HARAPPAN CIVILISATION (C.

2600 – 1900 BCE) / BRONZE AGE

CIVILISATION
• The Harappan civilisation was the first urban civilisation in South Asia, contemporaneous with
the civilisations of Mesopotamia and Egypt. Of the three aforementioned civilisations, the
Harappan civilisation occupied most area (about 8,00,000 sq km).
• Earlier historians had called this civilisation the Indus Valley Civilisation, but since then, major
settlements have been excavated in the Ghaggar-Hakra belt that spread far beyond the Indus
region.
• Harappa, as the first archaeological site to be discovered, therefore gives its name to the entire
civilisation. It forms a part of the proto-history of India, and belongs to the Bronze Age. While it
is classified as a civilisation that is older than Chalcolithic civilisations, in many ways it was far
more developed than settlements in the Chalcolithic Age. The Harappan civilisation can be
classified in three phases":
(i) The Early/Pre-Harappan phase (c. 3200-2600 BCE)
(ii) Mature Harappan phase (c. 2600-1900 ВСЕ)
(iii) Late Harappan phase (c. 1900-1300 BCE)
• A general time range is specified as there is a great deal of variation in the dates for different
phases.
• There exists an undeniable cultural continuity among all the phases of the Harappan civilisation,
yet they differ slightly from each other. The Early Harappan phase, known as the Regionalisation
Era, was the formative, proto-urban phase of the Harappan civilisation.
• It is related to the Hakra phase of settlements, and the settlements in this period are marked by
their fortification, a fairly high level of expertise in specialised crafts such as stone-working, bead-
making, and metal-crafting, the use of wheeled transport, and the existence of trade networks.
Most raw materials except jade, which has not been found in early Harappan settlements, are
similar to the ones used in the mature Harappan phase.
• However, it did not have the large cities that defined the mature Harappan phase, neither did it
have as much expertise in craft specialisation. Some of the early Harappan archaeological sites
are Padri in Gujarat, Kalibangan in Rajasthan, Dholavira in Kutch, Harappa in West Punjab,
Balakot, Amri, and Bhirrana in Haryana, Kot Diji and Gumla. It is noteworthy to add that there
are no early Harappan sites in the active Indus plain.
• The Mature Harappan phase, or the Integration Era, was the urban phase of the Harappan
civilisation, which shows the characteristics of a full-fledged civilisation. It is pertinent to note
that the unqualified term, 'Harappan Culture' or 'Harappan Civilisation', primarily refers to this
mature urban phase.
• It is equally important is to understand the fact that the use of term 'Harappan Culture' or
'Harappan Civilisation' for all the excavated sites does not mean that all the other sites are
identical to Harappa. It only pertains to the fact that the other sites have the same basic set of
Harappan material traits, such as the typical red and black pottery, terracotta figurines,
standardised brick size in 1:2:4 ratio, and so on. The last phase of the Harappan civilisation, that
is to say, the Late Harappan phase or the Localisation Era, was the post-urban phase defined by
a decline in the cities. This is the final period in the Harappan civilisation and refers to the
fragmentation of the culture of the Integration Era.
• The Late Harappan phase comprises five geographical zones each having distinct phases the
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West Punjab Phase (Cemetery- H Culture), the East Punjab Phase, the Jhukar Phase, the Rangpur

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 Phase, and the Ganga-Yamuna Doab Phase. Late Harappan settlements were small compared to
mature Harappan ones. The transition from the mature phase does not show any sudden
discontinuity as such, but there is a gradual change in seals, pottery confined writing, in the
frequency of cubical weights, and so on.
• The Late Harappan settlements were also more in number, but they were smaller and more rural,
though marked by a diverse agricultural base. Important Jhukar sites are Jhukar, Chanhudaro,
and Amri. Rangpur Phase sites are in Kutch, Saurashtra and mainland Gujarat.
GENERAL FEATURES OF THE MATURE HARAPPAN PHASE
• Archaeological evidence reveals a great deal about the Harappan civilisation, which is marked by
both cultural homogeneity as well as diversity. There is still no totally accepted theory on the
origin of Harappan culture but generally it is believed to have either emerged from pre-
Harappan/indigenous village culture (which may be the more reasonable view), or, as argued by
diffusionist theorists, owes its origin to the Mesopotamian Civilisation. The area occupied by
the Harappan civilisation was triangular in shape and was largest among the three ancient urban
civilisations, the other two being ancient Egypt and Mesopotamaia (present day Iraq). It roughly
covers modern day Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, and Pakistan.

