Phonetics

Introduction (In your Own Words)

Definition
Phonetics is the scientific study of the Production, Transmission, and reception of speech
sounds.
It studies the spoken Language.
Main Fields of Phonetics:
The main fields of Phonetics include:
1. Articulatory Phonetics:
2. Acoustic Phonetics:
3. Auditory Phonetics:
Articulatory Phonetics: (Also known as Physiological Phonetics, due to its link with Anatomy and
Physiology)
This highly developed branch of Phonetics analyses the way, “How various speech sounds are
articulated by the vocal organs.”
This field looks at how we make sounds. It studies the parts of our mouth, throat, and lungs that
help us produce different sounds. For example, it shows how we move our lips and tongue to say "b" or
"t.
In this field, we also learn about the classification of sounds based on how they are produced. Sounds can be voiced or voiceless, depending
on whether our vocal cords vibrate when we make them. For instance, the sound "b" is voiced because our vocal cords vibrate, while "p" is
voiceless. Articulatory phonetics helps us categorize sounds into groups, such as consonants and vowels, based on how they are articulated.
This understanding is essential for learning to pronounce words correctly in any language.
Acoustic Phonetics: This area focuses on the sounds themselves. It examines the physical
properties of speech sounds, like their frequency and duration. Think of it as studying the sound waves
that travel through the air when we talk. (In it we study, Wave forms, Frequency, Wave Length, Amplitude,
and Intensity and Decibels (to measure the sound intensity)
Acoustic phonetics looks at various features of sound waves, such as their frequency (how high or low the sound is) and amplitude (how
loud the sound is). Understanding these properties helps us see how different sounds compare to each other .
Auditory Phonetics: This field studies how we hear sounds. It looks at how our ears and
brain work together to understand speech. For example, it helps explain how we recognize different
sounds and words when someone is talking.

This field also explores how we distinguish between similar sounds. For example, the sounds "s" and "sh" are produced differently, but they
can be confusing for our ears. Auditory phonetics helps us understand how we learn to recognize and categorize sounds from a young age .

Phonemics: Phonemes

It deals with the representation of Human It is the minimal meaningful unit of Human speech
speech sound. Different languages have different number
Sound through Phonemes. of Phonemes. Some languages have 15 Phonemes,
Others may have 60 Phonemes. For example Urdu
has 55 Phonemes whereas English has 44
Phonemes. ( 20 Vowels and 24 Consonants)
 Phonology
According to Bloomfield: “Phonology is the organization of sounds into patterns.”
In contrast with Phonetics, Phonology is language specific.
Phonology is a branch of Linguistics which deals with the study of the sound system of language.

Here’s a simple table suitable for grade 8 students to understand the difference between
Phonetics and Phonology:
Aspect Phonetics Phonology
Definition Study of the physical sounds of Study of how sounds function within a
speech. language.
Focus Sounds themselves (how they are The role of sounds in the system of a
produced, transmitted, and heard). language.
Scope Concerned with articulation, acoustics, Concerned with sound patterns, rules,
and hearing of speech sounds. and phonemes.
Example of How the sound [p] is produced. Why "pin" and "spin" have different
Study meanings due to sound patterns.
Tools Uses instruments to analyze sounds, Analyzes mental rules and
like spectrograms. representations of sounds.
Key Units Focuses on phones (actual sounds). Focuses on phonemes (distinctive
sound units).

Kinds of Phonology
Two major kinds of Phonology
1. Segmental Phonology ( Phonems, and Allophones)
2. Supra Segmental Phonology. ( Syllable, Stress, Rhythm and Intonation)

1. Segmental Phonology
Definition:
Segmental phonology deals with individual sounds (segments) in a language, such as vowels and
consonants, and how they are arranged to form meaningful units like words. The study of Phonemes
and Allophones come in the category of Segmental Phonology.
Key Points:
 Focuses on phonemes (smallest units of sound).
 Studies how these sounds combine to create syllables and words.
Example:

 In English, the word "cat" has three phonemes: /k/, /æ/, and /t/.
 Changing one sound can change the meaning, e.g., "cat" becomes "bat" by replacing /k/
with /b/.
2-Supra-segmental Phonology:
Supra-segmental Phonology analyses those features which extend over more than one segment such as
Syllable, Stress, rhythm, Intonation, etc. These are discussed briefly.
Syllable: A Syllable is a sound, or a group of sounds, Produced by a single chest pulse, and
containing a vowel.

