AGRICULTURAL STUDIES COMPILED BY MR K.

ROMO
DEF: Farming refers to the growing of crops and /or the keeping or rearing of livestock.
Farming can be classified into three major criteria according to purpose of farm produce, type
or nature of land use and according to scale or intensity of production.

Classification of farming according to purpose or use of farm produce

SUBSISTENCE FARMING SEMI-SUBSISTENCE COMMERCIALFARMING SEMI-COMMERCIAL

Classification of farming according to type or nature of land use

CROP FARMING ANIMAL FARMING

Classification of farming according to scale or intensity of production

INTENSIVE FARMING EXTERNSIVE FARMING

Commercial farming this is the process of growing of crops and/or keeping of animals
(livestock) for sale at the market.

Semi-commercial farming this is when bulk of the farm produce is sold at the market but the
farmer reserve a small amount to feed his or her family

Subsistence farming it is a system of farming involving the growing of crops and /or the
keeping of livestock/animals for the family consumption of the farmer and his family.

Semi-subsistence farming this is when bulk of the farm produce is reserved for the farmer and
his or her family consumption and a small surplus is sold

Intensive farming it involves farming on a small piece of land with high inputs such as
machinery, fertilizers, labour, manure etc. to maximise output. Yields per unity area are high.

Extensive farming It involves farming on a large piece (large scale) of land with relatively
fewer inputs per unity area. Yields per unity area are generally low. It involves the use of large
scale machinery and growing of one or two crops e.g. plantation farming.

The farm as a system

Farming can be viewed as a system involving inputs, processes and outputs as elements of the
system. Inputs are the initial things needed to carry out something eg land knowledge, capital.

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Processes is the work done, manipulating the inputs in order to produce items. Outputs are the
end products from the work /processes done.

The table below shows the main components of a farming system

INPUTS PROCESSES OUTPUTS

a)natural inputs Preparing land, Different variety of
Sun’s energy, water, soil ploughing, animals eg cattle,
minerals, land, conducive cultivating, planting, weeding, goats, pigs, sheep,
temperature. watering/irrigating, chicken etc.
b) human inputs dosing animals, Different variety of
labour, knowledge/skills, application of insecticides and crops eg maize,
capital pesticides, millet, wheat etc
c) other inputs harvesting, Money
crops/seeds, animals, dipping animals, Milk and other dairy
machinery, pesticides, vaccinating animals, products. Eggs
insecticides, application of manure/fertilizers and Different variety of
fertilizers/manure etc. other chemicals etc vegetables
Different variety of
fruits

FACTORS AFFECTING AGRICULTURE/FARMING

HUMAN FACTORS

All farming activities need either human labour or machines to do the work. Some farming use
very little labour e.g. sheep farming, others require large labour forces e.g rice farming or
tobacco farming. Availability of labour may influence the type of farming. The farm wages,
the skills and family labour affect farming.

Demand/Market.

This is the customer who buys farm products. Farmers need to sell their crops and animals to
make a profit. The higher the demand the higher the price of the product: and the lower the
demand, the lower the price. The price of the produce and availability of the market are
important factors that affect farming.

Finance /Capital.

This is money for the payment of wages, purchase of farm inputs/ or imports. This can affect
the type and state of farming. Some crops are capital intensive e.g. money to set up irrigation
facilities etc. Money can be in the form of loans from banks or grants from the government or
capital saved by the farmer.

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Government (Political)

Government provide subsidies and loans or inputs to encourage new farming practices but they
also place limits on production to prevent food surpluses. Government influence farming
through its police or through infrastructural development and support services eg providing
tillage facilities through DDF.

Transport

This is needed for the transportation of inputs to the farm and outputs to the market. In
Zimbabwe and Zambia commercial farming is concentrated along main roads. Colonial
government made efforts to provide the white commercial farmers with efficient transport
services e.g. compare Burma Valley and Bocha, Buhera e.t.c.Transport network eg roads and
the type of transport affect farming activities.

Technology

Irrigation and machinery are two examples of expensive technology which increase yields.
Genetic engineering allow new plants to be grown, this reduces diseases and droughts and give
higher yields. Computer control in green houses provides suitable conditions for good quality
crops. Type and availability of equipment and service affect farming activities.

Physical factors

Climate

 A minimum temperature of 6oC.

 Different crops need a different growing season e.g. wheat 90 days. Rainfall-all crops
and animals need water.
 Too much rainfall can pose problem to farmers the same is true with very little rainfall
below.
Relief
 Temperature decreases by 17oC every 160 metres vertical heights.
 Uploads are more exposed to wind and rain.
 Sleep slopes also cause thin soils and limit the use of machinery.
 Lowland areas are more easily farmed.