North (Manda in Jammu)

West (Sutkagendor in Baluchistan) East (Alamgirpur in Uttar Pradesh)

South (Daimabad in Maharashtra)

Town Planning
• Harappan civilisation is known for its urban outlook and sophisticated sense of civic planning and
organisation. In most cases the Harappan city was divided into two parts:
• Citadel/Raised Part – This part occupied a smaller area, and was frequently situated to the
west of the city. Rulers of the city lived here. It also contained public buildings, granaries, and
important workshops.
• Lower Part – The common citizenry lived and carried on their professional lives in this part of
the city.
• City planning roughly followed a grid pattern and streets ran from north and cut at right angles.
Distinguishing aspects of Harappan town planning are as follows:
• The streets were wide, the main street being ten metres wide and dividing the town into
rectangular and square blocks.
• There were lamp-posts at intervals. They used burnt bricks of good quality and the unique
feature of this brick was its identical ratio of 1:2:4 in terms of thickness: width: length across
all Harappan structures. Equally striking was the uniformity in the average size of bricks — 7
× 14 × 28 cm3 for houses and 10 × 20 × 40 cm for city walls.
• They had an excellent drainage system — drains were made of mortar, lime and gypsum and
covered with large brick slabs for easy cleaning.
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 • Houses were often of two or more storeys, though varied in size but quite monotonous. No
window faced the streets and the houses had tiled bathrooms. Some houses had their own
wells.
Society
• The Harappan society was an urban society, comprising
mostly of the middle classes. The houses excavated
suggest at least three distinct social groups: Ruled, rich
merchants and poor labourers who lived in the lower
part of the city. However, there is still no clear idea
among historians about the nature of inheritance in
Harappan society. Other characteristic features of the
Harappan society were:
• The Harappans were great experts in the use of the
potter’s wheel but were poor in artistic works of
stone. Primarily red black pottery (red ware pottery
painted with black designs, usually that of trees and
circles) was popular. Some of these pots were used
for storing grain or water, while some perforated
pots were probably used for brewing fermented
alcoholic beverages.
• A lot of terracotta has been found at many sites, including figurines of animals such as bulls,
buffaloes, dogs, monkeys, toy carts, and humans. Terracotta bangles have also been found. It
is important to note that more female figurines have been uncovered in comparison to male
figurines.
• The Harappans refined the art of bead-making, and jewellery excavated includes gold and
silver jewellery, including necklaces, bracelets, pendants, earrings, brooches. At Allahdino
(near Karachi), a lot of necklaces made of gold, silver, carnelian and semi-precious stones
have been found.
• Copper, bronze, silver, and gold were metals known and used by Harappans, but iron was
not.
• They were also good at metallurgy and producing alloys. The craftsmen used to both make
artifacts out of pure copper as well as bronze such as spears, knives, short swords, mirrors,
axes, needles, rings, and bangles. It is rather interesting that the number of pure copper
artifacts was far greater than alloyed bronze ones, but it does not mean technological
backwardness rather points towards cultural preference in all likelihood.
• Harappan people generally wore garments of cotton / wool.
• The Harappans relished non-vegetarian food. Fish-eating was common. Milk and curd was also
consumed.
• The Harappan societies of Sindh and Punjab largely consumed wheat and barley while those
of Rangpur and Surkotda consumed rice and millets.
• The Harappan script was pictographic and logo-syllabic (each symbol stood for a
word/syllable). Harappan writing was boustrophedon, that is to say, right to left and left to
right in alternate lines. The Harappan script has not been deciphered so far. The evidence of
a common script however points to great cultural integration, and its virtual disappearance by
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c.1700 BCE hints at the lack of sufficient downward percolation of writing.

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 Economy
• The inferences about Harappan Economy have been derived from its flourishing trade relations
with its contemporary Mesopotamian and Persian civilisations. The Mesopotamians called the
Indus Region ‘Meluhha’. The Mesopotamian texts speak of three intermediate trading stations
called Dilmun (probably Bahrain on Persian Gulf), Makan (probably the Makran coast, Oman)
and, Meluhha. Seals hold a special significance in the Harappan context. Every merchant
probably had a seal bearing an emblem, often of a religions character and a name / brief
description on one side. The standard Harappa seal was a square / oblong plaque made of
steatite stone. Though its primary purpose is inferred to mark the ownership of property, they
may also have served as amulets. The key aspects of Harappan trade networks and economy are
as follows:
• They carried out internal and external trade. There was no metallic money in circulation and
trade was conducted by means of barter. Inland transport primarily employed bullock carts.