Definition and Structure:

A syllable is a unit of speech that contains a single vowel sound and is often accompanied by
consonants. Words can have one syllable (cat), two syllables (apple), or many syllables
(unbelievable).

Parts of a Syllable:
Each syllable has three parts:

 Onset: The initial consonant(s), e.g., c in cat.

 Nucleus: The vowel sound, e.g., a in cat.
 Coda: The final consonant(s), e.g., t in cat.
Not all syllables have an onset or coda; for example, I has only a nucleus.

Role of Syllables:
Understanding syllables helps with pronunciation and spelling. For instance, breaking a word
like fantastic into syllables (fan-tas-tic) makes it easier to pronounce and understand its rhythm.

Stress: The extra prominence that is given to a particular syllable is called, “Stress”.

Definition and Importance:

Stress refers to the emphasis placed on certain syllables or words when we speak. In English,
stress plays a critical role in meaning and communication. A stressed syllable is pronounced
louder, longer, and sometimes at a higher pitch than unstressed syllables.

1. Word Stress:
Within a word, one syllable typically carries the main stress. For example, in the word
‘record’ (noun), the first syllable is stressed: ‘RE-cord’. However, when used as a verb
(‘re-CORD’), the stress shifts to the second syllable. Word stress is important because
incorrect placement can confuse listeners or change the meaning.
2. Sentence Stress:
In sentences, we often stress content words (nouns, main verbs, adjectives, and adverbs)
rather than function words (prepositions, articles, or auxiliary verbs). For instance, in "I
want to eat an apple", the stress falls on want, eat, and apple. Stress in sentences helps
convey emphasis and meaning.

Here’s a comprehensive table illustrating Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, and Weak Stress,
along with clear definitions and examples:

Degree of Definition Features Examples

Stress
Primary The strongest - Loudest, longest, and - 'RE-cord' (noun) vs. ‘re-
Stress emphasis in a word highest pitch.- Crucial for CORD’ (verb).- 'ED-u-ca-
or phrase. distinguishing word tion' (stress on “ED”).
meanings or parts of
speech.
Secondary Moderate emphasis - Helps maintain rhythm.- - PHO-to-GRA-phic
Stress in longer words, less Found in polysyllabic (secondary stress on "PHO",
intense than primary words.- Lower pitch than primary on "GRA").- UN-
stress. primary stress. be-LIE-va-ble (secondary
stress on "UN").
Tertiary A weak emphasis, - Found in words with - BLACK-board (stress on
Stress stronger than weak subtle contrasts.- Typically "BLACK" as primary and
stress but lighter than a minor syllable in "board" as tertiary).- well-
secondary stress. compound words. BEING (tertiary stress on
“BEING”).
Weak The least prominent - Short, soft, and low - ba-NA-na (weak stress on
Stress syllable, usually pitch.- Often realized as the "ba" and "na").- Function
unstressed or schwa /ə/. words like a, of, the in
reduced. phrases: a cup of tea.

Explanation of Stress Types in Context

1. Primary Stress:
This is the main emphasis, often determining the meaning of a word. For example, in
'import' (noun: ‘IM-port’) and 'import' (verb: ‘im-PORT’), the location of the primary
stress changes the word's role in a sentence.
2. Secondary Stress:
Supports primary stress in longer words, ensuring smooth pronunciation. In PHO-to-
GRA-phic, the syllable PHO carries secondary stress, while GRA carries the primary
stress.
3. Tertiary Stress:
Used for minor emphasis, often in compounds. For instance, in BLACK-board, board
gets tertiary stress to differentiate the compound from standalone words.
4. Weak Stress:
Appears in unstressed syllables, often as reduced vowel sounds (e.g., the schwa /ə/). This
occurs in syllables like ‘ba’ and ‘na’ in banana or in unstressed function words like of
and the.

Rhythm:
Definition and Characteristics:
Rhythm in speech is the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables. English is a stress-timed
language, meaning stressed syllables occur at regular intervals, while unstressed syllables are
shorter and faster.

