Early Periods of Literature This period is marked by the oral transmission of

Greek legends, including the iconic works of Homer,

The early periods of literature are characterized by The Iliad and The Odyssey.
distinct intellectual, linguistic, religious, and artistic
influences that shaped the written world. These Homer was an ancient Greek poet, presumed author of
periods, often spanning centuries, offer a glimpse into the Iliad and the Odyssey, two epic poems that are
the evolution of human thought and expression. foundational works of ancient Greek literature. He is
considered one of the most revered and influential
authors in history.
I. The Classical Period (1200 BCE 455 CE) Works: The Iliad and The Odyssey
The classical period was home to the great works of
ancient Greece and Rome. This era witnessed the birth
of epic poetry, philosophy, drama, and rhetoric, laying 2. The Classical Greek Period (800-200 BCE)
the foundation for future literary development.
The Classical Greek period is often referred to as The
Characteristics of Classical Literature Golden Age of Greece. This period saw the rise of
sophisticated literature, philosophy, and art.
- Focus on heroic themes
Euripides was an ancient Greek playwright, alongside
- Philosophical depth other renowned playwrights like Aeschylus and
- Dramatic and tragic elements Sophocles. He made significant contributions to
literature, particularly in the field of drama and
- Literary pieces were usually in oral form tragedy.

Famous Work: The Trojan Women (The Women of

Troy)
This period is divided into four sub-periods. They are
as follows; Sophocles was one of the most famous and celebrated
writers of tragedy in ancient Greece and perhaps the
1. The Homeric or Heroic Period (1200 BCE – 455 greatest of Athens's playwrights. His best-known work
CE) is Oedipus Rex.
Famous Work: Oedipus Rex Saint Jerome also known as Jerome of Stridon, was an
early Christian priest, confessor, theologian, translator,
and historian.
3. The Classical Roman Period (200 BCE – 455 He is best known for his translation of the Bible into
CE) Latin and his commentaries on the whole Bible.
When Rome conquers Greece in 146 CE, the culture of
Greece is replaced by Roman rule. Though it was
supposedly established in 509 BCE, the Roman II. The Medieval Period (5th-15th Centuries)
Republic didn't reach its full potential until much later.
The Medieval Period, also known as the Dark Ages,
Publius Vergilius Maro better known as Virgil, was a witnessed the fall of the Roman Empire and the rise of
prolific Roman poet, best remembered for his epic new cultures and societies in Europe. This period saw
poem Aeneid, an epic poem mythologizing the the emergence of early Old English poems like
founding of the city of Rome. Beowulf, The Wanderer, and The Seafarer.

Famous Work: Aeneid The term Dark Ages was coined by the scholar,
Francesco Petrarch to describe the period of decline in
Marcus Aurelius, a Roman Emperor and Stoic culture, science, and economics.
philosopher, is best known for his philosophical
writings, particularly "Meditations." Characteristics of Medieval Literature

Famous Work: Meditations - Religious Influences

- Liturgical works mostly written in Latin

4. The Patristic Period (100 AD-8th Century) - Themes centered on Chivalry and Courtly Love

The Patristic Period marks the rise of early Christian - Allegory and Symbolism
writings. This period witnessed the spread of
Christianity across Europe and the decline of the - Emphasis on Oral Traditions
Roman Empire. It was during this time that Saint
Jerome compiled the Bible, a pivotal event in the
history of Western literature.
Dante Alighieri was major Italian poet and politician, numerous poems of courtly love, a biography of
he is best known for his masterwork La Commedia Charles V of France, and several works championing
(also known as The Divine Comedy in English), which women. One of her most famous work is Le Tresor de
regarded as one of the finest works in all of literature. la Cite des Dames (The Book of the City of Ladies)

Famous Work: La Commedia Famous Work: The Book of the City of Ladies

Geoffrey Chaucer was one of the best English poets of

all time, considered a father of English language and
literature. Before the likes of Shakespeare, Chaucer III. Renaissance Period (1450-1650)
dominated the literary scene, most famous for his The Renaissance is usually said to have lasted from
work "The Canterbury Tales". about 1400 to 1650 CE. The word Renaissance means
Famous Work: The Canterbury Tales rebirth. This period saw a rebirth of interest in ancient
Greece and Rome and a rediscovery of Greek and
John Gower was an English poet, a contemporary of Roman works. It was a time of great artistic creativity
William Langland and the Pearl Poet, and a personal in literature, painting, sculpture, and architecture.
friend of Geoffrey Chaucer.
The period known as the Renaissance began in Italy in
He is remembered primarily for three major works: the 1300s, and its associated ideas and developments
spread slowly throughout Europe over the next four
The Mirror of Mankind centuries.
The Voice of One Crying Out Key Figures
The Lover's Confession Leonardo da Vinci (art, science)
Giovanni Boccaccio an IItalian poet and scholar, best Michelangelo (art)
remembered as the author of the earthy tales in the
Decameron. William Shakespeare (Literature)

