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A BAROQUE CONCERTO GROSSO is an instrumental form involving two groups of

Baroque Concerto Grosso performers: the CONCERTINO (or Concertante) featuring a small group of soloists
accompanied by an orchestral accompaniment called the RIPIENO.
1600-1750
Harmony & Tonality Form & Structure
All Baroque Concerto Grossos have a CONTINUO part – an THREE MOVEMENTS – contrasted by TEMPO and a single mood or style within each movement. Movements in
accompaniment which “fills in the harmonies and texture” played by the st RITORNELLO FORM began with a
1 Movement Ritornello or a Fugue Brisk and purposeful
HARPSICHORD (or Organ) (playing CHORDAL HARMONY from FIGURED TUTTI section which featured a
nd Da Capo Aria or Slow and song-like
BASS NOTATION) with the CELLO or BASSOON doubling the Bass Line. 2 Movement THEME. Between appearances of
Ternary Form often dotted rhythms
MODULATIONS (changes of key) tended to go to the Dominant key or to rd this Ritornello Theme came
3 Movement Ritornello or a Fugue Fast and Cheerful
the Relative minor of the original key. Tonality was mainly DIATONIC and EPISODES (contrasting sections).
in either clear MAJOR or MINOR tonalities. Sometimes feature a short CADENZA section towards the end of the first movement (unaccompanied).
Rhythm, Tempo & Metre Texture Dynamics Melody
The three movements of a Baroque Mainly POLYPHONIC or TERRACED DYNAMICS – clear dynamic Melodies are decorated and embellished with ORNAMENTS
Concerto Grosso were contrasted CONTRAPUNTAL textures – contrasts achieved by the whole orchestra (often by performers) e.g. trills, turns, mordents and grace
in TEMPO – Fast-Slow-Fast – with a complex and interweaving of parts, changing the volume suddenly (rather than notes such as acciaccaturas, which make melodies sound
consistent tempo within each though some HOMOPHONIC Crescendos or Diminuendos). No building up “busy”. Melodies often long and flowing and use SEQUENCES
movement. Dotted Rhythms were MELODY & ACCOMPANIMENT or fading down of volume in Baroque (a musical phrase that is repeated at a different pitch either
often a feature of the sections for musical contrast. Concerto Grossos. going up or down) and IMITATION (where one instrumental
slower/second movements. part is copied (imitated) by other instruments.
Soloists Soloists vs. Orchestral Accompaniment Venue Baroque Concerto Grosso Composers
The Baroque Concerto Grosso is a work for The soloists were always “in the spotlight” Baroque Concerto Grossos were performed
two or more soloists. The soloists but sometimes performed with the either in churches, opera houses or small
(CONCERTINO –meaning “little ensemble”) accompanying orchestra in TUTTI sections. salons (rooms) or courts of wealthy
were the “stars of the show” and performed Musical contrast between sections is individuals.
demanding and technically difficult parts. important. J. S. Bach Handel Vivaldi Corelli
Instrumentation – Typical Instruments, Timbres and Sonorities
The orchestra used for a Baroque Concerto Grosso was split into two sections: the RIPIENO (the main orchestra who provided the
accompaniment and less technically-demanding parts) and the CONCERTINO (or Concertante) who were the Soloists/Solo Section.
The instruments used within the CONCERTINO of a Baroque Concerto Grosso can include: Violin, Cello, Recorder, Flute, Oboe,
Bassoon, Trumpet and Lute.

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The BAROQUE ORCHESTRA typically numbered between 10-30 players. The main and largest section was the STRINGS (1 and 2
Violins, Violas, Cellos and Double Basses) who played most of the ‘main melody’. A small WOODWIND section could consist of 2
Wooden Flutes, 2 Oboes and 2 Bassoons. The BRASS section may feature 2 “Natural” Trumpets and 2 Horns and the PERCUSSION
SECTION featured only TIMPANI which were used only for dramatic effects. The CONTINUO player led and directed the Baroque
Orchestra from the Harpsichord (no conductor).

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Baroque Solo Concerto The BAROQUE SOLO CONCERTO grew out of the BAROQUE CONCERTO GROSSO in which
a single solo instrument is accompanied by an orchestra. 1600-1750
Harmony & Tonality Form & Structure
All Baroque Solo Concertos have a CONTINUO part – an accompaniment THREE MOVEMENTS – contrasted by TEMPO and a single mood or style within each movement. Movements in
which “fills in the harmonies and texture” played by the HARPSICHORD st RITORNELLO FORM began with a
1 Movement Ritornello or a Fugue Brisk and purposeful
(or Organ) (playing CHORDAL HARMONY from FIGURED BASS TUTTI section which featured a
nd Da Capo Aria or Slow and song-like
NOTATION) with the CELLO or BASSOON doubling the Bass Line. 2 Movement THEME. Between appearances of
Ternary Form often dotted rhythms
MODULATIONS (changes of key) tended to go to the Dominant key or to rd this Ritornello Theme came
3 Movement Ritornello or a Fugue Fast and Cheerful
the Relative minor of the original key. Tonality was mainly DIATONIC and EPISODES (contrasting sections)
in either clear MAJOR or MINOR tonalities. Sometimes feature a short CADENZA section towards the end of the first movement (unaccompanied).
Rhythm, Tempo & Metre Texture Dynamics Melody
The three movements of a Baroque Mainly POLYPHONIC or TERRACED DYNAMICS – clear dynamic Melodies are decorated and embellished with ORNAMENTS
Solo Concerto were contrasted in CONTRAPUNTAL textures – contrasts achieved by the whole orchestra (often by the soloist) e.g. trills, turns, mordents and grace notes
TEMPO – Fast-Slow-Fast – with a complex and interweaving of parts, changing the volume suddenly (rather than such as acciaccaturas, which make melodies sound “busy”.
consistent tempo within each though some HOMOPHONIC Crescendos or Diminuendos). No building up Melodies often long and flowing and use SEQUENCES (a
movement. Dotted Rhythms were MELODY & ACCOMPANIMENT or fading down of volume in Baroque Solo musical phrase that is repeated at a different pitch either going
often a feature of the sections for musical contrast. Concertos. up or down) and IMITATION (where one instrumental part is
slower/second movements. copied (imitated) by other instruments.
Soloists Soloist vs. Orchestral Accompaniment Venue Baroque Solo Concerto Composers
The Baroque Solo Concerto is a work for a The soloist was always “in the spotlight” but Baroque Solo Concertos were performed
single solo instrument. The soloist’s parts sometimes performed with the either in churches, opera houses or small
were often very technically difficult with a accompanying orchestra in TUTTI sections. salons (rooms) or courts of wealthy
chance for the solo performer to “show off” Musical contrast between sections became individuals.
their technical ability and skill. more important than in Concerto Grossos. J. S. Bach Handel Vivaldi
Instrumentation – Typical Instruments, Timbres and Sonorities
The orchestra used to accompany Baroque Solo Concertos was slightly larger than the Baroque Concerto Grosso but typically
st nd
numbered between 10-30 players. The main and largest section was the STRINGS (1 and 2 Violins, Violas, Cellos and Double
Basses) who played most of the ‘main melody’. A small WOODWIND section could consist of 2 Wooden Flutes, 2 Oboes and 2
Bassoons. The BRASS section may feature 2 “Natural” Trumpets and 2 Horns and the PERCUSSION SECTION featured only TIMPANI
which were used only for dramatic effects. The CONTINUO player led and directed the Baroque Orchestra from the Harpsichord (no
conductor). The instruments used as soloists within Baroque Solo Concertos included the Violin, Cello, Recorder, Flute, Oboe,
Bassoon, Trumpet and Lute.