Seals
• Harappans seals have been found in Mesopotamian cities like Susa and Ur. In Nippur, a seal
has been found bearing Harappan script and a unicorn. Recently, some ancient sites in the
Persian Gulf like Failaka and Bahrain have also yielded Harappan seals.
• In Mohenjo-Daro, three-cylinder seals of the Mesopotamian type have been found, which
underlines their trading relations.
• In Lothal, a button seal has been found.
• There were bead-making factories at Chanhudaro and Lothal. The products of these factories
were items of export.
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• A dockyard has been exacavated in Lothal and sea ports have been found at Rangpur,
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Somnath and Balakot.

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 • A remarkable aspect of the Harappan Culture was its standardisation and accuracy in the
context of weights and measures. Weights followed a binary system in the lower
denominations — 1, 2, 8, 16, 32 to 64, and then in decimal multiples of 160 like 160, 320, 640,
1600, 3200, and so on.
• Weights were made of chert, limestone, and steatite and were generally cubical in shape.
• Measures of length were based on the foot (37.6 cm) the cubit (51.8 to 53.3 cm). A shell scale
has been found at Mohenjo-Daro, a shell object probably used to measure angles has been
found at Saurashtra, and an ivory scale has been discovered at Lothal.
Harappan imports
Metals Source Region

• Gold • Afghanistan, Iran, Kolar (South India)

• Copper • Khetri (Rajasthan), Baluchistan
• Tin • Afghanistan, Iran
• Lapis Lazuli • Afghanistan
• Jade • Pamir
• Turquoise • Khorasan
• Steatite • Tapi Chahya (Iran)
• Bitumin • Baluchistan, Mesopotamia
• Lead • South India

Trade Routes of Indus Valley

Religion
• Harappan civilisation is considered as a
secular society as not a single structure
qualifying as temple has been found.
Sacred ritual spots included the Great
Bath at Mohenjo-Daro, where the elite
in all likelihood undertook ritual activity
that included ceremonial bathing.
Idolatry was practiced. The Harappan
people generally worshipped:
• Mother goddess
• Pashupati Mahadeva or proto-Shiva
(mostly an upper-class preference, seals
depict him in a yogic posture)
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 Worship of mother goddess
• Terracotta figurines of semi-nude figures identified with Shakti or Mother Goddess
• A seal at Harappa depicts the Earth or Mother Goddess, with a plant growing from her womb.
• People offered burnt incense before her.
Worship of Pashupathi Mahadeva/Proto-Shiva
• Three faced male gods.
• Seated in a yogic posture.
• Surrounded by
• Rhino and a buffalo on the right.
• Elephant and a tiger on the left.
• Two deer at his feet.
Worship of Trees
• Pipal tree was considered most sacred.
• Discovery of a large number of seals with pipal trees engraved on them.
Worship of Animals
• Worshipped animals such as the humped bull, buffalo, tiger, birds (dove and pigeon) and rhino
• Mythical animals
• Human figure with a bull's horns, hoofs and a tail.
• Three-headed chimeras.
• Human faced goat.
• Semi-human and semi-bovine creatures.
• No special place for worship such as temple.
• Symbolic representation of the phallus (lingam) and yoni worship (cult of fertility).
Faith in magic, charms and sacrifices
• Use of amulets suggests their belief in magic and charms.
• Seals have figures of men and animals showing the performance of sacrifice.
• Fire altars have also been unearthed from Banawali, Lothal and Kalibangan.
Burials
• Circular and Rectangular burials
• A pair of male and female skeletons have been discovered together at Lothal.
• Megalithic burials were found at Surkotada and Dholavira.
• Earthen pots and urns with ornaments and food grains were also buried with the dead.
Belief in an afterlife
• Disposal of their dead either by burial or by cremation or by fractional burials.
• Disposal of their dead either by burial or by cremation or by fractional burials.
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 • Dead bodies buried in a north-south direction with pottery, ornaments and other articles of daily
use.
• Preserved the ashes of the bodies in clay urns.
• In Harappan, coffins containing bodies have been found.
Pashupati Shiva
• Lingam (phallus) and yoni worship (cult of fertility)
Fertility Goddess
• Pipal tree
• Humped Bull
• Birds (dove and pigeon)
• One-horned unicorn (may in fact be the rhinocerous)

Other key inferences about the Harappan Religious

practices are as follows:

• Fire altars have been found in Kalibangan and Lothal.