Rhythm in Conversation:
The rhythm of English creates a natural flow in sentences. For example, in "The dog chased the
cat", the stressed syllables are dog, chased, and cat. Even though some words like the are
unstressed, the rhythm remains balanced.
Importance of Rhythm:
Good rhythm helps speech sound natural and clear. Misusing rhythm can make sentences sound
awkward or confusing. Practicing rhythmic patterns through poems, songs, or tongue twisters
can help students master English rhythm.

Intonation.
The linguistic use of pitch is defined as intonation.

Definition and Importance:

Intonation refers to the rise and fall of pitch in speech. It conveys emotions, attitudes, and
meaning beyond the words themselves. Without proper intonation, sentences may sound robotic
or unclear.

Types of Intonation:

 Rising Intonation: Used in yes/no questions (Are you coming?) or to indicate

uncertainty.
 Falling Intonation: Used in statements (I am going home.) or commands (Sit down!).
 Rising-Falling Intonation: Indicates surprise or emphasis (Really?).

Significance in Communication:
Intonation helps listeners understand whether a speaker is asking a question, making a statement,
or expressing emotion. Practicing intonation with dialogues or role-plays can help students
become more expressive and natural in English.

Another Distinction is made between Diachronic and Synchronic Phonology

Diachronic Phonology

Definition:
Diachronic phonology studies how the sounds of a language change over time. It examines
historical developments in pronunciation, sound patterns, and phonemes from earlier stages of a
language to its present form.

Key Points:

 It is also called historical phonology.

 Focuses on the evolution of sounds in a language over centuries.
 Explains why older forms of words or pronunciations are different from modern ones.

Example:

 The Great Vowel Shift in English (between the 15th and 18th centuries) changed the
pronunciation of long vowels. For instance:
o The word "bite" was pronounced like "beet" in Middle English.
o The word "meet" was pronounced like "mate".
 These changes explain why English spelling and pronunciation often seem inconsistent.
Importance:
Studying diachronic phonology helps linguists understand the history of a language, trace its
development, and compare related languages.

2. Synchronic Phonology

Definition:
Synchronic phonology studies the sound system of a language at a specific point in time, usually
the present. It does not focus on historical changes but rather on how sounds function and
interact in a language as it is spoken.

Key Points:

 It is also called descriptive phonology.

 Explains the rules and patterns of sound production and combination in a language.
 Helps analyze and describe the phonemes, syllables, stress, and intonation of a language
as it exists today.

Example:

 In modern English, the /p/ sound is aspirated in "pat" ([pʰ]) but not in "spin" ([p]).
 The rules of how and where aspiration occurs in English are part of synchronic
phonology.

Importance:
Synchronic phonology is essential for understanding how people currently use a language. It
helps teachers, linguists, and students study pronunciation and create systems for teaching
language skills

Key Differences Between Diachronic and Synchronic Phonology

Aspect Diachronic Phonology Synchronic Phonology
Focus Changes in sounds over time. Sound systems at a specific point in time.
Time Historical (past to present). Present or a particular moment in time.
Frame
Example The Great Vowel Shift in English. Aspiration rules in modern English.
Purpose To trace the evolution of language. To describe current sound systems.
 Vocal Organs and Their Role in Speech Production
The human vocal organs, also known as the speech organs, are responsible for producing the
sounds of speech. These organs work together to modify airflow from the lungs into distinct
sounds that form words and sentences. Here is a detailed explanation of the major vocal
organs, their functions, and their role in speech production.

1. The Lungs (Respiratory System)

The lungs are the primary source of air needed for speech. When we breathe out, air is pushed
through the trachea (windpipe) to the larynx and other speech organs.
 Role in Speech: The lungs control the flow of air, which serves as the energy needed to produce
sounds. Loudness and volume depend on the force of this airflow.

2. The Larynx (Voice Box)

The larynx is located in the throat and contains the vocal cords (or vocal folds). These are two
bands of tissue that vibrate to produce sound when air passes through them.
 Role in Speech:
o The tension and length of the vocal cords determine the pitch of the voice.
o For example, tighter cords produce higher-pitched sounds, while looser cords produce
lower-pitched sounds.