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During the CLASSICAL PERIOD, the Baroque Concerto Grosso went “out of fashion” and

Classical Solo Concerto Classical composers continued to write SOLO CONCERTOS for a single solo instrument
with more difficult and technically demanding solo parts (VIRTUOSIC), accompanied by a
now, much larger and more developed, orchestra.
1750-1820
Harmony & Tonality Venue Form & Structure
SIMPLE HARMONY making use of Performance spaces were THREE MOVEMENTS – contrasted by TEMPO and style/mood. RONDO form now popular (ABACADA...) where
mainly PRIMARY CHORDS – I, IV and V. becoming larger than in the st A is the recurring THEME between
1 Movement Sonata Form Brisk and purposeful
DIATONIC harmony in either clear Baroque period due to size of contrasting EPISODES (B, C, D..) and
nd Ternary or Variation Slow, lyrical and
MAJOR or MINOR tonalities. orchestras. Recital and 2 Movement SONATA FORM (EXPOSITION,
Form song-like
MODULATIONS to RELATED KEYS Concert Halls and Opera DEVELOPMENT, RECAPITULATION,
rd Rondo, Variation
(relative major/minor, subdominant Houses were popular venues 3 Movement Fast and Cheerful CODA) now popular. Classical Solo
Form or Sonata Form
major and minor and dominant for performing Concertos. Concertos often have long
major/minor). orchestral sections before the soloist enters – “delayed entry of the soloist”. Movements longer than Baroque.
Rhythm, Tempo & Metre Texture Dynamics Melody
The three movements of a Classical Solo Busy Baroque Polyphonic Wider range of Dynamics – pp, ff, mp, mf The melodies in Classical Solo Concertos were LIGHT, SIMPLE
Concerto were contrasted in TEMPO – Textures now replaced with CRESCENDOS and DECRESCENDOS or and ELEGANT and continue to use SEQUENCES and
Fast-Slow-Fast and style/mood. Some clearer HOMOPHONIC DIMINUENDOS now used showing an ORNAMENTS (although not as much as in the Baroque period).
changes of TEMPO for (MELODY AND increasing range of dynamics and more Musical phrases are BALANCED and EVEN (e.g. 4 or 8 bars)
effect/expression. ACCOMPANIMENT) textures. emphasis on expression in the music. maybe with some QUESTION AND ANSWER phrases.
Soloist Soloist vs. Orchestral Accompaniment Classical Solo Concerto Composers
st
CADENZA – became integral to the end of the 1 movement (and sometimes last movement) – Sometimes the soloist and orchestra
very difficult and VIRTUOSIC unaccompanied sections allowing the soloist to show off their perform sections in DIALOGUE with each
technical skill often containing lots of fast scale passages, broken chords and decorated and other. The conductor follows the soloist
ornamented melodies. Often cadenza sections end with a long, held TRILL to signal to the and the orchestra follow the conductor
Haydn Mozart Beethoven
orchestra to enter again for the final CODA section. Cadenzas were improvised by the soloists depending on the soloist’s Solo Trumpet, Flute, 27 Solo Piano Concertos Solo Concertos for
during performance, however, composers such as Beethoven wrote cadenzas out on the score. INTERPRETATION of the piece (which Oboe, Bassoon, Violin, and Concertos for Solo Piano and Violin.
Cello and Piano Violin, Clarinet, Horn and Early style was
The soloist’s part was more technically demanding and VIRTUOSIC than in Baroque Concertos. requires rehearsal). Concertos Flute. “Classical”.

Instrumentation – Typical Instruments, Timbres and Sonorities

As the Harpsichord declined in popularity, Classical composers no longer added CONTINUO parts to the orchestral accompaniment and a
CONDUCTOR was now established to lead the orchestra. The CLASSICAL ORCHESTRA grew in size and new instruments such as the Clarinet
st nd
were added. The CLASSICAL ORCHESTRA typically numbered between 30-60 players. The STRINGS (1 and 2 Violins, Violas, Cellos and
Double Basses) continued to be the ‘main section’ playing most of the ‘main melody’ and contained more players than in Baroque orchestras.
The WOODWIND now typically featured 2 x METAL Flues, 2 x Oboes, 2 x Bassoons, and 2 x (newly invented) Clarinets. BRASS continued to
consist of 2 x Horns and 2 (now valved) Trumpets and the PERCUSSION continued to feature only the TIMPANI. Classical composers wrote
Solo Concertos for instruments including the PIANO (newly invented and replacing the Baroque Harpsichord), VIOLIN, CELLO, FLUTE, OBOE,
CLARINET (also newly invented), BASSOON and FRENCH HORN.

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ROMANTIC SOLO CONCERTOS continued to be instrumental works for a single solo

Romantic Solo Concerto instrument with orchestral accompaniment but became much more DRAMATIC sounding
and emotive. Sometimes DOUBLE CONCERTOS were written for2 solo instruments.
1820-1900
Harmony & Tonality Form & Structure
Harmony continued to be mainly st THREE
1 Movement Sonata Form Allegro – soloist plays virtually throughout
DIATONIC but much more use of Slow, lyrical and song-like, often short and acting mainly as an MOVEMENTS –
CHROMATIC HARMONY, nd (sometimes
2 Movement Ternary or Variation Form introduction to the very fast and virtuosic finales. Sometimes
“linked”
DISSONANCE (clashing notes and linked to final movement with a pause. (Mendelssohn) or
chords) and ADDED NOTE CHORDS rd
even in just one
3 Movement Rondo, Variation or Sonata Form Fast and Cheerful
e.g. 9ths to create dramatic effects. movement (Liszt)
Rhythm, Tempo & Metre Texture Dynamics Melody
Frequent changes of time signature HOMOPHONIC (MELODY AND Extremes of dynamics common (ppp, fff) and The regular and balanced phrases of the Classical Concerto
and tempo. ACCOMPANIMENT) but more specific EXPRESSION MARKINGS e.g. were less important with composers giving more freedom to
complex than in Classical espressivo, dolce, appassionato expression within their melodies which were now often long
Concertos. and dramatic, loud and powerful or warm and emotional.
Soloists (and Articulation) Soloists vs. Orchestral Accompaniment Venue Romantic Solo Concerto Composers
The soloist’s part became even more difficult, In the Romantic period, the soloist stepped Many Romantic Solo Concerto
VIRTUOSIC and technically difficult to play. CADENZA forward as a “heroic figure” with the composers were also VIRTUOSO
sections continued to allow the soloist to “show off” orchestra slipping back into a more PERFORMERS e.g. Franz Liszt,
becoming more complex and difficult with lots of “subordinate” role, but these changing roles Chopin, Clara Schumann and
MELODIC DECORATION, ORNAMENTATION and FAST also added to excitement and drama and Niccolo Paganini (Violin Virtuoso) Beethoven Brahms
Late Concertos Violin and Piano Concertos
SCALE PASSAGE and demanding playing techniques more “competition” between soloist and who wrote and performed in
particular to the solo instrument e.g. glissandi on the orchestra. The conductor continues to follow large-scale public concerts,
piano, double stopping and harmonics on the violin. the soloist and the orchestra follows the subscription concerts and
Cadenzas were now written out and not improvised by conductor. The soloist’s interpretation of the festivals. Larger concert halls
the performer. Soloist often enters immediately (NO music is now more important due to the had to be built due to the rise of
st Liszt Mendelssohn
ORCHESTRAL INTRODUCTIONS) at the start of the 1 music being more dramatic and powerful. the “middle class” concert goer. Piano Concertos Solo Violin Concerto
movement sharing themes with the orchestra.
Instrumentation – Typical Instruments, Timbres and Sonorities
The Romantic orchestra was large and often contrasted dramatically with the soloist. With the growth of the Romantic orchestra, new TIMBRES and
SONORITIES became available to composers who explored rich and colourful orchestration. The STRINGS section was enlarged again, often with the
addition of Harps. New instruments were added to the WOODWIND section such as the Double Bassoon, Cor Anglais, Bass Clarinet and Piccolo.
The BRASS section saw Trombones and a Tuba added along with an extra Trumpet and two further French Horns and the PERCUSSION section now
featured a vast array of Drums, Cymbals, Pitched Percussion and other instruments which could be hit, struck, banged or plucked! There could be
between 90-100 players in a Romantic orchestra. Romantic composers wrote Solo Concertos for almost any orchestral instrument, but the PIANO
and VIOLIN continued to be popular choices as solo instruments.