Soils

Crops grow best on deep, fertile, free draining soils. Soil type and fertility influences the types
of crops that can be grown, the yields per unit area and the cost of production.

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Aspect

The direction a slope faces. In the extreme northern hemisphere south-facing slopes are best
for growing crops and in the southern hemisphere north facing slopes are best for crop
production. (Why?)

Pest and diseases

These affect workers; crops and animals. Farmers have to fight them in order to avoid
disastrous effects. Pests which affect crops include locusts, Birds, boring insects, worms.

Types of Subsistence farming

Shifting Cultivation/Chitemene System.

 It is a subsistence cultivation system involving the clearing a piece of land and its
cultivation for a few years (5 to 10 years) and abandon it for a new area as soil become
infertile to allow regeneration of vegetation and fertility.
 It is practiced in northern Zambia in Luapula District by the Bemba-Ushi people, parts
of Mozambique, Malawi and Tanzania and in the Amazon forests
 In Zimbabwe no longer practised.
 It is practiced where population is very space.
 It involves the following stages.
 Cutting down trees and stark to dry.
 Burning and ash is sprinkled in the field.
 Cultivation using simple tools like hoes and digging sticks
 Crops grown include, millet, sorghum, ground nuts,
some maize, pumpkins, cassava.
 When yield decreases normally between 5 to 10 years,
the land is abandoned and a new piece is cleared.

Reasons for shifting fields and homesteads

 Decline in the fertility of the plot after three to ten years

 High rainfall received especially in northern Zambia for example cause leaching which
leads poor acidic soils which cannot support permanent agriculture.
 Distance to the fields become to long for daily walking.
 Availability of space due to low population pressure in area where it is practised.
 The rudimentary type of housing used makes it easier to build new houses than to repair
the old ones.

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SHIFTING CULTIVATION AS A SYSTEM

Inputs Process Outputs

Sunshine  Cutting trees  Vegetables
Rainfall  Burning  Grain e.g. millet
Soil  Cultivation/digging  Groundnuts
Hoes/digging stick  Harvesting  pumpkins
Family/community labour  Transporting crops  maize etc

Shifting cultivation in northern Zambia- by the Bemba-Ushi people (farming calendar)

May- June – land clearing, large trees are cut down.

September –November- burning of branches following a signal from village heads

November – December – planting of seeds.

March – June- harvesting.

Advantages of shifting cultivation

 Ash provided fertility leading to high yield in the first year.

 Allows land to recover.
 System destroys pests and diseases (burning)
 Cheap method of farming relying on natural inputs.
 Free choice of land.
 Part-time activities are possible such as hunting and fishing.
 Use of natural inputs e.g. ash means less pollution to the environment.

Disadvantages of shifting cultivation

 Wastes land and timber (wasteful system).

 Promotes soil erosion
 Low fertility with time/low yield.
 System kills micro-organisms in the soil
 Does not allow technical improvement on standard of living.
 The system cannot accommodate large numbers of people.

Nomadic Pastoralism

 Nomadic pastoralism is a system of farming whereby farmers (nomads) move with their
livestock from place to place in search of pastures and water for their animals.
 The climate is too extreme i.e. semi-arid and arid which does not support settled
agriculture

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  Nomads depend on their animals for food and raw materials to make shelter tools and
household utensils.
 They can exchange animal products for maize, wheat and other food crops

Case Study. The Masai of East Africa

 Located in Kenya and occupy the Rift Valley floor from south of Namibia into
Tanzania.
 The areas are dry and hot, rainfall 500-600mm per year and average 25oC of
temperatures.
 Movements of the Masai are seasonal, controlled by variations in rainfall.
 Dry season- they move their animals to mountain ranges.
 Wet season (Nov-April they move animals to the lower/valley areas.
 Animals kept- cattle, goats, sheep, donkey, and camel.
 The Masai obtain their food from their animals, donkeys provide with transport, and
most of their raw materials come from the animals.

Problems faced by nomads

 Shortage of grazing land

 Uncontrolled movement lead to spread of disease (makes it difficult to provide
veterinary services and to control disease).
 Iliteracy level remains high and leads to low national development since they are always
moving, therefore they cannot have they permanent plans.
 Pressure from government policies favouring sedentary farming
 Population growth resulting in reduced pastures
 Conflicts about land use are common between nomads and sedentary farmers.
 Land degradation such as erosion are common around waterholes.
 The quality of livestock is poor since emphasis is on quantity.