Famous Work: Decameron Niccolò Machiavelli (political thought)

Christine de Pizan. She was a prolific and versatile Characteristics of Literature during Renaissance
French poet and author whose diverse writings include Period
Revival of Classical Ideas - Inspiration from Greek and
Roman literature, mythology, and philosophy.
Authors during the Renaissance Period
Secular Themes - Shift from predominantly religious
themes of the Middle Ages to include secular topics William Shakespeare (1564–1616) - Known as the
such as love, nature, and politics. Writers explored greatest playwright and poet in English literature,
worldly pleasures and human relationships alongside Shakespeare explored themes of love, ambition,
spiritual concerns. During this period feelings and power, and the human condition.
emotions were key to illustrating humanism, with the Notable Works: Hamlet, Macbeth, Romeo and Juliet, A
story more oriented on the character rather than the Midsummer Night's Dream
adventure.
Francesco Petrarch (1304–1374) - A key figure in
Use of Vernacular Language – Italian authors began humanism, Petrarch revived classical scholarship and
writing in their native vernacular language rather than developed the Italian sonnet form.
in Latin, French or Provencal.
Notable Work: Canzoniere (a collection of sonnets
Development of New Forms - developed and dedicated to Laura)
popularized new poetic forms, such as the sonnet and
blank verse. Miguel de Cervantes (1547–1616) - Often regarded as
the greatest writer in the Spanish language,
Blending of Art and Literature - Literature was Cervantes’ satirical novel is a masterpiece of early
influenced by the visual arts, with vivid imagery and modern European literature.
attention to aesthetics.
Notable Work: Don Quixote
Development of Drama - Renaissance drama reached
its peak with complex characters and intricate plots. Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527) - A political
Themes included human conflict, ambition, and moral philosopher and writer, Machiavelli’s works explored
dilemmas. Example: William Shakespeare’s plays power, statecraft, and ethics, often blending realism
(Hamlet, Macbeth, Romeo and Juliet). with pragmatism. His concept that there was a division
between public and private morality, is where we get
The English Renaissance is considered a golden age of the term Machiavellian when describing brilliance of
poetry, laying the foundation for much of the English evil politicians or schemers
literary tradition that followed.
Notable Work: The Prince - John Calvin (Theology)

John Milton (1608–1674) - He was an English poet, - Henry VIII (Anglican Church Founder)
pamphleteer, and historian, considered the most
significant English author after William Shakespeare. - Ignatius of Loyola (Counter-Reformation Leader)

Notable Work: Paradise Lost Characteristics of Literature during Reformation

Period

Religious Themes - Literature often explored

IV. Reformation Period (1517-17th Century) theological debates, critiqued the Catholic Church, and
promoted Protestant ideals. Works focused on
The Reformation period, also known as the Protestant individual faith and the authority of scripture over
Reformation, was a major religious, social, and cultural institutional dogma.
movement that began in the early 16th century and
continued through the 17th century. It fundamentally Humanism - Renaissance humanism influenced
transformed Christianity in Europe, leading to the Reformation literature, emphasizing education, critical
establishment of Protestant churches and significant thinking, and a return to classical sources.
changes within the Catholic Church.
Propaganda and Pamphlets - The printing press played
Religious Reform a critical role in disseminating Reformation ideas.
Short, persuasive pamphlets became a common
Sparked by Martin Luther’s publication of the 95 medium for religious and political propaganda.
Theses on October 31, 1517, which criticized the
Catholic Church's practices, especially the sale of Biblical Translations - Translating the Bible into
indulgences. The refusal of the Church to address vernacular languages became a central literary
these criticisms eventually led to schisms that would activity, empowering people to interpret scripture
establish Protestant Christian sects which developed directly.
into dominations such as Lutheranism, Calvinism,
Anglicanism, and Anabaptism. Satirical and Critique - Satirical literature flourished as
a tool to critique the Church and societal corruption.
Key Figures during Reformation Period Writers used wit to expose hypocrisy and challenge
authority.
- Martin Luther (Protestant Reformation)
Vernacular Writing - Authors moved away from Latin to Desiderius Erasmus (1466–1536) - A leading humanist,
write in vernacular languages, making literature more Erasmus critiqued church corruption while advocating
accessible to the general populace. This shift helped for moderate reform. His works influenced both
spread Reformation ideas widely among common Catholic and Protestant thinkers.
people.
Notable Works: In Praise of Folly, Greek edition of the
New Testament