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Film Music is a type of Descriptive Music that represents a mood, story, scene or character through music; it is
The Purpose of Music in Film designed to support the action and emotions of the film on screen.
To create or enhance a mood To function as a Leitmotif To emphasise a gesture To provide unexpected juxtaposition/irony
Frequent effects used by Film Music A frequently recurring short melodic or This is known as MICKEY-MOUSING and is Using music which the listener/viewer
composers to create or enhance a mood harmonic idea which is associated with a used especially in animated films, cartoons wouldn’t normally expect to hear creating a
include: character, event, concept, idea, object or and comedy films and is where the music sense of uneasiness,
• A repeated OSTINATO pattern situation which be used directly or indirectly mimics every small movement reinforcing or comparison or even
• Sustained notes of LONG DURATION to remind us of one not actually present on illustrating the action e.g. sliding trombones humour e.g.
• TREMOLO strings
screen. Leitmotifs can be changed as characters journey up and down in a lift, a Tchaikovsky’s “Swan
• A CRESCENDO with the DYNAMICS gradually
getting louder (sequencing, repetition, modulation) giving a descending chromatic scale as a character Lake” is heard in the
• Increasing TEMPO (Accelerando) hint as to what goes down a set of ‘Dracula’ (1931) film.
• PITCH getting higher will happen later stairs. Timing is To influence the pacing of a scene making it
• The use of SILENCE before something
in the film or may crucial when using appear faster/slower/more comprehensive
dramatic (to make you jump!)
• Unusual harmonies such as the use of minor
be heard in the Mickey-Mousing and Film Music composers often use fast,
and DISSONANT or CHROMATIC CHORDS, background Film Music composers dramatic music in action sequences to “drive
DISCHORDS and DIMINISHED CHORDS giving a “subtle often use CLICK the action and pace forward”. In love or
• IRREGULAR TIME SIGNATURES (5/4, 7/8) hint” to the TRACKS to help them romantic scenes, a slow, sweeping theme on
• Rapid Scale Patterns help create a frantic
viewer/listener. time their music the Strings can be used to “slow the pace
mood and a feeling of unrest and urgency
• INTERRUPTED CADENCES create a sense of exactly. down”.
tension and suspense To link one scene to another and smooth To illustrate geographic location or
• The use of the TRITONE (Augmented 4th) To give added commercial impetus
over visual cuts, providing continuity historical period
• The use of low pitch brass and strings to
provide a “dark sound” Repeated sections of music can be used to The independent commercial ‘afterlife’ of Westerns often use music “from the time” to
• The use of percussive metallic sounds link different parts of the film together – it the film score has become an increasingly set the scene using ‘traditional’ instruments.
• The use of SUSPENSIONS that don’t resolve can remind you of something that happened important aspect of Film Music. “Hit” songs Films set in a different country often
to build tension and make you think danger
earlier in the film. The style of music can will help sell the film and are often used in combine traditional instruments “associated
is near
• Frequent changes in DYNAMICS to hint an also change within a film with different the opening or closing credits. Songs may be with a particular country” in their
imminent danger sections of the film having different moods – used as title tracks but can return ‘in the soundtracks to help the audience imagine
• The use of electronic sounds and love, humour, battle/war. Film scores may background’ of the film soundtrack later. All the film’s setting and give a sense of “place”
synthesisers
be MONOTHEMATIC where the entire film of the James Bond films feature ‘big songs’ e.g. the Sitar can help “place a film” in India
• The use of SAMPLED SOUNDS
• The use of effects such as REVERB or
score is based upon a single melody e.g. often released as popular music singles or the Bagpipes help “place a film” in
DISTORTION applied to electronic, David Raksin’s “Laura” (1944) which is heard independently to help advertise the film and Scotland. Films set in a particular historical
synthesised or sampled sounds to change so often and in many different add period e.g. the 1970’s or 1980’s, may use
and manipulate the sound circumstances, that it comes to “haunt the commercial pop songs from the time to set the scene
• The use of unusual (often electronic)
listener”. impetus. with the audience recognising the songs and
instruments e.g. Rósza’s use of the Theremin
in his soundtrack to Alfred Hitchcock’s reminding them of that particular decade.
thriller ‘Spellbound’ (1945)
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History of Film Music

Early Film Soundtracks Film Music in the 1930’s and 40’s Film Music in the 1950’s and 60’s Film Music Today
Early films had no soundtrack Soundtracks first appeared at the In the 1950’s and 1960’s, film Film music today often blends popular, electronic and classical music in a
(“Silent Cinema”), so music had to end of the 1920’s and until the producers tried using flexible way that suits the needs of the particular film. Nevertheless,
be provided live, usually Second World War, Hollywood contemporary popular and classical Hollywood still creates superstar composers whose film music often takes
hired Classical composers to write styles, including jazz and
IMPROVISED by a pianist or on a life of its own away from its original context, on CDs, downloads and
huge Romantic-style film experimental music but from the
organist. The first soundtracks soundtracks. 1970’s, there was a rise of post- in the concert hall.
appeared in the 1920’s and used Romantic Film Music.
existing music, particularly from
operas and ballets (Wagner and
Verdi) and libraries of “Mood
Music” were formed.

How Film Music is Produced

Diegetic and Non-Diegetic Film
Music Spotting Cue Sheets Click Tracks Storyboards
Music
The Film Music composer attends a Cue Sheets are then produced An electronic metronome which A graphic organizer in the form of DIEGETIC FILM MUSIC – music
‘music-spotting’ session with the containing accurate timings (in facilitates the accurate illustrations or images displayed in within the film for both the
Director and decides where music seconds and fractions of seconds) synchronisation of music to events sequence for the purpose of pre- characters and audience to hear
of all dialogue and descriptions of exactly – used extensively in
is to feature in the finished film. visualising a motion picture, e.g. a car radio, a band in a
the action. creating music for animated films
and cartoons. animation, motion graphic or video nightclub or sound effects such as
game sequence. guns in the distance or screeching
car breaks. Also known as SOURCE
MUSIC or IN-VISION MUSIC.
NON-DIEGETIC FILM MUSIC –
music which is “put over the top”
of the action to increase the effect
of the film and for the audience’s
benefit and which the characters
within the film can’t hear e.g.
music to accompany a car chase.
Also known as UNDERSCORE or
INCIDENTAL MUSIC.

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Musical Features of
Film Music
Pitch & Melody Articulation Dynamics Texture Harmony
LEAPS (DISJUNCT MELODIC LEGATO or flowing for happier LOUDER for bolder or more THIN or SPARSE textures used for DIATONIC harmony for simpler situations
MOVEMENT) and CHROMATICISM for and good characters.
situations – STACCATO or spiky for powerful (whether good or bad) – bleak or lonely situations.
weirdness and “baddies” – STEPWISE CHROMATIC harmony for more complex
more challenging ones or to SOFTER for more timid/weak THICKER or FULLER textures used situations or bad characters.
(CONJUNCT MELODIC MOVEMENT)
represent ‘frozen’ or ‘brittle’. CRESCENDOS used for increasing for warmer, more “normal” CONSONANCE for normal situations or
and DIATONIC melodies for happiness
ACCENTS (>) for violence threat, triumph or proximity – situations and THICK, DENSE “good” characters.
and “goodies”. DISSONANCE for scary situations or “evil”
RISING MELODIES for increasing
SFORZANDOS (sfz/sf) for sudden DECRESCENDOS and orchestral sounds heard during
characters often using notes which are a
tension or increasing triumph – emphasis and to create a ‘shock’. DIMINUENDOS used for subsiding battles and chases. semitone apart.
FALLING MELODIES for decreasing PIZZICATO (strings) – plucking the things and things ‘going away into Complex POLYPHONIC textures for MAJOR for happier – MINOR for sadder.
tension or hopelessness/defeat. strings to create short, detached the distance’. confused or very active situations. SEVENTH CHORDS (including the use of the
Westerns often feature a “BIG THEME” flattened 7th) often used to create harmonic
notes. Horror Film soundtracks often use HOMOPHONIC MELODY AND
richness, especially in Westerns.
played on sweeping Strings. Q&A ARCO (strings) – using the bow to EXTREME DYNAMICS or SUDDEN ACCOMPANIMENT texture used Sudden changes of harmonies create
phrases can represent “Good vs. Evil”. play. CHANGES IS DYNAMICS to for more straightforward or calm unexpected moods. ATONAL and BITONAL
The interval of a FIFTH is often used in harmonies used to create ambiguous
enhance sudden actions on-screen situations or for “love themes”.
Sci-Fi film soundtracks as its “bare, atmospheres often in Sci-Fi or Supernatural
and to “shock” the listener.
open and sparse” sound quality Film soundtracks.
matches that of “outer space”.
Rhythm Metre Duration Leitmotifs, Themes & Motifs Timbre & Sonority
FAST for chases and hectic 2/4 or 4/4 for Marches, 3/4 for LONG, held notes are often used in A frequently recurring short melodic or Traditional orchestral instruments often
harmonic idea which is associated with a combined with electronic instruments.
situations. SLOWER can mean Waltzes. Metre isn’t as important Westerns to show the vast open
character, event, concept, idea, object or Orchestral instruments played in different
more hesitant. IRREGULAR in Film Music as the importance is spaces of the North-American situation which be used directly or indirectly ways e.g. slashing the bow across the strings
rhythms for threatening or unusual on the music directly matching and plains or to help describe the to remind us of one not actually present on of a violin
situations and REGULAR rhythms enhancing the on-screen action vastness of open space in a Sci-Fi screen. Leitmotifs are often fragmented Sound Effects combines with traditional and
e.g. in Horror films to show the electronic instruments.
for safety or more “normal” which sometimes doesn’t fall into film soundtrack.
deteriorating state of the hero or heroine as Brass Fanfares often used in Space Film
situations. OSTINATO rhythms for the regular divisions of a time SHORT notes are often used to the film progresses. soundtracks and in films when there is a
repeated sounds e.g. horse’s signature. “Big Themes” and songs describe “busy”, chaotic or hectic The SIGH MOTIF is often used – a short battle or warfare.
hooves. SYNCOPATION and used within films are often in 4/4 situations e.g. a bustling crowd, a rising then falling melody in an arch shape. “Traditional” musical instruments ‘of the
Animated films and cartoons use a range of time’ help place a film in a specific place or
CROSS-RHYTHMS to create tension metre. IRREGULAR TIME chase scene or a battle.
MUSICAL CLICHÉS – short motifs e.g. pedal time period.
and unease. “Traditional” dance SIGNATURES often used to create PEDAL notes are long held notes in notes, ‘calamity motif’, cluster chords etc. Unusual instruments often used in Sci-Fi,
rhythms e.g. American Square unease and tension with a lack of the bass line above changing which are used every time a character does Space or Horror films – Theremin, Celesta.
Dance, Tango and Bolero often clear pulse. harmonies and melodies and can a certain action or ends up in a certain Instruments such as a the glockenspiel used
situation. in Horror film soundtracks to create tension.
used in soundtracks to Westerns. also create tension and suspense.

