POPULISM

RELATED UPSC Qs Elitist theory of democracy denies the possibility of democracy as 'rule of the people'. Elucidate. [2022]
Discuss the issues of debate in contemporary democratic theory. [2012]
The modern pluralist democracies have posed a great threat to the fabric of nation state. Discuss [2000]

Core Themes: Debates around the Nature of Populism

Aspect Details Explanation + Scholarly Views
Roots or Sometimes traced back to the latter stages of Derived from the Latin populus, meaning people.
the French Revolution → Robespierre and
the Jacobins. The relationship between populism and democracy has been a topic of debate.

Influenced by the radical democratic thinking Canovan(Populism, 1981) suggests that populism is intrinsically linked to democracy, given its emphasis on the voice of the people.
of Jean-Jacques Rousseau.

Historical Overview or Evolution USA → Founding of the People’s Party in 1892; in Latin America emerged during the 1930s and 1940s, initially drawing its impetus from the
intensified hardships imposed by the Great Depression.

Latin America → In the 80s two contrasting manifestations of populism left wing (pink tide) and right wing.

In the 21st Century ‘age of populism’ primarily in Europe, North America, and other parts of the world after the 2007–09 global financial crisis.

Populist revolt against mainstream politics (‘politics as normal’) increased prominence of right-wing nationalist parties and the rise of ‘strongman’
leaders in parts of the world.
Nature of Shaped by 2 fundamental stances: Admiration Mudde and Kaltwasser (2015 and 2017) advocate for an ideational approach to populism, viewing it as a political
Populism of ‘the people’ and Outright condemnation of
the elite or establishment. ideology. Presents "the people" as a morally good force and contrasts them against "the elite" → portrayed as corrupt and

Treated as a movement, syndrome, style of self-serving. Emphasise its Manichean tendency to see the world in terms of 'us' and 'them'.
politics, and a political strategy.
Jan-Werner Müller (What Is Populism?, 2017) - argues that at populism's core is a rejection of pluralism
A thin-centred ideology with a limited range
of core features.

Draws from → conservatism, nationalism,

and socialism.
Populist Populism as a strategy is linked with Anti-party party: A party that sets out to subvert traditional party politics by rejecting parliamentary compromise and rejects conventional or
Strategy anti-party parties. traditional politics and compromise → emphasising a strategy based on popular mobilisation.

Like all ideologies, however, populism is associated with a distinctive set of ideas and beliefs. The most important of these are:

The People Populists view the people as a homogeneous Their key claim is that the people are the ultimate source of political authority. Thus, populism is conceived of selectively as the ‘real people’ or
entity that is both innocent and entirely ‘true people’ – in either socialist or nationalist terms, seeing their wishes and instincts also as the sole legitimate guide to political action.
trustworthy.
The 'real' people are seen as righteous and pure (Muller, 2017).
Mudde and Kaltwasser (Populism: A Very Short Introduction, 2017) discuss the influence of Rousseau's idea of the 'general will' on populist
ideology, emphasising the indivisible collective will of the entire community.

Example: The rise of the Aam Aadmi Party in India, which claims to represent the common man against the corrupt elite.

The Elite Elitism is, broadly, a belief in, or practice of, View them as out of touch with the 'real' people, corrupt, and morally debased. Thus, central to populism is the dichotomy of 'the people' and 'the
rule by an elite or minority. elite'.

3 types → Classical, Normative & Modern. Making them → ‘enemy of the people’, political elite, economic elite and cultural elite.

E.g. Populists like Trump have criticised mainstream media outlets like The New York Times (establishment’s media - propagating their liberal
values) as being part of the 'liberal elite' → “FAKE NEWS”

Populist Dichotomy- “Popular Sovereignty” → Populist rule often features regular elections for legitimacy, personalised leadership, a dominant state, limited opposition, curtailed rights,
Democracy Democratic force (cue→ 'General Will’), and especially in media, and a majoritarian approach with potential intolerance towards minorities.
“Demagoguery” → A threat to democracy, a
pathological political phenomenon The governance style of Viktor Orban in Hungary, which has been characterised by a suppression of media freedoms and a majoritarian
(Plebianisation of Democracy → Pratap Bhanu approach to governance.
Mehta).

