MODULE 3: CULTURE IN MORAL BEHAVIOR

What is culture?
It is commonly said that culture is all around us. Practically, culture appears
to be an actual part of our social life as well as our personality. For some, culture is a
quality that some people have more than others: how 'cultured' somebody is
depends on some factors like status, class, education, and taste in music or film,
and speech habits. By attending symphonies, plays, operas, and poetry readings,
some show that they appreciate culture more than others. Sometimes, people visit
places like museums or art galleries to increase their so-called 'cultural awareness:'
Probably, you have heard somebody in the cultural elite" bemoan the deplorable
'popular culture' of TV, graphically violent computer games, massmarketed movies,
pierced navels, tattoos, and rock or rap music.
The term culture is so complex that it is not easy to define. In one sense,
culture is used to denote that which is related to the arts and humanities. But in a
broader sense, culture denotes the practices, beliefs, and perceptions of a given
society. It is in this sense that culture is often opposed with „savagery that is, being
'cultured' is seen as a product of a certain evolvement from a natural state.

The following are other definitions of the term culture ('Culture Detinition,
n.d.):
a. Culture refers to the cumulative deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs,
values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial
relations, concepts of the universe, and material objects and possessions
acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual
and group striving.
b. Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired
and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement of human
groups, including their embodiments in artifacts; the essential core of culture
consists of traditional ideas and especially their attached values; culture
systems may, on the one hand, be considered as products of action, on the
other hand, as conditioning influences upon further action.
c. Culture is the sum total of the learned behavior of a group of people that are
generally considered to be the tradition of that people and are transmitted from
generation to generation
d. Culture in its broadest sense is cultivated behavior; that is the totality of a
person's learned, accumulated experience which is socially transmitted, or more
briefly, behavior through social learning
e. Culture is symbolic communication. Some of its symbols include a groups
skills, knowledge, attitudes, values, and motives. The meanings of the symbols
are learned and deliberately perpetuated in a society through its institutions.

Defined broadly therefore, culture includes all the things individuals learn while
growing up among particular group: attitudes, standards of morality, rules of
etiquette, perceptions of reality, language, notions about the proper way to live,
beliefs about how females and males should interact, ideas about how the world
works and so forth. We call this cultural knowledge.