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Video Game Music

Early Video Game Music How Video Game Music is used within Video Games
Early video game music consisted primarily of SOUND Music within a video game is often used for CUES (knowing when a
EFFECTS, CHIPTUNES (a style of music which used simple significant event was about to occur).
melodies) and early sound SYNTHESISER technology. Video game music is often heard over a game’s title screen, options
SAMPLING began in the 1980’s allowing sound to be played menu and bonus content as well as during the entire gameplay.
during the game, making it more realistic and less Music can be used to increase tension and suspense e.g. during
“synthetic-sounding”. battles and chases and can change, depending on a player’s actions
or situation e.g. indicating missing actions or “pick-ups”.
How Video Game Music is Produced Character Themes in Video Game Music
Characters within a video game can also have their
Fully-orchestrated video game music scores are now popular own THEMES – like LEITMOTIFS within Film Music.
– technology is used in their creation but less in their These can be manipulated, altered and changed –
performance. The composer uses music technology to create adapting the elements of music – orchestration,
the score, it is then played by an orchestra and then digitally timbre, sonority, texture, pitch, dynamics –
converted and integrated into the game. Video game depending on the character’s situation or different
soundtracks have become popular and are now commercially places they travel to within the game.
sold and performed in concert with some radio stations
featuring entire shows dedicated to video game music.
Famous Video Game Music Composers and their Soundtracks

Koji Kondo Michael Giacchino Mieko Ishikawa

Super Mario Bros. (1985) The Lost World: Jurassic Park (1997) Dragon Slayer (1993)
The Legend of Zelda (1986) Medal of Honour (1999)
Call of Duty (2003)

Martin
O'Donnell Jesper Kyd Tommy Tallarico
and Michael Assassin’s Creed (2007) Assassin’s Creed (2007)
Salvatori
Halo (2002)
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Film Music Composers and their Soundtracks

Bernard Hermann Jerry Goldsmith John Williams Hans Zimmer James Horner
Psycho Planet of the Apes Star Wars The Lion King Titanic
Vertigo Star Trek Jaws Gladiator Apollo 13
Taxi Driver The Motion Harry Potter Pearl Harbour A Beautiful Mind
Picture Indiana Jones Madagascar Braveheart
The Omen Superman Dunkirk Star Trek II
Alien E.T. Blade Runner 2049 Aliens
John Carpenter Harry Robinson Ennio Morricone Elmer Bernstein Jerome Moross
Halloween Twins of Evil The Good, The Bad The Magnificent The Big Country
Halloween II Countess Dracula and The Ugly Seven
Halloween III Demons of the For a Few Dollars
The Fog Mind More
Season of the The Ghoul The Mission
Witch Exorcist II

Carl Stalling John Barry Danny Elfman Wendy Carlos Rachel Portman
Many “Looney James Bond Mission Clockwork Chocolat
Tunes” and Films Impossible Orange
cartoon shorts. (adapted) The Shining
Dick Tracy
Batman Returns
Men in Black
Spider-Man

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Rock ‘n’ Roll of the Rock ‘n’ Roll combines elements of Rhythm and Blues and Country and Western Music and emerged in the mid-1950’s.
Rock ‘n’ Roll helped establish the typical pop music instrumental combination of Lead and Rhythm Guitars, Bass Guitar
and Drum Kit.

1950’s and 1960’s Repetition is an important feature of Rock ‘n’ Roll meaning untrained composers and performers could quickly and easily
learn music and then improvise over the basic structure.

Lyrics Tempo & Metre Harmony & Tonality Melody Dynamics

Simple, repetitive and easily Fast (Allegro) – ideal for dancing. Major tonality using mainly simple Often uses ‘blue notes’ (flattened Consistent loud volume – Forte (f)
rd th th
memorable – teenage concerns: 165-185 bpm. and repetitive Primary Chords – I, 3 , 5 and 7 against a major often louder in the choruses –
love, relationships, cars, school life 4/4 Time Signature. IV & V with slow Harmonic Rhythm chord). “Catchy” Melodies have a Fortissimo (ff) achieved through
and holidays. often in the 12-Bar Blues Structure: narrow vocal range. Vocal and amplification.
I, I, I, I, IV, IV, I, I, V, IV, I, I. Close guitar melodies use repeated
Harmonies used in the vocals. phrases, riffs and hooks.
Rhythm Texture Articulation Accompaniment Form & Structure
nd th
Backbeat (accenting 2 and 4 Homophonic (Melody & Harsh, brash and raw sound Sometimes Call and Response Verse-Chorus Form with a short
beats of the bar on the snare Accompaniment) Texture – a solo possessing energy and drive. between solo voice and Introduction (often instrumental
nd th
drum). Often features a Walking singer accompanied by Accents on the 2 and 4 beats of accompaniment (band or backing but sometimes vocal), solo verses,
Bass Line. Syncopation, Swung instruments. Some textural variety the bar provide the Backbeat. singers). Lead singers and/or chorus, instrumental section
Rhythms and Boogie-Woogie within songs e.g. instruments instrumental solos backed by band. (improvised solos or shuwaddy
rhythms also used. ‘dropping out’. section featuring Scat singing)
ending with a Coda/Outro.
Vocal Performance & Technique Technology Venue Artists, Bands & Performers
Mainly male lead singers using high-pitch Amplifiers for Electric Guitars used for the Dance Halls, Clubs (live), Concert Halls, Juke Little Richard, Elvis Presley, The Beatles, Bill
vocals and Falsetto giving an untrained or first time. Basic effects such as Reverb and Boxes, Coffee Bars, Radio and to buy on Haley & The Comets, The Beach Boys,
shouty tone/timbre with screeches, jeers Echo. Clean guitar sounds (not overdriven). Record/Vinyl. Johnny Cash, Chuck Berry, Buddy Holly,
and cheers. Portamentos and Scat Singing Double-track lead and backing vocals for Chubby Checker, The Doors.
often used. richer sounds. “Raw” sound of recordings.
Instrumentation – Typical Instruments, Timbres and Sonorities
Early Rock ‘n’ Roll – lead vocalist accompanied by a small group of acoustic instruments – piano, drum kit, saxophone, trumpet, harmonica, trombone and double bass. The Electric Guitar
soon became an essential part of Rock ‘n’ Roll and Backing Singers/Vocalists were frequently used in Rock ‘n’ Roll songs.