Literary contributors during Reformation Period Ulrich Zwingli (1484–1531) - Zwingli was a leader of
the Reformation in Switzerland.
Martin Luther (1483–1546) - Luther's writings
challenged Catholic doctrines and emphasized Notable Work: Commentary on True and False
salvation by faith alone. His translation of the Bible Religion
made scripture accessible to ordinary people.
John Knox (1514–1572) - A leader of the Scottish
Notable Works: 95 Theses, On the Bondage of the Reformation, Knox founded Presbyterianism and was
Will, German translation of the Bible known for his fiery sermons and writings against
Catholicism.
William Tyndale (1494–1536) - Tyndale was a pioneer
in translating the Bible into English, making it Notable Work: The First Blast of the Trumpet Against
accessible to common people. His efforts laid the the Monstrous Regiment of Women
foundation for later English translations, including the
King James Bible.

Notable Work: English translation of the Bible LATE/MODERN PERIODS OF LITERATURE

John Calvin (1509–1564) - A leading theologian of the The late or modern period of literature was a time of
Reformation, Calvin developed the doctrine of new knowledge and discoveries. Literature in these
predestination and influenced the development of times became more focused on contemporary
Calvinism. elements such as, individualism, experimentation,
absurdity, transformation, and even formalism.
Notable Work: Institutes of the Christian Religion
ENLIGHTENMENT PERIOD (1660- 1790)
Enlightenment, a European intellectual movement of • Individualism
the 17th and 18th centuries in which ideas concerning
God, reason, nature, and humanity were synthesized. Developing one's own talents to the highest degree
They deviate from the emotionalistic side of and living life for one's own sake rather than for the
romanticism and rather embrace the rationality or sake of the state or the church.
reason over emotion. • Secularization
John Locke conceived of the human mind as being at A great emphasis on science and reason over blind
birth a tabula rasa, a blank slate on which experience faith and superstition. Enlightenment thinkers
wrote freely creating the individual character challenged religious orthodoxy, and many supported a
according to the individual experience. belief called Deism, which maintained that God and
Characteristics: nature were one in the same.

• Intellectual Growth and Freedom

During a period called the Age of Enlightenment, many Famous Writers:

European countries experienced a time of intellectual 1. Alexander Pope - was a poet and satirist of the
growth. English Augustan period. He is one of the most
• Religious Thoughts and Secular Ideals epigrammatic of all English authors.

There were two main ways of thinking during the The Rape of the Lock (1712–1714)
Enlightenment. The first was known as the Radical 2. Francois-Marie Arouet Voltaire - was one of the
School of thought, promoted ideas like freedom of greatest of all French writers. Through its critical
speech, democracy, and getting rid of religious capacity, wit, and satire. His long life spanned the last
authority. The second way of thinking was called the years of classicism and the eve of the revolutionary
Moderate School of thought. This school tried to find a era.
compromise between making changes and keeping
the existing religious and political systems in place. Histoire de Charles XII (1731)

• Prominence of Science 3. Benjamin Franklin - was an American printer and

publisher, author, inventor and scientist, and diplomat.
• The Start of the idea of Equality One of the foremost of the Founding Fathers, Franklin
helped draft the Declaration of Independence and was An emphasis upon imagination as a gateway
one of its signers. to transcendent experience and spiritual truth

Poor Richard’s Almanac (1732-1757) Famous Writers

1. William Wordsworth - was one of the founders of

English Romanticism and one its most central figures
ROMANTIC PERIOD (1798-1837) and important intellects.
Romanticism was an artistic, literary, and intellectual An Evening Walk (1793)
movement that emerged in the late 18th century and
peaked in the early to mid-19th century. It was 2. Percy Bysshe Shelly - was the son of Timothy and
characterized by a rejection of the order, calm, and Elizabeth Shelley. Percy stood in line not only to inherit
rationality that defined Classicism and the his grandfather’s considerable estate but also to sit in
Enlightenment, instead emphasizing individualism, Parliament one day.
emotion, and the sublime aspects of nature.
Romanticism celebrated the subjective experience, the Ode to the West Winds (1820)
irrational, the imaginative, and the transcendental, 3. Samuel Taylor Coleridge - is the premier poet-critic
often focusing on the genius, the hero, and the of modern English tradition, distinguished for the
exceptional figure, exploring their passions and inner scope and influence of his thinking about literature as
struggles. much as for his innovative verse.