Other Several manifestations. Plebiscitary democracy uses direct voting, like referendums, bypassing representative structures. Criticised for potential manipulation and
descriptions masking authoritarianism with popular appeal.
(key terms)
Majoritarianism prioritises majority preferences, either 'absolute' or 'simple'. It implies majority views should prevail, possibly compelling
minorities. Critics say it may suppress minority voices, and often show intolerance towards pluralism (Muller, 2017).

Populism is an example of reformist illiberal democracy → Freed Zakaria (The Rise of Illiberal Democracy, 1997) described illiberal
democracies as democratically elected regimes that routinely ignore constitutional limits on their power.
 Aspects Right-wing Populism Scholarly Views (Right-wing) Left-Wing Scholarly Views (Left-wing)
Examples (Right-wing) Populism Examples (Left-wing)
Definition Focuses on socio-cultural concerns, Mudde's "Populism: A Very Short Introduction" Emphasises socio-economic Laclau's "On Populist Reason" (2005) emphasizes the importance
defines
often prioritising national identity, right-wing populism as combining populism concerns, championing issues of constructing a popular subject.
tradition, and perceived threats to with authoritarianism and nativism. like poverty, inequality, and
societal order. job security. Rise of Syriza in Greece, Podemos in Spain.
Rise of right-wing parties in Europe, such as the AfD in
Germany and the National Rally in France.

Comprises 2 forms:

National populism Authoritarian populism

Emergence of the wider People are equivalent to the nation
phenomenon of ‘strongman’ (Eatwell and Goodwin, 2018) ,
politics, exemplified by figures national populists oppose
such as Viktor Orban, Recep immigration and another deep
Tayyip Erdogan and scepticism towards
Philippines’ president Rodrigo internationalism.
Dutert .

Historical Emerged in response to Betz's "Radical Right-Wing Populism in Western Europe" Emerged in response Chantal Mouffe's (2018) writings on left populism emphasise its
Context perceived threats to national to (1994) provides a historical overview of the rise of right-wing economic disparities, roots in opposition to neoliberal hegemony.
identity due to
immigration, globalisation, and populism in Europe. corporate influence, and the
socio-cultural changes. effects of globalisation on the Bernie Sanders' campaigns in the USA, Jeremy Corbyn's leadership
The Brexit vote in the UK, Trump's election in the working class. in the UK Labour Party.
Core Values Allied to tradition, authority, USA. Prioritises economic justice, Chantal Mouffe (2018) emphasises the construction of a "people"
and Norris and Inglehart's "Cultural Backlash: Trump,
order. Emphasises the preservation Brexit, and Authoritarian Populism" (2019) delve into the workers' rights, and from various disenfranchised groups.
of national identity and cultural drivers of right-wing populism. opposition to corporate
societal norms. influence. Advocates for Movements like Occupy Wall Street, anti-austerity protests in
Anti-immigration policies, defence of traditional inclusivity and environmental Europe.
values. sustainability.
Globalisation Often sceptical of it Rodrik's "The Globalization Paradox" (2010) Critiques the economic David Harvey's "A Brief History of Neoliberalism" (2005) offers
suggests globalisation clashes with democracy. aspects of globalisation, a critique of neoliberal globalisation.
Emerges in response especially its impact on
to
globalisation's challenges: Brexit, Trump's "America First" stance. workers and the environment. Anti-globalization protests, such as the Battle of Seattle in 1999.
immigration, economic disparities,
and eroding national identity. Müller's "What is Populism?" (2017) → populists
are sceptical of international institutions. Example:
Orban's EU criticisms.

International bodies erode national sovereignty.