Moral Reasoning
This article takes up moral reasoning as a species of practical reasoning – that is, as
a type of reasoning directed towards deciding what to do and, when successful,
issuing in an intention (see entry on practical reason). Of course, we also reason
theoretically about what morality requires of us; but the nature of purely theoretical
reasoning about ethics is adequately addressed in the various articles on ethics. It is
also true that, on some understandings, moral reasoning directed towards deciding
what to do involves forming judgments about what one ought, morally, to do. On
these understandings, asking what one ought (morally) to do can be a practical
question, a certain way of asking about what to do. In order to do justice to the full
range of philosophical views about moral reasoning, we will need to have a
capacious understanding of what counts as a moral question. For instance, since a
prominent position about moral reasoning is that the relevant considerations are not
codifiable, we would beg a central question if we here defined “morality” as
involving codifiable principles or rules. For present purposes, we may understand
issues about what is right or wrong, or virtuous or vicious, as raising moral
questions.
Even when moral questions explicitly arise in daily life, just as when we are faced
with child-rearing, agricultural, and business questions, sometimes we act
impulsively or instinctively rather than pausing to reason, not just about what to do,
but about what we ought to do. Jean-Paul Sartre described a case of one of his
students who came to him in occupied Paris during World War II, asking advice
about whether to stay by his mother, who otherwise would have been left alone, or
rather to go join the forces of the Free French, then massing in England (Sartre
1975). In the capacious sense just described, this is probably a moral question; and
the young man paused long enough to ask Sartre’s advice. Does that mean that this
young man was reasoning about his practical question? Not necessarily. Indeed,
Sartre used the case to expound his skepticism about the possibility of addressing
such a practical question by reasoning. But what is reasoning?
Reasoning, of the sort discussed here, is active or explicit thinking, in which the
reasoner, responsibly guided by her assessments of her reasons (Kolodny 2005) and
of any applicable requirements of rationality (Broome 2009, 2013), attempts to
reach a well-supported answer to a well-defined question (Hieronymi 2013). For
Sartre’s student, at least such a question had arisen. Indeed, the question was
relatively definite, implying that the student had already engaged in some reflection
about the various alternatives available to him – a process that has well been
described as an important phase of practical reasoning, one that aptly precedes the
effort to make up one’s mind (Harman 1986, 2).
Characterizing reasoning as responsibly conducted thinking of course does not
suffice to analyze the notion. For one thing, it fails to address the fraught question
of reasoning’s relation to inference (Harman 1986, Broome 2009). In addition, it
does not settle whether formulating an intention about what to do suffices to
conclude practical reasoning or whether such intentions cannot be adequately
worked out except by starting to act. Perhaps one cannot adequately reason about
how to repair a stone wall or how to make an omelet with the available ingredients
without actually starting to repair or to cook (cf. Fernandez 2016). Still, it will do for
present purposes. It suffices to make clear that the idea of reasoning involves norms
of thinking. These norms of aptness or correctness in practical thinking surely do not
require us to think along a single prescribed pathway, but rather permit only certain
pathways and not others (Broome 2013, 219). Even so, we doubtless often fail to
live up to them.
Neuroethics and Bounded Ethically
"Bounded ethicality" refers to the concept that individuals' ethical decision-making
is limited by cognitive and social factors, even when they have good
intentions. Neuroethics, on the other hand, explores the ethical implications of
neuroscience research and its applications, including how the brain processes moral
decisions. These fields intersect as neuroethics can help us understand the neural
mechanisms behind bounded ethicality, revealing how brain processes can lead to
ethical lapses.
Bounded Ethicality:
 Definition:
It acknowledges that people are not always perfectly ethical, and that systematic,
predictable psychological processes can lead to ethical failures.
 Factors:
These processes include biases, heuristics, and social influences that can affect
moral reasoning and decision-making.
 Examples:
 Overconfidence: People may overestimate their own ethicality,
leading them to overlook potential biases or conflicts of interest.
 Framing effects: The way a situation is presented can influence how
people perceive ethical implications.
 Implicit biases: Unconscious attitudes and stereotypes can affect
judgments and decisions.
Neuroethics:
 Definition:
This field examines the ethical issues raised by neuroscience research and its
applications, such as the use of brain-computer interfaces, neuro-enhancement, and
the study of moral decision-making.
 Moral Reasoning:
Neuroethics investigates the neural processes involved in moral decision-making,
including the roles of emotion, reason, and social cognition.
 Applications:
It helps to understand how brain activity relates to ethical judgments, potentially
informing the development of ethical guidelines for neuroscience research and its
applications.

Relationship between Bounded Ethicality and Neuroethics:

 Neuroethics can provide insights into the neural mechanisms underlying
bounded ethicality.
 By understanding how the brain processes moral information and how biases
can arise, we can develop strategies to mitigate the effects of bounded
ethicality.
 For example, research on the neural basis of empathy and moral judgment
can inform interventions to promote more ethical behavior.
 Neuroethics also raises ethical questions about the potential misuse of
neuroscience findings to manipulate or control individuals' moral choices.
In essence, neuroethics provides a lens for examining the biological basis of ethical
behavior, including the factors that contribute to bounded ethicality. By
understanding these factors, we can work towards fostering more ethical decision-
making in individuals and society.
Values and Its Kinds
Values are basic and fundamental beliefs that guide or motivate attitudes or
actions. They help us to determine what is important to us. Values describe the
personal qualities we choose to embody to guide our actions; the sort of person we
want to be; the manner in which we treat ourselves and others, and our interaction
with the world around us. They provide the general guidelines for conduct.

Values in a narrow sense is that which is good, desirable, or worthwhile. Values are
the motive behind purposeful action. They are the ends to which we act and come
in many forms. Personal values are personal beliefs about right and wrong and may
or may not be considered moral. Cultural values are values accepted by religions or
societies and reflect what is important in each context.

Values are essential to ethics. Ethics is concerned with human actions, and the
choice of those actions. Ethics evaluates those actions, and the values that underlie
them. It determines which values should be pursued, and which shouldn't. As I
discussed in last week’s blog, courage is one such value. Those who value courage
are willing to stand up for what they believe, even in the face of strong
condemnation. Courage is a moral value when it deals with right and wrong
conduct.Values

Value specifies a relationship between a person and a goal. It is relational in the

sense that what one person values may not be what another person values even in
the same situation. For example, a person who values honesty might blow the
whistle on financial wrongdoing by a superior whereas another person who values
loyalty may remain silent. This is an example of values conflict. The honest person
may believe there are limits to loyalty and keeping quiet about a wrongful act out of
loyalty might harm others. The loyal person may believe in the importance of
keeping one’s confidence even if it might harm others because of the trusting
relationship.