Lyrical Ballads (1798)

Characteristics: Kubla Khan (1816)
A deepened appreciation of the beauties of nature

A general exaltation of emotion over reason and of the VICTORIAN PERIOD (1837- 1901)
senses over intellect -ideals/idealisation
A preoccupation with the genius, the hero, and the period of Queen Victoria's reign. Characterized by a
exceptional figure in general and a focus on his or her class-based society.
passions and inner struggles
reflecting broader social and cultural trends of the 2. Bram Stoker - was an Irish writer best known as the
time. This era was marked by Britain's status as a author of the Gothic horror tale Dracula (1897). Due to
powerful empire, characterized by industrialization, a illness, Stoker could not stand or walk until he was
class-based society, and significant political and seven years old, and he was subjected to common
economic changes. The period saw the expansion of treatments of the time such as bloodletting.
the franchise, a stable government, and a growing
economy. Dracula (1897)

Characteristics: 3. Elizabeth Barrett Browning - was an English poet

whose reputation rests chiefly upon her love
1. Literature of this age tends to come closer to daily poems, the latter now considered an early feminist
life which reflects its practical problems and interest text. Her husband was Robert Browning.

2. Moral Purpose: The Victorian literature seems to Aurora Leigh (1856)

deviate from "art for art's sake" and asserts its moral
purpose. 4. Wilkie Collins - The son of a well-known artist
William Collins, and is best known for his pioneering
3. Idealism: It is often considered as an age of doubt work in the detective and mystery genres. In 1851 he
and pessimism. The influence of science is felt here. met Charles Dickens and later became his close friend
The whole age seems to be caught in the conception and literary collaborator, working together on many
of man in relation to the universe with the idea of stories and plays.
evolution.
The Woman in White (1860)
Famous Writers
5. The Bronte Sisters - The three Bronte sisters
Charlotte, Emily, and Anne are often mentioned
together because they shared this home called ‘The
1. Charles Dickens - was a British author, journalist, Parsonage’ in the town of Haworth in Yorkshire.
editor, illustrator, and a social commentator. Dickens
wrote 15 novels in total. He died in June 1870 at age Charlotte’s ‘Jane Eyre’ (1847)
58 and is remembered as one of the most important
and influential writers of the 19th century. Emily’s ‘Wuthering Heights’ (1848)

The Pickwick Papers (1837) Anne’s ‘The Tenant of Wildfell Hall’ (1848)
MODERN PERIOD (1900-1940) Famous Writers

Modernism’s definition in literature refers to the 1. James Joyce - was an Irish poet and writer. His
writers act of defiance against social conventions. writing style was meticulous, filled with internal
They objected to continuing to follow the rules. monologues, and disregarded conventional plot and
Instead, they looked for novel means of character techniques.
communicating their views themselves.
Work: Ulysses
a number of emerging writing styles that influenced
the growth of literature. 2. T.S. Eliot - won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1948,
is renowned for his work as a poet, literary critic,
Characteristics: playwright, editor, and publisher.

Individualism – The individual is more intriguing than Work: The Wasteland

society in modernist literature.
3.. William Faulkner - is known for his Southern Gothic
Experimentation – Modernists authors rebelled against tales that incorporate unreliable narrators, multiple
conventional methods and styles. Poets stopped using perspectives, symbolism, and nonlinear narratives.
conventional rhyme schemes and switched to free
verse. As I Lay Dying (1929)

Absurdity – The devastation of the two World Wars had

a significant impact on writers of the time. Many noble POSTMODERN PERIOD (1945-Present)
English poets perished or were injured during World
War One. That's why some of their works have themes Postmodern literature also often rejects the boundaries
of grief and etc. between ‘high’ and ‘low’ forms of art and literature, as
well as the distinctions between different genres and
Symbolism – The authors of the Modernist movement forms of writing and storytelling.
gave things, people, places, and events deep
significance. Characteristics:

Formalism – Modernist authors viewed literature more Embrace of randomness – Postmodern works reject the
as a craft than as a creative peak. idea of absolute meaning and instead embrace
randomness and disorder.
Playfulness – While modernist writers mourned the loss Works: The Literature of Exhaustion and Giles Goat-
of order, postmodern revel in it, often using tools like Boy
black humor, wordplay, irony, and and other
techniques of playfulness to dizzy readers and muddle 2. Samuel Beckett - is an Irish author, critic, and
the story. playwright, winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature in
1969. He wrote in both French and English and his
Fragmentation – Postmodernist took modernism’s literary and theatrical work features bleak, impersonal
fragmentation and expanded on it, moving literary and tragicomic experiences of life, often occupied with
works more toward collage-style forms, temporal black comedy and nonsense.
distortion, and significant jumps in character and
place. Works: En attendant Godot (1952; Waiting for Godot)
and Theatre of the Absurd
Metafiction – Postmodern literature emphasized
meaninglessness and play. Postmodern writers began 3. John Robert Fowles - was an English novelist,
to experiment with more meta elements in their novels critically positioned between modernism and
and short stories. postmodernism. His work was influenced by Jean-Paul
Sartre and Albert Camus, among others.
Intertextuality – As a form of collage-style writing,
many postmodern authors wrote their work overtly in Work: The French Lieutenant’s Woman (1969)
dialogue with other texts. The techniques they
employed included pastiche (or imitating other
author’s style) and the combination of high and low METAPHYSICAL MOVEMENT
culture (writing that tackles subjects that were
previously considered inappropriate for literature). What is metaphysical poetry?

This is a philosophical concept in literature where

poets portray the things or idea that are beyond the
Famous Writers depiction of physical existence.

1. John Barth - is an American writer best known for The first word means “meta” means beyond. So,
novels that combine philosophical depth and metaphysical beyond physical or beyond the ordinary
complexity with biting satire and boisterous, things. The meaning and themes present in this
frequently bawdy humor.
literary movement deals that are beyond the existence Metaphysical conceit is a literary device that compares
of this physical world. a person's spiritual qualities to a physical object.

Relaxed Meter. The poems generally don’t follow a

strict rhythm, giving them a more natural,
Metaphysical Poetry conversational flow.
The term ‘Metaphysical poets’ was coined by Samuel
Johnson in 1779 in his book Lives of the Most Eminent
English Poets (1179-1781) Notable Writers of the Metaphysical Movement

Metaphysical poetry is a style of poetry that flourished Andrew Marvell was an English poet whose political
in the 17th century in England, characterized by its reputation overshadowed that of his poetry until the
use of metaphors, intellectual or philosophical 20th century. He is now considered to be one of the
concepts, and often playful language to explore the best Metaphysical poets. Three years after his death,
human experience. that his collection of Miscellaneous Poems was
published. Some of his most famous works, 'To His Coy
It often explores themes related to religion, morality Mistress', 'The Definition of Love' and 'The Mower'
and love. Metaphysical poetry is known for its highly which are all published in the same year (1681).
intellectual and imaginative nature, and for its use of
metaphysical conceit to connect seemingly unrelated John Donne was born in England in 1572 to Roman
things or ideas. Catholic parents. He is the defining metaphysical poet
and is known for his intellectual, philosophical wit and
Characteristics of Metaphysical Poetry his depiction of the paradoxes of love and religious
- These poems have a conversational tone, making faith. Notable works:
them feel more personal and direct. ‘The Flea' (1633)’
- Metaphysical poets will often draw unusual Henry Vaughan was born in Wales in 1621, and trained
comparisons between physical ideas and abstract to be a lawyer after a brief stint at Oxford University.
concepts. After being inspired by the work of George Herbert,
- “unified sensibility” which is coined by T.S. Eliot Vaughan returned to spirituality and religion, and
means a fusion of thought and feeling. produced his most famous works of religious poetry,
which featured in 'Silex Scintillians' (1650).
George Herbert was born in Wales in 1593, George This unique approach, born in the late 19th century,
Herbert was a poet and clergyman in the Church of takes a departure from conventional narratives.
England. He is famed for his immaculate word choice, Symbolist literature embraces symbols and metaphors
and for intensely spiritually reflective poetry, dealing as its language, conveying meanings that often carry a
with abstract topics like loss of faith in 'The Collar' touch of mystique.
(1633) and resurrection in 'Easter Wings' (1633).
What is Symbolism?

Symbol: A symbol is an object, image, person, or event

THEMES that represents something beyond its literal meaning.
It carries a deeper, often abstract or conceptual,
1. Sex and Marriage significance.
2. Sex and the Church Symbolism: refers to the use of such symbols in
3. The Power of Language and Rhetoric literature and art. It's the process of imbuing objects
and actions with a deeper, often layered, meaning.
4. The Role of the Female in Society Symbolism can be deliberate or unconscious, and it
can be open to interpretation.
5. Seduction and Persuasion
Symbolist: A symbolist is an artist, writer, or composer
who employs symbolism in their work. They often aim
to evoke emotions, ideas, and sensations rather than
Symbols
directly describing them.
The Flea and Blood