Immigration Sees immigration as a threat to Eatwell & Goodwin's "National Populism" (2018) More open to immigration, Pro-immigrant stances of left-wing parties in Europe, sanctuary
Concerns national identity and societal → immigration fuels European populism. often linking opposition to cities in the USA.
order. xenophobia and corporate
Example: Brexit + Rise of populist movements exploitation.
Refugee crisis stoking anti-imm worldwide.
sentiment.
Political Impact Gains significant electoral support B. Moffitt's "The Global Rise of Populism: Gains support by Chantal Mouffe (2018 and Ernesto Laclau (2005) works on
by appealing to nationalistic Performance, Political Style, and Representation" (2016) addressing economic populism emphasise its potential for radical democracy[A form
discusses the disparities,
sentiments and perceived threats political style and impact of right-wing advocating for workers' rights, of democracy that favours decentralisation and participation,
to populists.
societal order. and opposing neoliberal the widest possible dispersal of political power] → populists
Viktor Orban in Hungary, Marine Le Pen in policies. foster the ‘democratisation of democracy’.
France.

JP Movement → Partyless Rise of left-wing populist leaders in Latin America, such as Evo
System of democracy Morales in Bolivia and Rafael Correa in Ecuador.
Economic May support protectionist Dani Rodrik's "Straight Talk on Trade: Ideas for a Advocates for wealth Thomas Piketty's "Capital in the Twenty-First Century" (2013)
Stance policies to safeguard national Sane World Economy" (2017) → protectionism's redistribution, progressive emphasises the need for wealth redistribution.
industries. appeal in globalisation. taxation, and social welfare
programs.
Tariffs imposed by Trump administration → Trade War Progressive economic policies of leaders like Bernie Sanders and
Elizabeth Warren.
Robert Reich's "The System" (2020) → globalisation
creates economic disparities. Example: Rust Belt's shift Naomi
in 2016 US election → Some groups feel left behind by Klein's "This Changes Everything" (2014) → linking capitalism
globalisation. to climate change. Example: Green New Deal advocacy.

Cultural Stance Emphasises a homogeneous Anti-immigrant sentiments in right-wing populist campaigns. Promotes inclusivity, Emphasis on multiculturalism and diversity in left-wing populist
national identity, often opposing diversity, and often movements.
opposes
perceived threats like immigration. S. Huntington's "Who Are We?" (2004) → US the dominant cultural
national identity threats. Example: Germany's AfD narrative. Nancy Fraser's "From Progressive Neoliberalism to Trump"
rise. (2019) →left's focus on inclusivity. Example: Bernie Sanders'
2016 campaign.
Return to traditional values threatened by globalisation.
Relationship Views elites as out of touch and Populist leaders' frequent criticisms of the "liberal elite". Opposes corporate elites Nancy Fraser's (2019) works emphasise the role of elites in
with Elites corrupt, especially liberal or and those seen as perpetuating economic injustices.
cosmopolitan elites. Elite → Opposed to the people, often viewed as corrupt perpetuating economic
or out of touch. inequality. Criticisms of Wall Street (occupy wallstreet movement) and
corporate influence (USA → deformed polyarchy by Robert
Dahl) in politics.

Noam Chomsky's "Profit Over People" (1999) → critiques

corporate dominance. Example: Latin American left-wing
movements against corporatism
THE FUTURE Norris and Inglehart view contemporary populism as essentially a cultural backlash against the advance of liberal values, a process that has seen the trajectory of social and cultural change. It
OF POPULISM includes changing family structures, and especially changes in the role of women, the spread of post-material values, and growing respect for minorities in general and multicultural rights in
particular.

In another view, the contemporary populist upsurge is unlikely to subside anytime soon, and may even be getting stronger; populism is not just a politico-cultural phenomenon; it also has deep
economic roots, linked to the dynamics of economic globalisation. An increase in within-country inequality helps to foster both resentment towards elites and disillusionment with a democratic
system that no longer seems to ‘work’ for the less Well-off. Such developments are difficult and may be impossible to reverse because they stem both from the inner workings of globalisation
itself.