Some values stand up well over the test of time; they are always good or rightful
behavior. Honesty and kindness are two such examples. It is difficult to imagine
having a satisfying relationship without them because they build trust in
relationships. There are always exceptions but they are rare. For example, if a
criminal out to do harm to your friend knocks on the door and asks whether you
have seen the friend, you’re probably not going to say yes and rationalize it out of a
sense of honesty. Here, the greater good, so to speak, is to protect your friend from
harm.

a. Biological Values
Biological values express the behavioral orientation (inherent propensity) of
organisms to survive, reproduce, adapt, and evolve (biological axiom). The
biological axiom resembles a set of generalized but mindless rules for living, like
a human code of conduct, and that is why it is referred to here as an expression
of biological normativity.
Biological values express flexible agential behavior as propensities to do one
thing rather than another, akin to human-like ‘preferences’ or ‘choices’.
However, as a mindless form of normativity, descriptions of biological values are
 not recommendations for behavior or judgments about behavior, they are
objective statements about the way organisms are. In this sense, mindless
biological values are objective values.
The universal values of biological agency have been achieved through the
infinite array of structures, processes, and behaviors that we see across the
community of life. Human values and ethics are just one specialist and minded
evolutionary elaboration of universal biological values.
The similarity between mindless agency and human intentions is not a
coincidence: it was real mindless agency that made possible the evolution of
human subjectivity.
b. Psychological Values

Psychological values in ethics refer to the core beliefs and principles that guide
psychologists' behavior and decisions in their professional and scientific work. These
values, which often overlap with ethical principles, shape how psychologists interact
with clients, conduct research, and contribute to society. They provide a framework
for navigating complex situations and ensuring responsible practice.
Here's a breakdown of key psychological values in ethics:

Core Principles and Values:

 Respect for Persons:
This involves recognizing the inherent worth and dignity of all individuals, including
their rights to autonomy, privacy, and confidentiality. It also includes respecting
diversity, cultural sensitivity, and avoiding discrimination.
 Beneficence and Non-maleficence:
This principle emphasizes the responsibility to do good and to avoid causing
harm. Psychologists strive to maximize benefits for clients and minimize potential
risks in their work.
 Integrity:
This encompasses honesty, truthfulness, accuracy, and fairness in all professional
activities. It also involves avoiding conflicts of interest and maintaining ethical
boundaries.
 Justice:
This principle emphasizes fairness and impartiality in the distribution of resources
and opportunities. Psychologists strive to ensure that their services are accessible
to all, regardless of background or circumstance.
 Fidelity and Responsibility:
This highlights the importance of trustworthiness, reliability, and accountability in
professional relationships. Psychologists are committed to upholding their
obligations to clients, colleagues, and the broader community.
Other Important Values:
 Competence:
Psychologists strive to maintain and improve their professional knowledge and
skills, ensuring they are qualified to provide effective services.
 Openness and Transparency:
Being open and honest in communication and practice, avoiding deception or
misrepresentation.
 Confidentiality:
Protecting the privacy of clients and maintaining the confidentiality of their
information.
  Informed Consent:
Ensuring that individuals understand the nature of psychological services and agree
to participate freely.
 Professional Accountability:
Taking responsibility for one's actions and decisions, and being accountable to
professional standards and ethical guidelines.
 Responsible Use of Knowledge:
Applying psychological knowledge and skills in a way that benefits society and
avoids harm.
c. Intellectual Values
Intellectual values in ethics refer to virtues or qualities of mind that are conducive to
good thinking and learning, ultimately contributing to a more just and flourishing
life. These values are distinct from moral virtues, though they can be closely
related, and they focus on developing a person's capacity for truth-seeking,
understanding, and sound judgment.
Key Intellectual Values:
 Curiosity:
A disposition to wonder, ponder, and ask why, driving the pursuit of knowledge and
understanding.
 Intellectual Humility:
Acknowledging the limits of one's knowledge and being open to new perspectives,
even when they challenge existing beliefs.
 Intellectual Courage:
The willingness to pursue truth even when it's unpopular or uncomfortable, and to
stand by one's convictions.
 Critical Thinking:
The ability to analyze information objectively, identify biases, and form well-
reasoned conclusions.
 Reason and Judgement:
Applying logic and sound reasoning to make informed decisions and solve
problems.
 Open-mindedness:
Being receptive to new ideas and perspectives, even if they differ from one's own.
 Reflection:
Taking time to think critically about one's own thinking and learning processes.
 Perseverance:
The ability to persist in the face of intellectual challenges and setbacks.
 Attentiveness:
Being present and focused in learning situations, paying attention to detail and
avoiding intellectual pitfalls.
 Intellectual Autonomy:
The capacity for active, self-directed thinking, and the ability to form one's own
judgments.
 Creativity:
The ability to generate new ideas and approaches, often involving thinking outside
the box.