The Marriage Bed and Temple

Symbolist Literary Movement
The Parent's Grudge
The Symbolist movement emerged in late 19th-
century France as a reaction against the perceived
limitations of Realism and Naturalism. Symbolists
SYMBOLIST sought to express subjective experience, emotions,
and the inner world of the individual through
suggestive imagery, symbolism, and a focus on the Focus on Subjectivity - They often used dreamlike
evocative power of language. imagery and fragmented narratives to convey the
subjective nature of experience.
The Symbolist movement was a rebellion against
Realism, and Naturalism. Evocative Language - They used rich imagery, sensory
details, and suggestive language to create a mood or
The movement peaked around 1890 but declined due atmosphere rather than to simply describe reality.
to perceive over-refinement. The symbolist manifesto
itself was published by Jean Moreas in Le Figaro on Rejection of Realism - Symbolists rejected the
September 18, 1886; objective, realistic approach of Naturalism and
Realism.
Parnassianism was a French poetic movement that
emerged in the 1860s as a reaction against
Romanticism. It emphasized objectivity, precision, and
technical perfection in poetry. Major Symbolist Writers

Parnassian - a member of a group headed by Charles Charles Pierre Baudelaire (1821-1867) - French poet,
Marie René Leconte de Lisle of 19th century French translator, literary and art critic. Often considered the
poets who stressed restraint, objectivity, technical Father of Symbolism. And known for his exploration of
perfection, and precise description as a resaction decadence, modernity and the darker aspects of
against the emotionalis and verbal imprecision of the human experiences.
Romantics. - The Flowers of Evil [1857] - it explores themes of sin,
beauty, and the dark underbelly of human nature
through rich imagery and symbolism.
Key Characteristics of Symbolist Literature:
Stéphane Mallarmé (1842-1898) - pen name of Étienne
Emphasis on Symbolism - Symbolists heavily relied on Mallarmé. He was a major French symbolist poet, and
symbols to convey complex meanings and emotions. his work anticipated and inspired several revolutionary
These symbols were often ambiguous, open to artistic schools of the early 20th century. His poetry is
multiple interpretations, and intended to evoke a known for its intricate symbolism, often exploring
sense of mystery and wonder. themes of art, language, and the nature of reality.
- (1876, "The Afternoon of a Faun") - The poem the founders of the school of Symbolism and was
captures the dreamy musings of a faun, a mythical nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature on six
creature, as it reflects on a sensual encounter with occasions.
nymphs in a forest.
- "Black Trilogy"
Paul Verlaine (1844-1896) - French poet associated
with the Symbolist movement and the Decadent His collection explores themes of despair, melancholy,
movement and considered one of the greatest and existential angst. It reflects a darker, more
representatives of the fin de siècle in international and introspective phase in his work.
French poetry.

Verlaine's poetic style is characterized by its CONCLUSION:

musicality, melancholy, and evocations of beauty and
decay. - emphasis on subjective experience, dreamlike
imagery, and evocative symbolism directly influenced
- "Songs without words" Modernism's exploration of consciousness and
Arthur Rimbaud (1854-1890) - A French poet and fragmented narratives
adventurer who won renown in the Symbolist - challenge traditional forms and conventions, opening
movement and markedly influenced modern up new avenues for artistic expression that continue to
poetry. Known for his transgressive and surreal resonate in contemporary works
themes and for his influence on modern literature and
arts, prefiguring surrealism. - rejection of realism and their focus on suggestive
language.
- 1873 Season in Hell

Is a deeply introspective work, exploring the author's

tumultuous life and struggles through a series of prose HARLEM RENAISSANCE
poems. The work is considered a masterpiece of
French literature and a cornerstone of Symbolist and in New York City as a Black Cultural mecca in the early
Modernist poetry. 20th century and the subsequent social and artistic
explosion that resulted.
Émile Verhaeren (1855-1916) - A Belgian poet and art
critic who wrote in the French language. He was one of
Lasting roughly from the 1910s through the mid - Was established in 1909 and is America’s oldest and
1930s, the period is considered a golden age in African largest civil rights organization.
American culture, manifesting in literature, music,
stage performance and art. The most influential It was formed in New York City by white and black
movement in African American history. activists, partially in response to the ongoing violence
against Black Americans around the country.

In its early decades, its anti - lynching campaign was

Brief History central to its agenda.

