 439 [on Agriculture: Seasonal Workers], 11 May 2021
148
Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Committee, The UK’s new immigration policy and the food
supply chain, HC 231 2019-21, 22 December 2020, para 57
149
“UK horticulture careers towards seasonal labour crisis”, Farmers Weekly [online], 3 October 2022
150
Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Committee, The UK’s new immigration policy and the food
supply chain, HC 231 2019-21, 22 December 2020, para 61
151
Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs press release, Defra updates on Independent
Review into Labour Shortages in the Food Supply Chain, 3 August 2022
152
PQ 60195 [on Horticulture: Seasonal Workers], 10 October 2022
153
Prime Minister’s Office and Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs, An update following
the UK Farm to Fork summit held at 10 Downing Street on 16 May 2023, 16 May 2023

40 Commons Library Research Briefing, 26 June 2023

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