Connection to Ethics:
Intellectual virtues are not merely abstract concepts; they have a significant impact
on ethical behavior. For example, intellectual humility can help prevent arrogance
and promote respectful dialogue, while critical thinking can help individuals avoid
making hasty or biased judgments that could harm others. By cultivating these
intellectual virtues, individuals can become more ethical and responsible members
of society.

d. Moral Values
Moral values, in the context of ethics, are principles that guide individuals in
determining what is right and wrong. They are a set of beliefs and standards that
influence behavior and decision-making, shaping our understanding of fairness,
responsibility, and ethical conduct. Moral values are often intertwined with social
and cultural norms, but they also stem from philosophical and religious beliefs
about what is good and just.
Here's a more detailed look:
What are Moral Values?
 Guiding Principles:
Moral values act as internal compasses, helping individuals navigate ethical
dilemmas and make choices that align with their sense of right and wrong.
 Influenced by Various Factors:
These values are shaped by personal experiences, societal expectations, cultural
traditions, and philosophical or religious teachings.
 Foundation for Ethical Behavior:
They provide a framework for ethical decision-making, influencing how we interact
with others, handle conflicts, and contribute to society.
Examples of Moral Values:
 Honesty: Being truthful and sincere in words and actions.
 Empathy: Understanding and sharing the feelings of others.
 Fairness: Treating everyone equitably and justly.
 Responsibility: Being accountable for one's actions and obligations.
 Respect: Showing consideration and regard for oneself and others.
 Compassion: Feeling concern and empathy for those who are suffering.
 Courage: Having the strength to stand up for what is right, even in the face
of adversity.
 Gratitude: Feeling and expressing thankfulness for what one has.
Relationship to Ethics:
 Ethics as a Framework:
Ethics is a broader field of study that explores moral principles and standards. It
provides a systematic way to analyze and evaluate moral values and their
application in various situations.
 Morals as Personal Beliefs:
Moral values are the individual beliefs and principles that guide our behavior, while
ethics provides the framework for understanding and evaluating these beliefs.
 Ethics and Morals Can Align or Diverge:
An individual's moral values may align with societal ethics, but they can also differ.
Importance of Moral Values:
 Social Cohesion:
Moral values contribute to a harmonious society by promoting trust, cooperation,
and mutual respect.
 Personal Growth:
Developing strong moral values helps individuals build character, make sound
decisions, and contribute positively to their communities.
  Ethical Decision-Making:
Moral values provide a foundation for ethical behavior in all aspects of life, from
personal relationships to professional conduct.
In essence, moral values are the core principles that guide our understanding of
right and wrong, while ethics provides the framework for analyzing and applying
these values in a broader context.

Culture's Role in Moral Behavior

Based on the definitions of culture above, it is not hard to pinpoint the role of
the culture in one's moral behavior. A culture is a 'way of life' of a group of people,
and this so-called 'way of life' actually includes moral values and behaviors, along
with knowledge, beliefs, symbols that they accept, generally without thinking about
them, and that are passed along by communication and imitation from one
generation to the next" ('Culture Definition, n.d.).
Culture is learned as children grow up in society and discover how their
parents and others around them interpret the world. In our society, we learn to
distinguish objects such as cars, windows, houses, children, and food; recognize
attributes like sharp, hot, beautiful, and humid; classify and perform different kinds
of acts; and even "evaluate what is [morally) good and bad and to judge when an
unusual action is appropriate or inappropriate" (Mañebog & Peña, 2016).
Many aspects of morality are taught. People learn moral and aspects of right
or wrong from transmitters of culture: respective parents, teachers, novels, films,
and television. Observing or watching them, people develop a set idea of what is
right and wrong, and what is acceptable and what is not.
Even experientially, it is improbable, if not impossible, to live in a society
without being affected by its culture. It follows too that it is hard to grow up in a
particular culture without being impacted by how it views morality or what is
ethically right or wrong. Anthropologically speaking, culture-including moral values,
beliefs, and behavior-is learned from other people while growing up in a particular
society or group; is widely shared by the members of that society or group; and so
profoundly affects the thoughts, actions, and feelings of people in that group that
individuals are a product of their culture" and "learning a culture is an essential part
of human development" (De Guzman & Peña, 2016).
Social learning is the process by which individuals acquire knowledge from
others in the groups to which they belong, as a normal part of childhood. The
process by which infants and children socially learn the culture, including morality,
of those around them is called enculturation or socialization.