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By the 1960’s, Rock ‘n’ Roll evolved into a new style of music, known simply as Rock Music. There are many sub-
genres of Rock Music:

Rock Anthems of the Hard Rock – loud and aggressive, distorted electric guitars, solo guitar sections, use of power chords
Heavy Metal – harder, louder and more distorted than Hard Rock with longer guitar solos
Glam Rock – theatrical and glitzy, catchy hooks, spangly suits and make up
1970’s and 1980’s Progressive Rock – experimental and complicated structures, long instrumentals with effects and mythological
lyrics
Punk Rock – harsh and angry, loud and fast, anarchy and rebellion as themes
Lyrics Tempo & Metre Harmony & Tonality Melody Dynamics
Wider subject matter than the simpler Moderate to Medium Fast (Allegro Early Rock uses mainly Primary Chords (I, IV Performed by the lead singer with Due to heavy amplification, Rock
lyrics of Rock ‘n’ Roll with themes such & V) but later Rock uses Auxiliary Chords,
Moderato) lyrical vocal phrases featuring Music is designed to be performed
as: politics, philosophy, religion and Chromatic Chords, Added Sixth Chords, First
110-120 bpm. and Second Inversion Chords and Altered repeated patterns. The lead very loudly – Fortissimo (ff).
literature with darker, powerful and
4/4 Time Signature. Note Chords. Power Chords (chords which Electric Guitar plays Strong Guitar
more serious lyrics. Powerful anthemic
Strong steady “Rock Beat”. don’t contain the 3rd e.g. C5) are a key Riffs based on short sections of the
choruses designed to be sung loudly by feature of Rock Music and Modulations (in
the audience.
main melody.
the Bridge section) became more common.
Rhythm Texture Articulation Accompaniment Form & Structure
Strong and Driving Rhythms. Homophonic (Melody and Effects added to guitars: Distortion, Lead singer accompanied by band Verse-Chorus Form. Long Intros.
Incessant Drumming Patterns. Accompaniment) Texture although Echo, Reverb, Overdrive, Delay, that provide the accompanying Modulation in the Bridge
Use of a heavy Bass Drum and thick Polyphonic Textures are often Wah-wah and Feedback (the noise rhythm, bass line and chords, (extended instrumental solo
continuation of use of Backbeat used when singers, guitars and made when a mic or guitar are too although there are opportunities improvisation). Memorable
nd th
(emphasising the 2 and 4 beats drums play different rhythms at close to a speaker). for virtuosic instrumental solos. Chorus. Rock Songs often of longer
of the bar on the Snare Drum). the same time. duration – some 7-8 minutes.
Vocal Performance & Technique Technology Venue Artists, Bands & Performers
Mainly male vocal lead-singer singing with a Amplification technology developed – louder Louder amplification = increasingly larger Led Zeppelin, The Who (Hard Rock)
growly, raspy and husky-style of singing volumes. New sounds and effects: audiences in stadiums, sports arenas and Black Sabbath, Iron Maiden (Heavy Metal)
using very high pitch screams singing with Distortion, Wah-wah, Delay, Overdrive. pop festivals. Performances feature special David Bowie, Queen, KISS (Glam Rock)
Vibrato but not Falsetto. Multi-track recording created increasingly effects – light shows and pyrotechnics. Yes, Pink Floyd (Progressive Rock)
complex textures. Sex Pistols, Blondie (Punk Rock)
Instrumentation – Typical Instruments, Timbres and Sonorities
The basis of a Rock Band is a Lead Singer, Drum Kit and Trio of Guitars: Lead Electric Guitar, Rhythm Guitar and Bass Guitar. The sound of Rock Music centres upon the Electric Guitar.
Sometimes a Piano, Hammond Organ, Electric Keyboard/Synthesiser or Strings may be added or other (often strange!) timbres and effects!

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Pop Ballads of the 1970’s, Pop Ballads originated from Folk Music, usually being a story sung to simple musical accompaniment sung by
wandering minstrels in the 15th Century. Although Pop Ballads are now often performed on stage to huge
audiences, they still manage to maintain the intimacy of a performer telling a moving story through music. Pop

1980’s and 1990’s Ballads were often written and performed by Singer-Songwriters who often accompany themselves on the guitar
or piano.

Lyrics Tempo & Metre Harmony & Tonality Melody Dynamics

Tell stories often with a Slow and Moderate Tempo Chord Progressions (guitar and/or Mainly Diatonic melody sung by Start off quite soft – Mezzo Piano
sentimental romantic theme telling (Moderato, Andante, Adagio, piano) such as I, V, VI, IV. Slow the lead singer. Duos/Trios also (mp) – usually increasing towards
some kind of love story, often with Lento) to emphasise the meaning Harmonic Rhythm. Often use Chord common and often sing in Close the chorus with a Crescendo often
Inversions, Repeating Block Chords,
a romantic “twist” right at the end of the words. 70-100 bpm. Harmony. ending in a louder, fully-scored
Broken Chords or Arpeggios.
to keep people listening. 4/4 Time Signature. Ritardandos final Chorus.
Modulation in final chorus. Chords II,
and Tempo Rubato used. III and IV used more.
Rhythm Texture Articulation Accompaniment Form & Structure
Accompanying drum patterns on Homophonic (Melody & The main vocal melody, performed The Accompaniment of a Pop Verse-Chorus Form. Verses in
the Snare Drum often feature Accompaniment) Texture – a solo by the lead singer and the Ballad always supports the Lead Strophic Form. Bridge/Middle 8 (8,
Syncopated Rhythms accenting the singer accompanied by simple accompanying chords are normally Singer! The story is the most 16, 24 or 32 bars) often features
nd th
2 and 4 beats of the bar. instruments or large band. Texture performed Legato – smoothly important part and the lead vocals new material before a Modulation
often builds towards the end throughout. should be clear and unhidden. in the final Chorus. Parts of the
becoming thicker for a big final Backing vocalists and Verse or Chorus can be repeated
‘climax’ in the last Chorus. accompanying instruments support for emphasis or effect.
Vocal Performance & Technique Technology Venue Artists, Bands & Performers
Expressive and Emotional Vocal Performance Heavy Reverb on the vocals often used to Pop Concert, Radio, TV, CD, MP3 Download Billy Joel, Lionel Richie, Chris de Burgh,
is key to a Pop Ballad: A Cappella, Vibrato, create a warm sound. Internet Sites, YouTube. Celine Dion, Mariah Carey, Elton John, Bette
Falsetto, Melisma, Portamento, Riffing, Midler, Take That, The Carpenters, Sting,
Ritardandos, Tempo Rubato, Large Vocal Extreme, Seal, Robbie Williams, Lionel
Ranges, Long Held Notes. Richie, George Michael, Eric Clapton.
Instrumentation – Typical Instruments, Timbres and Sonorities
No “set list” of instruments which accompany Pop Ballads but often featured are: Guitars (Acoustic, Electric and Bass), Drum Kit, Vocals (Lead and Backing Singers – often called BVOX),
Piano, Electric Piano, Saxophone and Strings – either live orchestral or synthesised “Lush String Pads” using Music Technology.

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Solo Artists from the 1990’s Solo Artists often change their music from album to album. They perform in a wide range of venues for small
and large audiences and their styles of music include: Rock, Rap, Indie, Electronic Music, Dance Music and
Conventional Pop Music. Each singer has been influenced with their own individual sound and character,

to the Present Day depending on the kind of message and image they want to express. Typically a performance may feature a
gradual build-up or increase in terms of instrumentation, texture and dynamics as the song progresses.