*What do you think to be the advantages and disadvantages of nomadic pastoralism?

Sedentary subsistence communal farming in Zimbabwe

 Mainly practiced in rural areas

 Practised on fairly small and fragmented pieces of land as mixed farming
 There is no individual ownership of land.
 There is common grazing land i.e. land is owned by the community.
 Labour is provided by the farmer and his/her family.
 Farming skills are low.
 Availability of capital for inputs is a problem.
 Draught power is provided by animals.

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  A system of monoculture is practised.
 Crops grown, maize, millet, sorghum, groundnuts, round nuts, rapoko and sunflowers.
 Livestock include cattle, goats, sheep, donkeys, pigs and chicken.
 Cash crops such as sunflower, etc. provides the farmer with direct cash for school fees.

Problems facing communal farmers and their solutions

Problem Possible solution

Shortage of land and land fragmentation Resettlement, land consolidation and
intensive production
Inadequate/limited water supply /unreliable Build dams for irrigation, use short season
rainfall causing serious droughts; animals varieties of seeds, and moisture-conserving
and crops die techniques, carry out land use suited to the
area. Resettlement to better areas
Soil erosion and exhaustion, siltation of Implement conservation measures, use
rivers and dams organic and artificial fertilisers.

Shortage of grazing areas and overgrazing Resettlement, destocking and paddocking.

Lack of education and low level of Education extension services and training,
technology introduction of appropriate machinery like
planters and ploughs.
Pests and diseases Pests’ eradication and disease control and
monitoring. Undertake practices like dipping
cattle and use of pesticides.
Shortage of capital to buy input, equipment Subsidise inputs, group lending, provision of
and to develop land. loans, have credit schemes.

Low producer price and lack of market Higher producer prices, more market
players, build depots and ensure quick
payment of farmers.
Poor road network and accessibility Upgrade and build roads and increase the
number of marketing depots.
Late distribution and unavailability of Early distribution of inputs such as
agricultural inputs financing, tillage, fertilisers and seeds.
Lack of information on producer prices. Producer prices to be announced early, for
example in June or July
Lack of drought power leaving to land being Practise zero tillage, practise mechanisation
left fallow or uncultivated. and access to Ddf ploughing units.

DAIRY FARMING: THE KINTRYE ESTATE.

This is farming system whereby cows are kept for milk production as at Kintyre dairy farm
near both Harare and Norton along the Harare- Bulawayo road. Or Gushungo Dairy Farm in
Mazowe area.

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Location of dairy farms.

 Dairy farming is practised near urban areas or around cities or towns so that milk is
transported while fresh. (Why)
 Dairy farms are found along/near roads so that transportation of milk will not be a problem
and also inputs and other requirements from urban areas will be easy and cheap to obtain.
 Dairy farms are located where there is reliable water supply since dairy farming needs a lot
of water i.e. near urban areas.
 Dairy farms are located near urban centres because there is high demand for dairy products
i.e. the Kintyre farm near Harare.
 In Zimbabwe dairying occurs around Mutare, Chipinge and Chimanimani and around
Harare, Marondera and Kadoma

Dairy farming as a system

INPUTS PROCESSES OUTPUTS

 Land  Feeding  Milk
 Favourable climate  Milking  Cream
 Rye grass (nutritious best in winter)  Inseminating  Yogurt
 Kikuyu-star grass (summer)  Vaccinating  Ice cream
 Cotton seed cake  Transporting  Butter
 Molasses from sugarcane  Making feeds  Meat
 Friesland cows- large quantity milk  Watering cows  Cash
 Jersey cows- for high quality (higher butterfat  Dosing  manure
content)  Dipping
 Milking machine  Growing of
 Labour fodder crops etc.
 Artificial insemination equipment
 Dip tank, vehicle

NB Discuss the above with reference to a case study

Market gardening/Horticulture

It is a system of commercial farming involving the growing of vegetables fruits and flowers
for sale.

Location of market gardening

 Located/practised near urban areas or cities i.e. close to the market demand is high.
 Found near roads for fast transportation to the market- produce are perishable.
 Near a reliable water sully for irrigation

Characteristics of market gardening

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  Small plots
 Intensive method of farming
 Large inputs of fertilizers and chemicals to maximise yields
 Labour intensive
 Use of greenhouse to control pests and for quality produce
 Practised all year round
 Capital intensive for chemicals, fertilizers, labours.
 Most of the produce are perishable hence should reach the market whilst fresh.
 Irrigation facilities to ensure a constant and reliable supply of water.
 Near roads for easy transport of produce and inputs.