3. The Pharynx (Throat)

The pharynx is the cavity behind the mouth and nose that connects to the esophagus and
larynx.
 Role in Speech:
o Acts as a resonating chamber to amplify sound.
o It helps in shaping the quality of voice and sound.

4. The Oral Cavity (Mouth)

The mouth is where most speech sounds are articulated. It includes the following important
organs:
a. Tongue
The tongue is one of the most flexible and vital speech organs. It moves in different positions to
form consonants and vowels.
 Example:
o For the /t/ sound, the tongue touches the alveolar ridge.
o For the /k/ sound, the back of the tongue touches the soft palate.
b. Teeth
The teeth help produce sounds like /t/, /d/, and /s/ by creating a barrier or point of contact for
the tongue.
 Example: The /f/ sound is produced when air is forced between the teeth and the lower lip.
c. Lips
The lips shape the airflow and create sounds like /p/, /b/, and /m/.
 Example: Rounded lips are used to produce sounds like /o/ in go.
d. Alveolar Ridge
This is the bony ridge behind the upper front teeth. It provides a point of contact for the
tongue.
  Example: Sounds like /l/ and /n/ are formed by the tongue touching this ridge.
e. Hard Palate
The hard palate is the roof of the mouth. It is crucial for producing palatal sounds like /j/ in yes.
f. Soft Palate (Velum)
The soft palate is located behind the hard palate and controls whether air flows through the
nose or mouth.
 Role in Speech:
o Raised velum blocks the nasal cavity for oral sounds like /k/ and /g/.
o Lowered velum allows airflow through the nose for nasal sounds like /m/ and /n/.

5. The Nasal Cavity (Nose)

The nasal cavity is where nasal sounds are produced.
 Role in Speech: When the soft palate is lowered, air escapes through the nose, creating nasal
sounds like /m/, /n/, and /ŋ/ (as in sing).

6. The Glottis
The glottis is the space between the vocal cords. It plays a role in producing glottal sounds, such
as the /h/ sound in hat.

Features of Connected Speech

Connected speech refers to the natural way we speak when words flow together in sentences
rather than being pronounced individually. This flow causes certain changes in pronunciation,
making spoken English sound different from written English. Below are the main features of
connected speech, explained in detail with examples.

1. Elision
Definition:
Elision is the omission of a sound, often a consonant, in rapid speech to make speaking easier
and faster.
Example:
 “next day” becomes “nex day” (the /t/ sound is omitted).
 “friendship” may be pronounced as “frenship” (the /d/ sound is dropped).
Importance:
Elision helps to make speech more fluid and natural. It commonly occurs in casual
conversations.

2. Linking
Definition:
Linking occurs when a consonant sound is added between words to connect them smoothly,
especially if the first word ends in a vowel and the next word begins with a vowel.
Example:
 “He is” is pronounced as “He yis”.
 “Go on” is pronounced as “Go won”.
Importance:
Linking avoids awkward pauses between words and makes sentences sound more connected.

3. Intrusion
Definition:
Intrusion is the addition of an extra sound (often /r/, /j/, or /w/) to link two words where no sound
naturally exists.
Example:
 “I saw it” is pronounced as “I sawr it” (intrusive /r/).
 “Go on” may become “Go won” (intrusive /w/).
Importance:
Intrusion helps maintain the natural rhythm of speech and prevents a break between vowel
sounds.

4. Assimilation
Definition:
Assimilation happens when a sound changes to become more like a neighboring sound. It occurs
when two sounds meet, and one influences the other.
Example:
 “input” becomes “imput” (the /n/ changes to /m/ to match the /p/ sound).
 “good boy” becomes “gub boy” (the /d/ changes to /b/).
Importance:
Assimilation allows for smoother transitions between sounds, making speech more efficient and
natural.

5. Flapping
Definition:
Flapping occurs when the /t/ or /d/ sound in American English is pronounced as a quick tap of
the tongue, sounding like a soft /d/.
Example:
 “butter” is pronounced as “buh-der”.
 “ladder” and “latter” sound almost the same.
Importance:
Flapping is common in American English and is a key feature of natural-sounding speech in that
dialect.