• The seal of Pashupati Mahadeva is surrounded by an elephant, a tiger, a rhino, a buffalo, and a
deer, and it is likely that these animals were also worshipped.
• Dead bodies were placed in a north-south direction and were generally accompanied by objects
including food, pottery, ornaments, and tools. These items were not as expensive in comparison
to those in contemporary Mesopotamian or Egyptian cultures.

Used three methods of burial:

• Complete burial
• Fractional burials (where the bones were gathered
and buried after exposure of the body to birds and
beasts)
• Cremation followed by burial of the ashes
• In Harappa, coffins containing bodies have been found.
• In Kalibangan, small circular pits containing large urns
and pottery have been found. Furthermore, a triangular
terracotta cake has been discovered, which has a horned
deity on one side and an animal being dragged by a
human on the end of a rope on the other, pointing
towards animal sacrifice in all likelihood.
• At Lothal, a pair of male and female skeletons have been
discovered together.
Agriculture
• The Harappan civilisation was the earliest known
civilisation to produce cotton. Known as ‘Sindon’ by the
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Greeks as from Sindh. In the Indus plain, people sowed

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seeds in the flood plains in November, when the flood water receded and reaped their harvests

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 of wheat and barley in April, before the advent of the next flood. They produced sufficient food
grains to feed themselves and the surplus food grains was stored in granaries. The characteristic
features pertaining to the agricultural practices of the Harappans are mentioned below:
• The Harappans grew wheat (especially in Mehrgarh), barley, horse gram, peas, melon,
watermelon, sesame, dates, millets, grapes, henna (mehndi), garlic, mustard, rice (Lothal).
• They also exploited riverine and marine resources wherever possible. For example, molluscs
were an important protein-rich food element in the coastal sites of Gujarat people.
• The Harappans domesticated animals on a large scale. Besides cattle (oxen, buffaloes, goats,
humped bulls, sheep, pigs, asses, camels), cats and dogs were also domesticated.
• Horse wasn’t regular used but the Harappans were well acquainted with the elephant and the
rhinoceros. It is pertinent to note that Harappan culture was not horse-centred.
• Tigers were often represented in figurines but leopards were rare. On different pottery
paintings one can easily find rabbits, peacocks, ducks, pigeons, wild fowl and monkeys.
• Ploughed fields, possibly with the help of wooden ploughs, have been discovered at
Kalibangan. Terracotta models of plough have been found at Banawali and Bahawalpur.
• Remains of horses at Surkotda and dogs with men in graves at Ropar have been discovered.
Decline
• The Harappan decline is roughly dated around 1900 BCE, but no archaeological evidence
accurately provides an explanation for the deurbanisation. The Mature phase was followed by
the late Harappan phase. Possible theories of decline of the Harappan Civilisation are as follows:

Cause Historian

Aryan Invasion Wheeler, Gordon

Ecological disturbance Fairchild
Change in River course Dales, M.S. Vatsa, H.T. Lambrick
Low Rainfall Stein
Flood Macay, S.R. Rao
Drying of Ghaghar and Increasing Aridity D.P. Aggarwal and Sood
Earthquake Raikes and Dales
Natural Calamities K.A.R. Kennedy
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 Famous Harappan Sites

Site State River Excavator Specialty

• Harappa • Pakistan • Ravi • Dayaram • Two rows of six

(Punjab) Sahini (1921) granaries
• Evidence of coffin
burial and
cemetery ‘H’
culture
• Single room
barracks
• Two red stone
idols of a dancing
girl and naked bust
of male, female
genitalia.
• Evidence of direct
trade Interaction
with
Mesopotamia.
• Post – Cremation
burials more
numerous.
• Mohenjo- • Pakistan • Indus R. D. Banerji • Multi – Pillared
Daro (Sindh) (1922) E. assembly Hall
“Mound of Makay, • Great Bath (a
the dead” Kashinath public Venue
Dixit, Sir John
• College of Priests.
Marshall
(1930) • Large granary
• Piece of woven
cotton cloth
• Superficial
evidence of Horse
• Bronze dancing
girl
• Violent death of
some inhabitants
(discovery of
human skeletons
together)
• Seal representing
Mother Goddess,
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Pashupati,
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Bearded man and