Elements of market gardening

INPUTS PROCESSES OUTPUTS
Land Planting Vegetables e.g. cabbage,
Conducive climate Weeding carrots, rape etc.
Water Watering Fruits
Irrigation equipment Application of fertilizers and Flowers
Green houses chemicals Cash etc.
Labour Harvesting
Fertilizers and chemicals Transporting
Capital Land preparation
Spraying equipment
Vehicles.

NB Discuss the above process with reference to a case study.

PLANTATION AGRICULTURE

It is a large scale system of commercial farming involving the growing of perennial crops e.g.
tea, sugarcane, over a large piece of land on monoculture basis.

Example, Katiyo tea estate, Triangle and Hippo Valley.

Characteristics of plantation agriculture

 Large tracks of land

 Large labour force (skilled and unskilled)
 Sophisticated machinery
 Factory
 Irrigation facilities
 Water supply e.g. river, dams
 Out growers
 Monoculture
 Schools, clinic, accommodation
 Extensive road network

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  Entertainment facilities.

CASE STUDY: KATIYO TEA ESTATE; AN EXAMPLE OF A PLANTATION

LOCATION

 Honde valley in the north eastern part of Mutare, on the bank of the Pungwe River on
the eastern border with Mozambique.
Crop
 Tea- grown on two estates, Rimbizi and Chiwira estates.

Climatic characteristics

 Rainfall 1740mm per annum falling mainly in November to March

 Temperature is high during the rainy season.
 During summer humidity is high.

Relief and soil

Grown on gently sloping to steep slopes.

Soils are deep and fertile ideal for tea growing.

Organisation

 It is a parastatal owned and managed by ARDA since 1982.

 It is surrounded by about 137 small out growers.

Production of tea

Planting stage

 It is grown from seeds or cuttings in nursery beds, seeds takes a longer period before it
is ready for harvesting 2-3 years
 Cuttings takes a short period
 Growing from cuttings ensures high quality
 When ready seedlings are transplanted into prepared fields (when about 15 cm high
 Constant weeding, and pruning to allow the bush to grow outwards

Harvesting

 Starts after 2-3 years if grown from seeds or 9 months if from cuttings.
 Done by both females and males
 Hired labour is required during this period
 2 leaves and a bud is plucked and loaded into baskets
 The baskets are offloaded into a tractor.
 Harvesting is done at intervals i.e. after 5-7 days in the dry period.
 The tea leaves are transported to the factory for processing.

Tea processing
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  Withering- tea enters into heated whither and loose weight by 25%
 Extracting rubbish by machine
 Fermentation- leaf cells are broken oxidation changes the colour from green to brown
then blackish
 Drying- tea goes into drying trays
 Extractors remove fibre
 Sorting- black tea is sorted into sizes or grades
 Package- done by machines
 Market
 Local market- wholesalers, shops, e.t.c
 Export

IMPORTANCE OF PLANTATION FARMING/ ADVANTAGES

 Provide foreign currency

 Provide raw materials to industries in the country e.g. bottling companies into the care
of sugar cane.
 Provide employment e.g. Triangle employs 8900 Katiyo estate 1200
 Leads to the development of infrastructure
 Standards of living of the people i.e. workers and their families is improved.
 Lead to the development of social services e.g. schools, clinics e.t.c
 Provide education and advice to small farmers- out growers
 Leads to the development of new towns in remote areas e.g. Chiredzi- Triangle

Disadvantages of plantation agriculture

 Monoculture encourages the spread of pests and diseases.

 Dangers of relying on monoculture- fluctuating world prices and demands
 May be affected by drought e.g. 1982-83 drought in Zimbabwe affected Tea Plantation
at Katiyo.
 Exploitation of local workforce, minimal wages
 Monoculture leads to soil exhaustion and erosion.
 Most produce/profits are sent overseas to the parent countries.
 Most crops are cash crops not food crops. Local population have to improve food stuffs.

DISCUSSION AREAS

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What can be done to improve the beef head in Zimbabwe?
What measures can be put in place to improve farming in rural areas?
What problems are faced in trying to implement measures to improve farming in rural
areas?
Major crops produced in Zimbabwe include maize, cotton, Tobacco, Wheat, Coffee.
 For each describe where it is grown growing conditions and how it is grown and
processed.
What problems are being faced by Zimbabwean farmers?
With the aid of a map/diagram describe and explain the agricultural regions of
Zimbabwe.
What measures can be taken to reduce the effects of drought?
What measures can be taken to reduce the problem of winter frost?
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of land inversion/occupation of commercial
areas.
Discuss the resettlement programme in Zimbabwe.

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