6. Weak Forms
Definition:
Weak forms occur when certain small, frequently used words (like prepositions, articles, or
auxiliaries) are pronounced less clearly in connected speech.
Example:
 “I can go” is pronounced as “I ken go”.
 “He is” becomes “He’s”.
Importance:
Weak forms are vital for natural speech and help maintain the rhythm of English sentences.

7. Catenation
Definition:
Catenation is the smooth linking of the final consonant sound of one word to the initial vowel
sound of the next word.
Example:
 “pick it up” is pronounced as “pickitup”.
 “turn it off” becomes “turnitoff”.
Importance:
Catenation helps maintain the fluidity of speech, especially in fast or informal conversation.

8. Glottalization (Glottal Stops)

Definition:
Glottalization occurs when a sound, particularly /t/, is replaced by a glottal stop (a quick closure
of the vocal cords). This is common in certain accents, like Cockney or Estuary English.
Example:
 “bottle” is pronounced as “bo’l”.
 “butter” is pronounced as “bu’er”.
Importance:
While regional, glottal stops reflect how natural speech varies in different accents.

9. Stress and Rhythm in Connected Speech

Definition:
In connected speech, stressed syllables are pronounced more prominently, while unstressed
syllables are reduced, contributing to the natural rhythm of English.
Example:
 “I want to go” is pronounced as “I wanna go”.
 “What are you doing?” becomes “Whatcha doin’?”.
Importance:
Stress and rhythm give English its characteristic musicality and are key to effective spoken
communication.

10. Intonation in Connected Speech

Definition:
Intonation refers to the rise and fall of pitch in speech, which conveys emotion, emphasis, and
meaning.
Example:
 A rising intonation at the end of a sentence can indicate a question:
o “You’re coming?” (rising pitch).
 A falling intonation shows a statement:
o “You’re coming.”

Importance:
Intonation helps express attitudes and emotions, making communication more engaging and
effective.

Conclusion

The features of connected speech make spoken English natural and fluent. By understanding and
practicing these features, students can improve their listening skills, pronunciation, and overall
communication.

Would you like exercises or activities to reinforce this topic for your class?
 Phonetics: Vowels and Their Classification
English Sounds are of two kinds: Consonant sounds and Vowel sounds.
Consonant sounds are those speech sounds which are produced with some kind of closure in the
mouth, While, Vowel sounds are produced without any obstruction in the Mouth.
There are twenty vowel sounds in English.
Types of Vowel Sounds in English
(A) Monophthongs (Pure Vowels)
Monophthongs are vowels that have one clear sound. The tongue and mouth position do not
change while pronouncing them.
 Front vowels: /i:/ (see), /ɪ/ (bit), /e/ (bed), /æ/ (cat)
 Central vowels: /ʌ/ (cup), /ə/ (sofa), /ɜ:/ (bird)
 Back vowels: /u:/ (blue), /ʊ/ (book), /ɔ:/ (law), /ɑ:/ (car)
(B) Diphthongs (Gliding Vowels)
Diphthongs are vowels that start with one sound and glide into another. The tongue moves while
pronouncing them.
Examples:
 /aɪ/ (eye) → "I," "cry"
 /eɪ/ (ay) → "say," "day"
 /ɔɪ/ (oy) → "boy," "toy"
(C) Triphthongs (Three-Sound Vowels)
Triphthongs are vowels where the tongue moves through three positions in one syllable.
Examples:
 /aɪə/ (fire) → "fire," "tire"
 /aʊə/ (hour) → "our," "power"
 /ɔɪə/ (lawyer) → "lawyer"
. Importance of Vowels in Speech
 Vowels help form syllables and words.
 Every English word must have at least one vowel sound.
 They make speech smooth and natural
Another Classification of Vowels.
(A) Classification Based on Tongue Position
The position of the tongue in the mouth affects the type of vowel produced.
1. Height of the Tongue:
o High vowels (the tongue is raised): /i:/ (as in "see"), /u:/ (as in "blue")
o Mid vowels (the tongue is in the middle): /e/ (as in "bed"), /ɔ:/ (as in "law")
o Low vowels (the tongue is low): /æ/ (as in "cat"), /ɑ:/ (as in "car")
2. Front or Back Position of the Tongue:
o Front vowels (tongue is towards the front): /i:/, /e/, /æ/
o Central vowels (tongue is in the center): /ə/ (as in "about")
o Back vowels (tongue is towards the back): /u:/, /ɔ:/, /ɑ:/
(B) Classification Based on Lip Shape
1. Rounded vowels (lips are rounded): /u:/, /ɔ:/
2. Unrounded vowels (lips are not rounded): /i:/, /e/, /æ/
(C) Classification Based on Length
1. Long vowels (last longer): /i:/ (see), /u:/ (blue), /ɑ:/ (car), /ɔ:/ (law), /ɜ:/ (bird)
2. Short vowels (last for a shorter time): /ɪ/ (sit), /ʊ/ (good), /æ/ (cat), /ʌ/ (cup), /ə/ (sofa)
Consonants are speech sounds that are produced when airflow is blocked or restricted by the
tongue, lips, teeth, or other parts of the mouth. Unlike vowels, which flow freely, consonants
involve some kind of interruption in the airflow.
For example:
 When you say /p/ in "pen," your lips come together and then open.
 When you say /t/ in "top," your tongue touches the roof of your mouth.
1. How Are Consonants Produced?
Consonants are produced by controlling the airflow in different ways using the mouth, tongue,
lips, and vocal cords.
There are three main factors that determine the type of consonant:

1. Place of articulation (Where the sound is made in the mouth)

2. Manner of articulation (How the sound is made)
3. Voicing (Whether the vocal cords vibrate or not)
2. Classification of Consonants
(A) Place of Articulation (Where the Sound Is Made)
Place Explanation Examples
Bilabial Both lips touch /p/ (pen), /b/ (bat), /m/ (man)
Labiodental Bottom lip touches top teeth /f/ (fan), /v/ (van)
Dental Tongue touches upper teeth /θ/ (thin), /ð/ (this)
Alveolar Tongue touches the area behind upper /t/ (top), /d/ (dog), /s/ (sit), /z/ (zebra), /n/
teeth (net), /l/ (light)
Post- Tongue touches area behind alveolar /ʃ/ (ship), /ʒ/ (measure), /tʃ/ (chop), /dʒ/
alveolar ridge (jam)
Palatal Tongue touches the hard palate (roof of /j/ (yes)
the mouth)
Velar Back of tongue touches the soft palate /k/ (cat), /g/ (go), /ŋ/ (sing)
Glottal Sound made in the throat /h/ (hat)

(B) Manner of Articulation (How the Sound Is Made)

Manner Explanation Examples
Plosives Air is blocked and then released /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/
(Stops)
Fricatives Air passes through a narrow space, creating /f/, /v/, /θ/, /ð/, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/,
friction /ʒ/, /h/
Affricates Combination of a stop and a fricative /tʃ/ (chop), /dʒ/ (jam)
Nasals Air passes through the nose /m/, /n/, /ŋ/ (sing)
Approximants Air flows smoothly with little restriction /l/, /r/, /j/, /w/

(C) Voicing (Do the Vocal Cords Vibrate?)

1. Voiced Consonants – The vocal cords vibrate.

o Examples: /b/ (bat), /d/ (dog), /g/ (go), /v/ (van), /z/ (zebra), /ʒ/ (measure), /dʒ/ (jam),
/m/ (man), /n/ (net), /ŋ/ (sing), /l/ (light), /r/ (red), /w/ (water), /j/ (yes)

2. Voiceless Consonants – The vocal cords do not vibrate.

 o Examples: /p/ (pen), /t/ (top), /k/ (cat), /f/ (fan), /θ/ (thin), /s/ (sit), /ʃ/ (ship), /tʃ/
(chop), /h/ (hat)

3. Types of Consonants in English

(A) Stops (Plosives) – Complete blockage of airflow, then a sudden release.

Examples: /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/

(B) Fricatives – Air is forced through a narrow space, creating friction.

Examples: /f/, /v/, /θ/, /ð/, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /h/

(C) Affricates – A stop followed by a fricative.

Examples: /tʃ/ (chop), /dʒ/ (jam)

(D) Nasals – Air escapes through the nose.

Examples: /m/, /n/, /ŋ/

Lateral- Partial closure in the mouth, while allowing airflow to escape from one side or the
other.

/L/ in let.

(E) Approximants – Air flows smoothly with little restriction.

Examples: /l/, /r/, /w/, /j/