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 a woman to be
sacrified.
• Evidence of
ship/big boat
• Bangles of clay
• Lothal • Gujarat • Bhogava and • S.R. Rao • Dockyard
(Ahmedabad Sabarmati (1957) • Important sea
River trade Centre and
District, at
the head of confluence bead – making
factory
the Gulf of
• Town not divided
Cambay)
into two sectors
• City divided into
six sectors and
each seciton was
built on a wide
platform of unique
brick
• Remais of rice
husks
• Houses with
entrances on the
main street
(Houses of all
other sites had
side entries)
• Painting on a jar
resembling the
story of the
cunning fox in
Panchatantra
• Evidence of
double burial
(male and female
together).
• Brick – Built tank -
like structure
• Seal from
Mesopotamia
found here
• Ivory scale found
here
• Terracota model
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of ship has been

found
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 • The lower part of
the city is walled
• Fire altars

• Kalibangan • Rajasthan • Ghaggar • Amlanand • Ploughed field

“Black (Ganganagar) Ghosh • Fire altars showing
Bangles” (1953) practice of cult of
Dr. B. B. sacrifice
Lal and B. • Remains of
massive brick wall
K. Thapar
around both
(1961) citadel and lower
town
• Bones of camel
• Not as well-
planned and
organised as
Mohenjo-Daro,
did not even have
a drainage system
• Burials in circular
and rectangular
grave
• Provides evidence
of pre- Harappan
civilisation at
lower layer of
excavation and
mature Harappan
at upper layer of
excavation
• Decorative bricks
used in flooring
only at this site
• Chanhu • Pakistan • Indus • N.G. • Remains of both
Daro (Sindh), near Mazumdar pre-Harappan and
Mature Harappan
Mohenjo - (1931) and
culture.
Daro E. Makay
• Bead factory site
as lots of beads,
seals, ornaments
unearthed
• Residents were
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good craftsmen.
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 • No fortified
structure
• Only Harappan city
without a citadel
▪ Evidence of
Human
sacrifice
▪ Clay model
of four-
wheeler
▪ Bronze
model of
roofed
chariot

• Rangpur • Gujarat • Madar River • M.S. Vatsa • Remains of both

(Near (1931) pre-Harappan and
Mature Harappan
Lothal) S.R. Rao
culture
(1953-54)
• Flakes
• Yellow and grey
color pots of pre-
Harappan people.
• Banawali • Haryana • Rangoi • R.S. Bist • Centre of pre-
(Hisar) (1973–74) Harappan, Mature
Harappan as well
as Late Harappan
civilisation
• High quality barley
• Ceramics, steatite
seal
• Fire altars
• Clay model of
plough
• Seals found only in
lower town and
not in citadel
• Alamgirpur • Meerut (UP) • Hindon • Y.D. Sharma • Late- Harappan
(1958) culture
• Impression of
cloth on a trough
• Pottery and beads
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• Koti-Diji • Sindh • Sindh • Ghurey • Pre- Harappan site

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(Pakistan) (1835)

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 Fazal • House made of
Ahmed stone
(1955) • City destroyed by
force
• Ropar • Punjab • Sutlej • Y.D. • Cemetery, seal,
(India) Sharma earthen pot.
(1955–56) • Buildings mainly of
stone and soil.
• Evidence of
burying dog below
human.
• Surkotada • Gujarat • J.P. Joshi • Bones of horse
(Bhuj) (1964) and graveyard.

• Suktagendor • Sindh • Dasht/Dashak • A Stein, • Ash filled pot,

(Pakistan) River George copper axe,
earthen bangles &
Baluchistan Dales
pottery
• Originally a port
but later cut off
from sea due to
coastal uplift
• Had trade links
with Babylon.
• Dholavira • Gujarat • J.P. Joshi • Giant water
(1990–91) reservoir
• Unique water
harvesting
System.
• An Inscription
comprising ten
large sized signs of
the Harappan
script similar to a
signboard.
• Shows all three
phases of
Harappan Culture.
• Large-scale use of
sandstone along
with mud brick.
• Rakhigarhi • Haryana • Over 350 hectares
(Near Hisar), with new finds of
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two additional
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mounds, making it
the largest Indus

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 Valley Civilisation
site and town in
the world.
• Shows all three
phases of
Harappan Culture.