Vocal Performance & Technology Venue Artists, Bands & Performers

Technique
In addition to Digital Technology becoming more sophisticated with a wide range of Digital Can range from medium to large sized George Michael, Beyoncé, Sam
AutoTune, other vocal Effects (Reverb, Echo, Delay and Distortion still used). arenas. Touring now a main income Smith, Kylie Minogue, Robbie
effects such as Recording Techniques allowing producers much greater control over their music. stream for artists instead of simply to Williams, Eminem, Taylor Swift,
Panning and Filters AutoTune – a device or facility for tuning something, especially a computer promote a new album. Music videos are Adele, Calvin Harris, Madonna,
(e.g. ‘telephone’ or program which enables the correction of an out-of-tune vocal performance. now as important as the music itself Michael Jackson, Britney Spears,
‘phasing’ by changing Sampling – sections or loops taken from other recordings meaning solo artists could achieve KT Tunstall, Amy Winehouse,
the EQ of a sound to Drum Loops – electronically creates using technology and then repeating it. different outcomes from each Bruno Mars, Justin Bieber.
distort it in some way) Advanced Recording Software and Computer Sequencers (ProTools GarageBand, album/track and therefore “reinvent”
are applied during Logic). Overdubbing resulting in more complex and thick musical textures. themselves and their music.
production. Highly polished production using computers.
Instrumentation – Typical Instruments, Timbres and Sonorities
Ranges from traditional “Pop Instrumentation” such as Voice, Drums, Electric Bass and Guitar, Keyboards alongside Electronic Instruments such as Samplers and Synthesisers

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A RAGA performance is not worked out beforehand and relies on a RAGA (scale) and TALA (rhythm) to which
Indian Classical Music considerable IMPROVISATON and ORNAMENTATION are added by the performers. Some performances are very
long and can last all night!
Characteristic Rhythms and Metres, Traditional Rhythm Patterns &
Pitch & Melody and Harmony & Tonality
Repetition and Ostinato Dynamics
Based on TALAS (cyclic/repeating rhythm patterns) played by the TABLA. Melodies based on RAGAS (scale/mode) – patterns of notes with strict Generally increase throughout a
One single TALA used for a piece. Each TALA has a certain number of rules about usage. RAGAS (scales) associated with a particular time of Raga performance starting of softly
beats (regular and irregular TALAS are used). The most popular TALA is day or night or season and have different MOODS. Some RAGAS (scales) (p) during the ALAP and JHOR with
called TINTAL – 16 beats per cycle. Over 300 TALAS. HAND CLAPS and vary in ascent and descent e.g. Raga Vibhas (morning Raga); Raga Behag a gradual CRESCENDO in the JHALA
WAVES are used to mark certain beats. (evening Raga). RAGAS are written down used SARGAM notation. and very loud at the end.
Texture Tempo Ensemble Form & Structure
There are three basic layers to the texture of Indian Classical Music: ALAP – slow and free unmetred Indian Classical musicians must FOUR sections (no breaks)
MELODY (Voice, Sitar, Sarangi, Bansuri, Esraj or Sarod performing the rhythm with no recognisable beat work together in order to interpret ALAP – melody and drone, free
melodic form of the Raga); DRONE (Tanpura or Harmonium performing or pulse. JHOR – speeds up and the music and perform effectively unmetred, slow, soft.
long sustained noted); RHYTHM (Tabla performing the rhythmic Tala). becomes more rhythmic. JHALA – as one including starting and JHOR (JOR) – melody and drone,
The opening three sections of a Raga performance all have a 2-PART further increase in tempo and stopping together, agreeing tempo increase in speed, more rhythmic
TEXTURE (melody and drone), the final Gat (or Bandish) section when the greater sense of metre. GAT – very and dynamic changes, similar JHALA – melody and drone, more
Tabla enters performing the Tala has a 3-PART TEXTURE. fast tempo with complex rhythms. interpretation of expression and speed and improvisation
TEMPO RUBATO sometimes added articulation (accents, staccato) as GAT (BANDISH) – Tabla enters,
by performers during performance. well as balance between parts. tempo and dynamics increase.
Origins and Cultural Context of the Impact of Modern Technology on Artists, Bands & Performers of Indian
Musical Characteristics of Folk Music
Traditional Music Traditional Music Classical Music
Around 1700 BC. Developed in temples and A RAGA performance based on one RAGA Available via the internet (YouTube®) and
royal palaces. Ragas and Talas learnt by the and one TALA with freedom for heard at cinema, radio and live concerts.
ORAL TRADITION. Master-Student tradition. IMPROVISATION and ORNAMENTATION Indian instruments now heard in jazz, pop
Spirituality (Hinduism) an important part. during performance. No fixed length. and rock (live or sampled) Ravi Shankar Anoushka Shankar Alla Rakha
Instrumentation – Typical Instruments, Timbres and Sonorities
SITAR TANPURA SAROD SARANGI ESRAJ HARMONIUM BANSURI SINGER TABLA

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Bhangra is a type of FUSION MUSIC – blending together and combining elements of WESTERN POPULAR MUSIC, CLUB

Punjabi Bhangra DANCE MUSIC, HINDI FILM MUSIC and FOLK MUSIC FROM THE PUNJABI REGION. Traditional Punjabi drums and string
instruments are FUSED (combined/used alongside) Western instruments. Modern Bhangra developed in the UK in the
1970’s and 1980’s and fused CHAAL rhythms with Western popular genres such as HIP-HOP, DISCO and DRUM ‘N’ BASS.
Characteristic Rhythms and Metres, Traditional Rhythm Patterns & Repetition and Ostinato Pitch & Melody and Harmony & Tonality
The basic rhythms of Bhangra are played by the DHOL – a double-headed drum producing two sounds – HIGH Singing has an important role within Bhangra often featuring HIGH-PITCH
and LOW. POLYRHYTHMS, CROSS-RHYTHMS and SYNCOPATION can be created by combining rhythms from MALE VOCALISTS (in the tenor range) – the melodies use a SMALL
the two drum heads. The CHAAL rhythm in 4/4 metre consists of a repeated 8-note pattern played on the RANGE OF NOTES and backing singers often shout ‘Hoi’ at certain points
DHOL. The CHAAL rhythm is ‘swung’ with a TRIPLET-feel. Vocal shouts of the word ‘Hoi’ are often added on in the song. The lead vocalist/singer sings SHORT PHRASES in Punjabi,
the second and fourth beats of the CHAAL rhythm and the often BENDING NOTES and making use of MICROTONAL INTERVALS and
DHOLAK and/or TABLA add decorative, more complex frequent use of the interval of a MINOR THIRD. It is common for the
rhythms. The TUMBI often plays repeated RIFFS or vocal melody to fall in pitch at the end of a phrase. Harmony is often very
OSTINATOS using the CHAAL rhythm. simple, based on one or two REPEATED CHORDS.
Texture Tempo Dynamics & Articulation Form & Structure
HOMOPHONIC (MELODY AND Fast-paced dance music, usually in Consistently LOUD with exciting Similar to Western Popular Music in POPULAR SONG FORM including
ACCOMPANIMENT) – instruments 4/4 METRE around 140-195 bpm. and dramatic expression. Strong VERSES and a repeated CHORUS, often with an introduction and some
st
support vocal melody. ACCENTS on the 1 beat of the bar. INSTRUMENTAL sections.
Origins and Cultural Context of the Impact of Modern Technology on Artists, Bands & Performers of Punjabi
Musical Characteristics of Folk Music
Traditional Music Traditional Music Bhangra
Bhangra originally refers to a type of Punjabi Working farmers would sing songs to the Modern Bhangra today uses a lot of music
dancing taking place around harvest time sound of the DHOL. The dance rhythm technology – REMIXES, SAMPLING and DJ
where festivities would be accompanied by accompanied a male synchronised dance SOUND EFFECTS such as SCRATCHING as
music. It became popular at other with energetic steps and acrobatic stunts. well as using DRUM MACHINES. Using these
celebrations such as weddings and New Year effects, Bhangra has evolved into a CLUB
parties and now the soundtrack of DANCE GENRE with an individual and
BOLLYWOOD cinema. improvised dance to accompany it. Panjabi MC Alaap
Instrumentation – Typical Instruments, Timbres and Sonorities –
Electronic instruments (Electric Guitars, Electric Bass, Synthesizers and Keyboards) are often added to these:
DHOL DHOLAK TABLA TUMBI SARANGI ALGHOZA MALE SINGERS

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Due to Greece’s geographical location, its music is influenced by music from Europe, Asia and the Middle East.
Eastern Mediterranean and Middle Consisting of songs and dances, Greek folk music is used for celebrations and social events. Lots of Palestinian music
contains only melody/vocals and rhythm often without chords and often begin with a section freely improvised free of
Eastern and Arabic Folk Rhythms tempo. Israeli music combines a mixture of music from different cultures – Europe, Russia, Eastern Europe, Arabia.
Characteristic Rhythms and Metres, Traditional Rhythm Patterns & Dynamics, Expression and
Pitch & Melody and Ornamentation
Repetition and Ostinato Articulation
Many Greek songs and dances use IRREGULAR RHYTHMS and IRREGULAR Greek folk music uses SIMPLE MELODIES but allows freedom for the player, Greek folk music – simple but highly
METRES e.g. 5/8 or 7/8. SIMPLE TIME is also used in Israeli folk dances e.g. 2/4, performer or singer to DECORATE and ORNAMENT those freely especially expressive melody lines with
3/4 and 4/4). In Arabic music, a rhythm pattern is called a WAZN (similar to a decorating repeated notes. Melodies move mainly by STEP (CONJUNCT performers exploring the TIMBRE and
Tala in Indian music). Two popular Arabic WAZN rhythms are shown below and MOVEMENT) covering a relatively small range of notes. The melodies are lyrical SONORITY of the instrument including
can be performed on the DOUMBEK (D = DOUM – a low tone played in the (expressive) and enjoyable to sing. Often melodies are harmonised by another playing techniques such as TREMOLO
centre; T = TEK – a high tone played on the edge with the right hand; K = KA – a part playing a THIRD HIGHER giving PARALLEL MELODIES. Arabic melodies are (Bouzouki) and slides (GLISSANDO) and
high tone played on the edge with the left hand) based on MAQAM and IMPROVISATION is an important feature. Israeli folk singers using MELISMA (singing several
dances have melodies played on the clarinet, violin and accordion, often using notes per syllable).
MAQSUM – SAIDI –
basic rhythm upbeat folk GRACE NOTES and PITCH BENDS to create a distinctive sound with MELODIC
used in rhythm DECORATION and ORNAMENTATION.
Middle East with FILLS