Was a phase of a larger New Negro Movement that Harlem Renaissance

had emerged in the early 20th century and in some
ways ushered in the civil rights movement of the late Unusual among literary and artistic movements for its
1940s and early 1950s. close relationship to civil rights and reform
organizations.
The social foundations of this movement included the
Great Migration of African Americans from rural to Crucial to the movement were magazines such as:
urban spaces and from South to North. “The Crisis”, published by the National Association for
The Great Migration was the relocation of more than 6 the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
millions Black Americans from the rural South to the “Opportunity”, published by the National Urban
cities of the North, Midwest, and West from about League
1916 to 1970.
“The Messenger”, a socialist journal eventuallu
Driven from their homes by unsatisfactory economic connected with the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car
opportunities and harsh segregationist laws, many Porters, a black labour union.
Black Americans headed north, where they took
advantage of the need for industrial workers that arose
during the First World War.
W.E.B. Du Bois had advocated something like this
position in his The Souls of Black Folk (1903), a
defining text of the New Negro Movement because of
National Association for the Advancement of Colored its profound effect on an entire generation that formed
People the core of the Harlem Renaissance.
 thousands of pieces that helped lay the framework for
the civil rights movement to follow decades later.
Literature during the Harlem Renaissance

Harlem Renaissance literature grew out of the turmoil

of slavery, segregation, and institutional racism. Writers and Works from the Harlem Renaissance

The Great Migration Claude Mckay (1889 - 1948) - Born in Jamaica, Claude
Mckay moved to Harlem in 1914 and became a central
During World War 1, Black Americans began moving figure of the Harlem Renaissance movement. One of
out of the Southern United States and relocating to the Claude Mckay’s first novels, Home of Harlem (1928),
West, Midwest, and Northeast. By 1920, hundreds of follows a young soldier who desserts his army position
thousands of Black people had moved from the South during World War 1 and lands in Harlem. His poem “If
to new areas, including neighborhoods like Harlem in We Must Die” (1919) was published in the magazine
New York City. The Liberator, which he co-edited for a brief time.
New Publishing Opportunities Jessie Redmon Fauset (1882 - 1961) - Began her
In 1917, Marcus Garvey, an immigrant from Jamaica, career writing for the NAACPs magazine, The Crisis,
founded the first chapter of the Universal Negro which was founded by W.E.B. Du Bois. After a few
Improvement Association in Harlem. Garvey years, she became the magazine’s literary editor,
contributed to the organization’s weekly Black working alongside other Harlem Renaissance writers
American culture. More organizations like the National like Anne Spencer, Dunbar Nelson, Arna Bontemps,
Urban League and the National Association for the and Gwendolyn Bennett. Her first novel, There is
Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) formed print Confusion (1924), received widespread acclaim.
magazines and publications, creating new James Weldon Johnson (1871 - 1938) - Was a writer
opportunities for writers to share their work. and activist best known for his poem, “Lift Every Voice
Writers in Harlem and Sing”, which was set to music by his brother and
adopted as the official song of the NAACP in 1919.
By the late 1920s, the Harlem Renaissance was in full
swing, with Black American artist creating a vast range
of work. Black poets, authors, and essayists wrote “If We Must Die” by Claude Mckay”
Themes: École de Paris: A pre-World War Two group of painters
who lived and worked in Paris between 1900 and
Defiance Against Oppression 1940.
Call to Unity and Action One of these groupings was the "New York School”, a
Dignity in Death group of poets who mainly lived and worked in New
York City during the mid-20th century. This movement
Heroism and Honor is not associated with a literal school, instead it refers
to a creative community with similar artistic styles and
Symbols subject matter. They were known for their innovative
and experimental approach to poetry.
Hogs
As a sub-genre of the post-modernist literary
Mad and Hungry Dogs
movement, the New York School sought to break away
Monsters from traditional styles associated with academia. This
movement can be considered the antithesis of
Precious Blood confessional poetry, discussing contemporary issues in
a light-hearted rather than serious manner.
Open Grave