• Bhirrana • At Bhirrana a
(Fatehgarh) fragmented
artefact of a thick,
sturdy red ware
with an incised
female figure has
been found, with a
pose similar to the
bronze Mohenjo-
Daro 'dancing girl'.

Harappan Egyptian/Mesopotamian

1. Planned towns with chess board system, 1. Towns show a haphazard growth.
excellent drainage system.

2. Rectangular houses with brick – Lined 2. Such Town planning absent.

bathrooms and wells together with their
stairways are found in all Harappan cities.

3. Produced their own characteristic pottery 3. No such unique aspect.

and seals.

4. Invented their own typical script, which bears 4. Mesopotamia has cuneiform script and the
no resemblance to the Egyptians to the Egyptian script is known as hieroglyphics. Both
Egyptian and Mesopotamian scripts. Scripts have been deciphered, which tell us a lot
about the civilisations.

5. Script mostly on seals. 5. Mesopotamians pressed letters onto moist clay

tablets while Egyptians wrote on papyrus
sheets made of reeds.

6. No signs of existence after 1900 BCE. 6. Continued to exist even after 1900 BCE.
7. Spread over a wider area. 7. less area as compared to Harappa.
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 Post-Urban Phase of Harappan Culture/Late Harappan Phase (c.1900 BCE–1300 BCE)
• The Mature Harappan phase was followed by the Late Harappan phase, which was marked by
the decline of urban life and the diversification of agriculture. The stylistic homogeneity of
Harappan civilisation disappeared and the post-Harappan stage was marked by sharp stylistic
diversity. There was a complex interplay of change and continuity.
• Elements of urbanism like seals, specialised crafts, cities, long distance trade, and so on, declined
but did not completely disappear. Some of the few urban centres surviving in the Late Harappan
were Kudwala in Cholistan, Bet Dwarka in Gujarat, and Daimabad. A key development in this
phase was the beginning of double cropping—wheat and barley were grown as winter crops and
rice, millets, and sorghum were grown as summer crops. Other key features of this period were:
• The declining culture in this phase is also referred to as sub-Indus culture.
• The rural settlements of this phase are primarily Chalcolithic in nature.
• The post-urban Harappans lived in villages, subsisting on agriculture, stock-raising, hunting, and
fishing.
• In this period, painted Harappan pottery is replaced with less intricate designs and painted grey
ware (PGW). All Late Harappan sites lack human figurines. In comparison with Mature Harappan
pottery, the pottery in the Late Harappan phase was less bright. The pots were thicker and
sturdier and many peculiar Harappan shapes like perforated jars, s-shaped jars disappeared.
• No object for measuring length is noticed.
• The period marks the end of the Harappan trade with West Asian centres, as lapis lazuli, chert,
carnelian beads, copper and bronze vessels, are either absent or scarce as trade items.
• Important places pertaining to this phase are Prabhas Patan (Somnath), Rangpur (Gujarat), Swat
Valley, Manda in Jammu, Sanghol in Punjab, Daulatpur in Haryana, Alamgirpur, Hulas in U.P.
Latest Developments
• Scientists from IIT-Kharagpur and the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) have uncovered
evidence that the Indus Valley Civilisation is at least 8,000 years old, and not 5,500 years old,
taking root well before the Egyptian (7000 BCE−3000 BCE) and Mesopotamian (6500 BCE − 3100
BCE) civilisations. What’s more, the researchers have found evidence of a pre-Harappan
civilisation that existed for at least 1,000 years before this.
• The civilisation proliferated to other Indian sites like Bhirrana and Rakhigarhi in Haryana, apart
from the known locations of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro in Pakistan and Lothal, Dholavira and
Kalibangan in India.
• The scientists believe they also know why the civilisation ended about 3,000 years ago — climate
change.
• The Indus Valley people were very resolute and flexible and continued to evolve even in the face
of declining monsoon. The people shifted their crop patterns from large-grained cereals like
wheat and barley during the early part of intensified monsoon to drought-resistant species like
rice in the latter part. As the yield diminished, the organised large storage system of the Mature
Harappan period gave way to more individual household-based crop processing and storage
systems that acted as a catalyst for the deurbanisation of the civilisation rather than an abrupt
collapse, they say.
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