Harmony and Tonality Tempo Texture Form & Structure and Phrasing
Greek music uses DIATONIC MAJOR AND MINOR CHORDS. Tonic and Dominant notes are Greek, Arabic and Israeli folk music is often Greek folk music has a clear HOMOPHONIC Greek folk music – short sections which are
emphasised by the bass instrument and music sometimes MODULATES to the relative FAST – designed for dancing. Arabic music (MELODY AND ACCOMPANIMENT) texture repeated. Clear structure with regular
major/minor. Arabic music is often based on a MAQAM (type of scale/mode often often begins with an IMPROVISATION free – a prominent melody with accompaniment, phrasing with sections separated by clear
accompanied by a DRONE) which is divided into MICROTONES. The closest scale in Western of tempo and Israeli folk dances often often featuring OFF-BEAT CHORDS. CADENCES. Sometimes instruments and
music which resembles this is the DOUBLE HARMONIC SCALE also called the ARABIC SCALE: feature a gradual ACCELERANDO (speeding singers perform in DIALOGUE with each
C, Db, E, F, G, Ab, B C. Israeli folk dances often feature the bass guitar playing the ROOT and up) throughout the performance. other.
FIFTH of a chord with other instruments performing chords on the OFF-BEAT.
Origins and Cultural Context of the Impact of Modern Technology on Artists, Bands & Performers of Eastern Mediterranean
Musical Characteristics of Folk Music
Traditional Music Traditional Music and Middle Eastern and Arabic Folk Rhythms
Greek folk music – songs and dances at celebrations, A typical ensemble in Greek folk music could consist of Globalization means more people around the world
social events, cafés, restaurants and bars. Middle the DOUBMEK, BOUZOUKI, violin, bass and vocals. have access to Eastern Mediterranean, Arabic and
Eastern folk music shaped by Arabic, Jewish and Palestinian and Arabic music often features the OUD, Israeli folkl Music via the Internet (YouTube®) which can
Christian influences. while Israeli music has taken on many more Western also be heard on the radio or television and at live
musical instruments such as the guitar and the piano. concerts.
The harmony is often MICROTONAL. Yannis Parios Le Trio Joubran Effi Netzer
Instrumentation – Typical Instruments, Timbres and Sonorities
BOUZOUKI OUD DOUMBEK TAMBOURINE TABLA BALADI MIZMAR NEY MIJWIZ SANTUR

A typical Greek folk music ensemble could consist of the DOUMBEK, BOUZOUKI, violin, bass and vocals. Palestinian and Arabic music often features the OUD, while Israeli music has taken on many more
Western musical instruments such as the guitar and piano.
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African instruments are often made from plants and animal products such as hide and bone. African musicians are very

African Drumming fond of PERCUSSION instruments and use a wide variety of drums (called MEMBRANOPHONES) Drums are traditionally
used as an accompaniment to singing, dancing, working and communicating between villages. Drummers are typically
the most respected members of their community.
Characteristic Rhythms and Metres, Traditional Rhythm Patterns
Pitch & Melody and Harmony & Tonality
& Repetition and Ostinato Ornamentation
REPETITION and CYCLIC RHYTHMS used to organise music. A repeated Most African melodies are based on a “limited number of pitches” - four, five, six or seven note SCALES and The MASTER DRUMMER
rhythm pattern (OSTINATO or TIMELINE) is used as a basis for are normally short and simple, often expanded by REPETITION and IMPROVISATION. The pitch in African can elaborate and decorate
IMPROVISATION to “hold the piece together”. Use of SYNCOPATION, drumming is largely determined by the tuning of the drums. African singers often create vocal harmony by his solo drum part with
POLYRHYTHMS (shown below right), CYCLIC RHYTHMS and CROSS-
singing in thirds, fourths or fifths. UNISON and PARALLEL OCTAVE harmony is also common. The basic ACCENTS and playing in a
RHYTHMS (shown below left). MASTER DRUMMER can give musical ‘cues’
form of African Vocal Music is CHORAL SINGING known as CALL AND RESPONSE where one singer technically demanding style
to performers to change rhythms during a performance and can also choose
to ACCENT different beats within a RHYTHM CYCLE. (SOLOIST) or small group of singers sings a line and the whole group (CHORUS) makes a reply (often a fixed to “show off” to the rest of
REFRAIN) – like a “musical conversation” – in alternation with the “lead singer”. The soloist often the drum ensemble and
IMPROVISES. African singers often “shout words” (VOCABLES) and male and female singers enjoy using audience.
their highest VOCAL REGISTER known as FALSETTO. African singing can be accompanied by instruments
but can also be unaccompanied (A CAPPELLA).
Texture Dynamics Tempo Ensemble Form & Structure and
Phrasing
In West Africa, drum ensembles have 3-5 players each with a Since African Drumming is often FAST – designed for dancing and A MASTER DRUMMER often leads giving The structure of a piece of
performed outside and at social social gatherings – tempo will match signals to the rest of the group to change African drumming depends on
distinctive method of striking their drum and playing rhythms or sections of the piece and can
gatherings and celebrations, the the dance steps. The MASTER the MASTER DRUMMER and
interlocking rhythms. This creates a THICK and complex dynamics are generally LOUD (FORTE DRUMMER can both establish the
also control the TEMPO. He often
has no fixed or determined
IMPROVISES highly complicated rhythms
POLYPHONIC texture. – f) or VERY LOUD (FORTISSIMO – ff), tempo as well as speed up and can indicate the ending of a piece of length, entirely dependent on
but like changes in tempo, can be (ACCELERANDO) or slow down music as well as playing the “CALL” to CALL the rhythms used.
indicated by the MASTER DRUMMER. (DECELERANDO) or even set a new AND RESPNOSE SECTIONS which are
tempo with musical ‘cues’. ‘responded’ by the drum ensemble.

Musical Characteristics of Impact of Modern Technology on Artists, Bands & Performers of African
Origins and Cultural Context of the Traditional Music
Folk Music Traditional Music Drumming
African Drumming is ‘traditional’ and handed down via the ORAL Traditional drums such as the African music has been a major influence on the
TRADITION (not written down). Not performed ‘at a concert’, DJEMBE, TALKING DRUM and development of popular music contributing rhythms,
rather everyone joins in by dancing or playing an instrument, DUNDUN remain popular in African structures, melodic features and the use of
music today, often combined with a improvisation to such styles as blues, gospel and jazz,
singing or clapping. Combines other art forms and heard at special
number of percussion instruments, brought over to America by slaves. High quality
occasions and celebrations. Many Africans believe that music
stringed instruments and woodwind recordings of traditional African music are now possible
serves as a link to the spirit world. instruments. RHYTHM remains a with advanced recording techniques Ladysmith Black
key feature of African drumming. Bolokada Conde Mambazo

DUNDUN Other percussion instruments Instrumentation – Typical Instruments, Timbres and Sonorities Stringed instruments (CHORDOPHONES) such as
DJEMBE
(Bass, Tone
such as clappers, maracas, & Slap
scrapers, gongs and
bows, lyres, zithers, harps and the KORA are sounds)
xylophones (called BALAFONS) popular as well as some woodwind instruments
produce their sound by (AEROPHONES) such as whistles, flutes, reed
vibration and are known as
IDIOPHONES.
pipes, trumpets and horns.
TALKING DRUM