The Common Foe

Famous New York School Poets

New York School, first generation

The New York School Movement
1. Frank O'Hara - He was an American poet and
The term "New York School" got its name from the
curator at the Museum of Modern Art who lived from
"École de Paris," a group of artists in Paris that
1926 to 1966. He is regarded as a leading figure in the
included famous painters like Henri Matisse and
New York School.
Picasso. But in the literary world, the term "New York
School" gained prominence in literary studies through O'Hara wrote poetry about his own personal
Donald Allen's anthology. experiences. Through his work he sought to capture
the rhythms and realities of everyday life and present
them in a life-like way to readers, stating that poetry New York School, second generation
should be 'between two persons instead of two pages.
It has been argued that the second generate on was
Some of his works include: Meditations In An more influenced by the pop-art movement than by
Emergency, Poem (Hate Is Only One Of Many abstract expressionism.
Responses
Pop-art movement: It challenged traditional notions of
2. John Ashbery (July 28, 1927 – September 3, 2017) - art by embracing popular culture and mass media as
He was an American poet and art critic. He is sources of inspiration that familiar to people in society.
considered the most influential American poet of his It aimed to create artworks that the general public
time. Ashbery published more than 20 volumes of could relate to and understand without needing
poetry and won nearly every major American award specialized knowledge of art history or theory.
for poetry, including a Pulitzer Prize in 1976.
1. Alice Notley - She has published a total of 40 poetry
His works include: Some Trees (1956), Rivers and collections during her lifetime, her work added another
Mountains (1966) aspect to the New York School, exploring aspects of
womanhood in everyday life. She is considered a
3. James Schuyler - He was a central member of the pioneering voice on topics like motherhood and
New York School. His other major collections include domestic life.
The Crystal Lithium (1972). Schuyler worked as a
curator at the Museum of Modern Art and wrote for the Notley's poetry collections include; 165 Meeting House
publication Art News. (1971), When I Was Alive (1980), and The Descent of
Alette (1996).
Take Note:
2. Ted Berrigan (1934 – 1983) - He was an American
The first generation of the New York School was poet and the husband of Alice Notley up until his death
influenced by the abstract expressionism art in 1983.
movement.
Ted Berrigan is often associated with both the Beat
Abstract expressionism: A style of art that appears Generation and the New York School of poets, as his
spontaneous, characterised by mark-making and work reflects elements of both movements. While he
expressive brushwork. shares some characteristics with the Beat Generation,
such as his anti-establishment views and experimental
style, he is also closely linked to the New York School the New York School dealt with serious issues, they did
poets, who were active in New York City in the 1950s so in a conversational way, with moments of humour.
and 1960s.
Experimental punctuation
His works include: Many Happy Returns (1969), Peace:
Broadside (1969), Some poems from the New York School utilised direct
speech, involving speech marks while others used little
to no punctuation at all. This varied and experimental
use of punctuation allowed the poets of the New York
Characteristics of New York School: School to convey their perspectives and emotions by
Observational subject matter disrupting the traditional rhythms and rhymes
associated with poetry.
The majority of work produced by the first and second
generations of the New York School of Poetry sought to
provide a commentary on social and political issues at HATE IS ONLY ONE OF MANY RESPONSES by
the time of writing. Frank O’Hara
Due to the observational nature of these poems, an Instead of avoiding hate, unkindness, or meanness, he
element of spontaneity characterised the style of suggests that they have a role in shaping truth, love,
writing, as the poets would react to daily events and and transformation. Ultimately, he emphasizes that
happenings. Many poets utilising stream-of- human connection, self-awareness, and emotional
consciousness narratives to create an 'in the moment' depth allow negativity to be refined into something
feel.In literature, stream-of-consciousness refers to a meaningful.
narrative style that parallels the continuous flow of an
individual's mental processes.

Witty tone Themes:

A witty and humorous tone characterised poems Emotions and Responses, Complexity of Human
produced by the New York School. This style of poetry Experience, Acceptance and Understanding, and Self-
developed in opposition to the traditional, melancholic, Reflection.
and serious approach taken by World War Two poets
when discussing current events. Although poems from Symbols:
1. Hate as "filth" 4. Gold as transformation

Symbolism: Filth represents something common, Symbolism: Gold represents wisdom, beauty, and
unpleasant, but not overwhelming. transformation.

Meaning: Hate is compared to dirt—it exists, but it’s Meaning: The poem suggests an alchemical process—if
not something mystical or powerful. Like filth, it’s negative emotions (hate, unkindness, meanness) are
undesirable but not something that should dominate or felt with awareness and reluctance, they can be turned
define us. into something valuable.

2. The "arrow that feels something"

Symbolism: The arrow represents sharpness, clarity,

and purpose.

Meaning: Sometimes unkindness is necessary to cut

through falsehoods. The phrase "an arrow that feels
something" is paradoxical—arrows usually wound
without emotion, but O’Hara suggests that directness
(even if painful) is meaningful when it comes from a
place of feeling.

3. Meanness as a way for love to "breathe"

Symbolism: Meanness symbolizes emotional intensity,

boundaries, or contrast.

Meaning: Just as oxygen and space are needed for

breathing, love sometimes needs moments of conflict,
distance, or struggle to remain authentic.
Relationships that are too smooth or polite may lack
depth, while occasional conflict can make love more
real.