How does culture define Moral Behavior?

One of the revered founders of Western philosophy - Plato in his famous
philosophical work, The Republic cited three critical elements that jointly influence
the human persons moral development. These elements are native traits (or what
we might call genetic characteristics); early childhood experience; and one's cultural
surroundings (Pekarsky, 1998).
Plato implied that if a person's cultural surroundings reward conformity to
agreeable norms it would lead the person to behave much better and quell
undesirable conduct He also expressed that the power of culture over an individual
is more potent in children because they do not have any pre-existing values. The
child's cultural surroundings create these values and dispositions. Thus, Plato
insisted that a child's cultural surrounding should "express the image of a noble
character"; that role models should display the conduct of a proper human being
because the behavior of the adults serves as the child‟s moral foundation as he or
she grows and develops (Cornford, 1966; Pekarsky, 1998).

FILIPINO UNDERSTANDING OF MORAL BEHAVIOR

The Filipino Way

The Filipino culture is a mix of both Eastern and Western cultures. The beliefs
and traditions of pre-colonial Philippines was mainly indigenous Malay heritage
(Baringer 2006). Then the Spanish colonized the islands and the Hispanic culture
influenced the natives. In turn, the Americans shaped the modern Filipino culture
and this is primarily manifested by the wide use of the English language in the
Philippines today. It was from these influences that formed the Filipino character.
The brief occupation of the British (1762-1764) and the Japanese (1942-1945)
however had no cultural influence in the
Philippines at all.
Filipino cultural morality especially that which concerns social ethics, centers
on ideally is having a smooth interpersonal relationship with others. The definition of
“smooth interpersonal relationship” (SIR) in Philippine culture is principally
supported by and anchored on Filipino values.

Who is Filipino?
Technically, according to Phil. Constitution, Filipino citizens are:
I. Those whose fathers or mothers are citizens of the Phils.
II. Those born before Jan. 17, 1972 of Filipino mothers who elect Phil. citizenship
upon reaching the age of majority
III. Those who are naturalized in accordance with the law

Markers of being a Filipino

1. Citizenship
2. Culture
3. History

The Filipino value system or Filipino values refers to the set of values that a
majority of the Filipino have historically held important in their lives. This Philippine
values system includes their own unique assemblage of
consistent ideologies, moral codes, ethical practices, etiquette and cultural and
personal values that are promoted by their society. As with any society though, the
values that an individual holds sacred can differ on the basis of religion, upbringing
and other factors.
As a general description, the distinct value system of Filipinos is rooted primarily in
personal alliance systems, especially those based in kinship, obligation, friendship,
religion (particularly Christianity) and commercial relationships.

Filipino Values and Traits

I. Filipino hospitality
 A. Offering something to eat or
even a place to stay
B. Bring out their best sets of
plates and chinawares
C. Spending a lot money and going
into debts just to satisfy them
D. In local shop, salesmen greet
their customers with warm welcome and
say thank you
E. They give tours to the friends
who will with their hometown and
Fig. 1.2 Bayanihan, a group treating them to the best restaurant and
of men moving the house delicacies for free
from one place to another F. During festivals or fiestas, Filipinos
serve heaps of festive food and invite
the whole barangay
G. They are also fond of giving
pasalubong or tokens from their traulls and
pabaon or farewell gifts to their visitors

II. Respect for elders

Filipinos greet their elders by kissing their hand
while saying “Mano po” and constantly using
“po” at “opo” in conversation. There is also a
wide array of references to elder people such as
ate or kuya, tito and tita, lolo and manong or
aling for older people outside the family.