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Calypso is the national dance of Trinidad and Tobago. Steel Bands also originated from these islands. Caribbean music
Calypso and Steel Band combines elements of AFRICAN MUSICAL INFLUENCES – SYNCOPATION, CROSS-RHYTHMS, PERCUSSION, CALL AND
RESPONSE and EUROPEAN MUSICAL INFLUENCES – TONAL HARMONIES AND MELODIES and instruments.
Characteristic Rhythms and Metres, Traditional Rhythm Patterns & Dynamics, Expression and
Harmony and Tonality
Repetition and Ostinato Articulation
CALYPSO is originally the national dance of Trinidad and Tobago and is Harmony of Calypso often enriched used ADDED NOTE CHORDS e.g. added 6ths, Since Calypso and Steel Pan music is
th designed to be performed at carnivals and
particularly associated with social gatherings such as CARNIVAL. Calypso 7ths and 9ths and Diminished 7 chords. The HARMONIC RHYTHM of Steel Pan
music is SLOW – with a single chord often lasting an entire bar. Harmonies are outdoors accompanying dancers or in front
is normally in 4/4 METRE and uses SYNCOPATION combining story telling of large audiences, the dynamics are
mainly simple and use PRIMARY TRIADS in MAJOR TONALITY and phrases often
with memorable melodies. Calypso often uses three-beat rhythms with generally VERY LOUD – FORTISSIMO (ff).
end with PERFECT CADENCES. The BASS PAN plays the ROOT of the chord, the
two long beats followed by a short beat. An example of a Calypso rhythm Steel pans are played with sticks/beaters
CELLO/GUITAR PAN plays the with rubber tips and notes of LONG
is as follows: THIRD AND FIFTH of the chord and DURATION are playing by ROLLING, giving a
the ALTO PAN plays the ROOT TREMOLO effect which produces a
SYNCOPATION is also used in Steel Pan music, both in the melody line AND THIRD of the chord. A typical ‘shimmering’ sound as is a unique
and in the chords which are often performed OFFBEAT. CHORD RHYTHM could be: TIMBRE/SONORITY to Steel Pans.

Pitch & Melody and Ornamentation Texture Form & Structure and Phrasing
The melody of Calypso music often features IMPROVISATION by the Steel Pan music – mainly HOMOPHONIC Calypso often uses CALL AND RESPONSE regular (e.g. 4 or 8-bar) phrases
(MELODY AND ACCOMPANIMENT) –
instrumentalists often on an “established”, pre-existing (folk) melody or which are IMPROVISED. Songs are normally in POPULAR SONG FORM.
additional textural layers added by CHORD
one that has been composed who add ornaments and decorate a melody RIFFS and percussion instruments which Steel Pan music often has a recurring ‘A’ section and made up of short
line during a performance. thicken the musical texture. REPEATED PHRASES.
Origins and Cultural Context of the Impact of Modern Technology on Artists, Bands & Performers of Calypso and
Musical Characteristics of Folk Music
Traditional Music Traditional Music Steel Pan Music
Calypso is the national dance of Trinidad and Calypso and Steel Band music has African With advances in recording technology,
Tobago and is based on a traditional musical influences including: Syncopations Harry Belafonte recorded a “Calypso Album”
syncopated rhythm. Steel Bands also and Cross-Rhythms, use of percussion in 1956 selling more than a million copies
originated from these islands. instruments, call and response and singing bringing Calypso to a wider audience Harry Belafonte David Rudder
Steel Drums were discovered in the late styles as well as European musical influences worldwide. Calypso has also been used in
1930’s by hitting a dented section of an oil including tonal harmonies and melodies and modern-day films e.g. “Under the Sea” from
barrel which produced a particular tone. instruments such as the guitar. ‘The Little Mermaid’. Mighty Sparrow Andry Narrell
Instrumentation – Typical Instruments, Timbres and Sonorities
Instruments used in Calypso include the Acoustic and Bass Guitars with Trumpets, Saxophones, Electric Guitars, Drum Kit, Vocals and LATIN
PERCUSSION which includes many types of drums and hand-held percussion instruments including:
Steel Bands began in Trinidad when a
great many oil drums were left lying
around after World War II. It was soon
found that they could be turned into
musical instruments. Steel Pans are
made by cutting oil drums into different
sizes and then beating the tops into
concave bowls. Each individual note is then beaten into a small area of the bowl. Small rubber-headed sticks are used to strike each note. These days, Steel Bands
consist of a number of different-sized Steel Pans, and a rhythm section of Latin-American percussion instruments. Each pan or pair of pans has its own name
according to its pitch-range. Some of the pans have more than one name although they mean the same thing.

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Music in Latin America is widely influenced by colourful and exotic carnivals and a range of
Samba dance styles. Carnivals may include FANFARRAS, featuring brass instruments associated with
fanfare, and almost always a SAMBA BAND.
Rhythm and Metre, Form & Structure and Phrasing, Repetition and Ostinato & Ornamentation
Built around OSTINATOS usually 4 or 8 beats long (regular phrases). Each group of instruments can have their own Ostinato featuring OFFBEAT RHYTHMS and SYNCOPATION. Often the
SON CLAVE SYNCOPATED rhythm is used, either the 2:3 or 3:2.
Samba music is built up of lots of different sections. For each
section the SAMBISTA will need to know an OSTINATO.
Samba music often starts with an INTRODUCTION often featuring CALL AND RESPONSE RHYTHMS between the Samba Leader and ensemble. The main Ostinato rhythm of Samba is called
the GROOVE when all the instruments of the Samba Band play their respective rhythms over and over again forming the main body of the piece. The GROOVE is broken up by BREAKS - 4
or 8 beat rhythms providing contrast and MID SECTIONS – one or two instruments change the rhythm of their ostinato and the others stay the same or stop. Sometimes BREAKS and MID
SECTIONS feature a SOLOIST who “shows off” their rhythms. The SAMBISTA must signal to the group when to change to a different section which is normally done with an APITO (Samba
Whistle – loud!). A piece of Samba can end with either
a CALL AND RESPONSE pattern or a pre-rehearsed
Mid-
ending phrase of rhythm. The FORM AND STRUCTURE Intro Groove Break 1 Groove Break Groove Groove Break 1 Groove End
Section 1
of a piece of Samba may look like the following:
Texture Dynamics, Expression and Articulation Tempo Pitch and Melody &
Harmony and Tonality
Texture varies in Samba music, often MONOPHONIC where a The dynamics of Samba music are normally very loud – Samba music is generally fast at around Samba music is based on rhythms
single rhythm is heard as in CALL AND RESPONSE sections, it is music designed to be performed outdoors at 104 bpm and keeps a constant tempo rather than melodies although the
sometimes POLYPHONIC where sections of the Samba band play carnivals and is played by large numbers of to assist the dancers or processional pitch of certain instruments within the
different rhythms (OSTINATOS) creating CROSS-RHYTHMS (when instrumentalists and to accompany dancers and nature of the music. Sometimes the Samba band provides musical
two rhythmic patterns that “conflict” with each other occur processions with large audiences watching and SAMBISTA (Samba leader) uses contrasts.
simultaneously) creating a thick texture of interweaving and listening. Sometimes, a CRESCENDO is used at the end (TEMPO) RUBATO – tiny fluctuations in
interlocking rhythms. of a piece of Samba music for dramatic effect. tempo for expressive effect.
Origins and Cultural Context of the Musical Characteristics of Artists, Bands & Performers of Samba
Impact of Modern Technology on Traditional Music
Traditional Music Folk Music
Samba is a musical genre and dance style with its roots The instruments of Samba have Samba has become popular as a Latin-American ballroom dance on TV
in Africa via the West African slave trade and African been influenced by Portuguese shows such as Strictly Come Dancing and Dancing with the Stars. Samba has
religious traditions. Samba is an expression of Brazilian colonies who imported slaves from also been mixed/fused with Drum ‘n’ Bass in a musical fusion creating
cultural expression and is a symbol of carnival. Samba Africa, while the rhythms of Samba “Sambass” and artists and groups of popular music have used sounds and
schools formed and compete bringing people together. are of African origin. rhythms of Samba in their music e.g. Gloria Estefan and Jamiroquai. Fundo de Quintal Exaltasamba
Instrumentation – Typical Instruments, Timbres and Sonorities
SURDO REPINIQUE TAMBORIM CHOCOLO RECO-RECO APITO AGOGO BELLS CAIXA DE GUERRO GUIRO TIMBALES CUICA CONGAS CLAVES COWBELL

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