III. Fig. 1.3 Pagmamano, a

Close Family sign of respect for
Ties
A. Maintain a tight relationship regardless that
the children already have their own family.
B. Fond of family reunions during birthdays,
holidays and fiestas.

IV. Cheerful personality

Filipinos have the habit of smiling and laughing a
lot
They smile when they are happy, sad and
sometimes even when they are angry even during Fig. 1.1 Filipino Hospitality,
trying to maintain a positive outlook in life a foreigner warmly
welcomed by children.
V. Self-sacrifice
A. Filipinos go out of their way to extend their help to friends
B. They wish comfort and little lives to their loved ones
C. They even go abroad to earn more money and save up for them
D. Some eldest children give up their school to work and provide for the
rest of the family and educate his siblings
VI. Bayanihan
The bayanihan spirit is giving without expecting
something in return.

VII. “Bahala Na” Attitude

The Filipino version of the famous line “Hakuna Matata”
meaning no worries. Originated from “Bathala Na”.
Bathala means God – leaving everything into God’s
hands

VIII. Colonial Mentality

Is regarded as the back of patriotism and the attitude
where Filipinos favour foreign products more than their Fig. 1.4 Damiana
own Eugenio

IX. Manaňa Habit

This is the Filipino term for procrastination derived from “mamaya na” which means
doing things that could have been done at the present at a later time

X. Ningas Kugon (Cugon)

Refers to the attitude of eagerly starting things , but quickly losing eagerness soon
after experiencing difficulty just as fast as the fire has ignited.

XI. Pride
When two parties are not in good terms, they find it hard to apologize and wait until
the other party asks for an apology first

XII. Crab Mentality

Just like crabs, in a container, they pull each other down and ruin each other’s
reputation rather than bringing them up, which results in no progress

XIII. Filipino Time

Filipinos have their common attitude of arriving late at commitments

Filipino Markers
Filipino markers - hallmarks of our being a Filipino
1. Proverbs or Salawikain - are sayings that convey a lesson on Filipino
practices, beliefs and traditions.
Damiana Eugenio - mother of Phil. folklore

6 categories of proverbs
a. Proverbs - expressing a general attitude
towards life and the laws that govern life
b. Ethical proverbs - recommending certain
virtues and commending certain vices
c. Proverbs expressing a system of values
 d. Proverbs expressing general truths and
observations about life and human nature
e. Humorous proverbs
f. Miscellaneous proverbs
2. Superstitions
3. Myths and legends - stories that aim to explain of things and teach valuable
lessons
4. Heroes and icons - serve or reminders of true patriotism and nationalism

How to be a good Filipino?

1. Be an active Filipino citizen - participate in government progress, rights to
vote
2. Study the Phil. History - understand the event of Phil. history, extend help to
Filipinos and recognize abuse of political power
3. Support local products - support local manufacturers and strengthen local
economy
4. Speak the Filipino language - one way of
displaying love for one’s country
5. Do not spread fake news and be democratic
in engaging with dissent.

REFERENCES:
 De Guzman, J. A. (2017). Ethics: Principles of
Ethical Behavior in Modern Society. Malabon
City: Mutya Pub. House INC.
 Gallinero, W. (2018). Ethics. Malabon City:
Mutya Pub. House INC.
 http://www.language.berkeley.edu/ucfcp/
unit4/intro.php
 https://www.livinginthephilippines.com/
forum/index.php?topic=48580.0
Fig. 1.5 Biag ni Lam-ang,  http://laonlaan.blogspot.com/2010/06/
one of Filipino epics filipino-amor-propio.html
(Ilokano)  http://factsanddetails.com/southeast-asia/
Philippines/sub5_6c/entry-3868.html
 https://www.tagalog.com/lessons/hospitality-expressions.php
 https://ethicsunwrapped.utexas.edu/glossary/neuroethics
 https://plantspeopleplanet.au/biological-values/#:~:text=Biological%20values
%20express%20the%20behavioral,the%20evolution%20of%20biological
%20agency).
 https://journals.physiology.org/doi/10.1152/
physiologyonline.2002.17.1.43#:~:text=Thus%20respect%20for%20life
%20is,take%20responsibility%20for%20our%20acts.
 https://www.montroseschool.org/academics/learning-at-montrose/intellectual-
and-character-virtues#