LOYOLA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

Approved by AICTE New Delhi & Affiliated to JNTUK, Kakinada

ESTD:2001, Sponsored by Santhi Niketan Minority Education Society
Loyola Nagar,Dhulipalla,Sattenapalli, Guntur-522412.
NAAC “A” graded and an ISO 9001:2015 Certified Institution

Department of Computer Science and Engineering

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING

R23 REGULATION

FROM
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

1
 SYLLABUS

UNIT I
• Basics of Civil Engineering: Role of Civil Engineers in Society- Various
Disciplines of Civil Engineering- Structural Engineering- Geo-technical
Engineering- Transportation Engineering - Hydraulics and Water Resources
Engineering - Environmental Engineering-Scope of each discipline - Building
Construction and Planning- Construction Materials-Cement - Aggregate -
Bricks- Cement concrete- Steel. Introduction to Prefabricated construction
Techniques.
Glossaries terms of civil engineering and guide lines of NBC

UNIT II
• Surveying: Objectives of Surveying- Horizontal Measurements- Angular
Measurements- Introduction to Bearings Levelling instruments used for
levelling -Simple problems on levelling and bearings-Contour mapping.

UNIT III
• Transportation Engineering Importance of Transportation in Nation's
economic development- Types of Highway Pavements- Flexible Pavements
and Rigid Pavements - Simple Differences. Basics of Harbour, Tunnel,
Airport, and Railway Engineering.

• Water Resources and Environmental Engineering: Introduction, Sources of

water- Quality of water- Specifications- Introduction to Hydrology–Rainwater
Harvesting-Water Storage and Conveyance Structures (Simple introduction to
Dams and Reservoirs).

2
 UNIT-I
BASICS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

1)CIVIL ENGINEERING
Civil Engineering is the branch of engineering that emerges out first. It aims to
provide a comfortable and safe living for the people. Civil engineers provide shelter, one of
the primary needs of mankind. The efficient planning of water supply and irrigation systems
increases the food production in a country. Communications lines like roads, railways,
bridges etc without which development is impossible, are the fruits of Civil Engineers work.
The American Society of Engineers has crowned this noble profession as “People serving
Profession”. Engineering is the discipline, art, and profession that apply scientific theory to
design, develop, analyze and implement technological solutions. Civil Engineering mainly
concern with the planning, analysis, design, estimating, scheduling, construction and
maintenance of the structures, both natural and man-made, including roads, bridges, canals,
dams, water treatment facilities, buildings, high rise structures, space structures,
airports, harbors, railways, traffic and transportation systems.
The pyramids in Egypt, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, the Great Wall of China,
the Brihadeeswarar Temple of Thanjavur, the Taj Mahal of Agra, the Tipu sultan palace of
Mysore and palaces of India are to name a few which stand as a testament to the skill of the
civil engineers.

2)ROLE OF CIVIL ENGINEERS IN SOCIETY

1.The main role of Civil Engineer is Land Surveying, Planning, designing, constructing,
maintaining of the various types of the structures.
2.To solve different engineering problems with the help of enough experience of field,
numerical methods, and laboratory techniques.
3.To carry out soil investigations for the design of the foundations.
4.To carry out the leveling and surveying and prepare map to fix the boundaries of the
plots and to calculate the area and the volume.
5.To fix the alignment of the various paths for making the roadways, railways.
6.To carry out the planning & supervise proper the execution of the actual construction
activity.
7.To prepare the proper drawing, analyzing and designing the various types of the
structures.
8.To invite the tenders & to select contractor for the work.

3
 9.To carry out valuation of land or building for the purpose of finding its scale or
purchase price or taxation.
10.To fulfill the basic needs of the occupants by using fundamentals of the building
planning & by the help of the various building materials.

3)RESPONSIBILITIES OF A CIVIL ENGINEERS

1)Inspection of project sites for progress and that standards of sanitation/ safety/ design
specifications are met.
2)Estimating the quantity and cost of materials and equipment needed for a project.
3)Supervising construction workers at building sites.
4)Preparing progress reports (to explain issues and progress).
5)Designing energy efficient or environmentally sound civil structures.
6)Analyzing survey reports, maps, drawings, blueprints, and geological data for projects

4)VARIOUS DISCIPLINES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Civil engineering is a broad profession that includes several specialized sub-disciplines.
These are
1.Structural engineering
2.Geotechnical engineering
3.Transportation engineering
4.Hydraulic and water resources engineering
5.Environmental engineering

5)STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING is the field of engineering that deals with the

structural integrity and strength of a building or structure. Structural engineering is a
specialty of civil engineering that ensures the structures are safe, stable and don’t collapse
under applied loads. It is mainly focused on analysis and design of the structure.

ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE

 Careful analysis of the wind speed that can carry structural loads and the overall
capacity and utility of the building also provides information.
 Analysis of the structure according to the principles of structural engineering will
make sure that the structure depends on all the necessary design codes.

DESIGN OF THE STRUCTURE

 Structures have to be designed so that they can withstand their own weight as well as
the loads and pressures that will be placed upon them.

4
  Structural engineers take steps crucial information about the foundations, roof types,
load types, beams, columns, material quality, retaining walls etc.

RESPONSIBILITIES OF A STRUCTURAL ENGINEER

A structural engineer also plays a major role as a team among other professionals like
surveyor, quantity surveyor, and architects engineers.
The following tasks must be performed by a structural engineer:
 Design models of structures using software.
 Assessing the reaction of structures to pressures and stress.
 Finalizing the appropriate concrete materials that would be suitable for the structure.
 Assessing budget of the project.
 Liaising to ensure that newly erected buildings are structurally sound with construction
contractors.
 Using computers and computer-aided design technology for simulation purposes.

SKILLS REQUIRED TO BECOME A STRUCTURAL ENGINEER

It’s necessary for every structural engineer to possess the following skills:
 Analytical skills
 Detailed orientation
 Creativity
 Strong interpersonal skills
 Communication skills
 Knowledge of CAD software application like ETABS, SAFE, STAAD Pro, PROKON,
RAVIT, ROBOT etc.
 Excellent computer skills
 Knowledge of construction management
 Familiarity with codes and regulations specific with the industry
 Up-to-date technical skills
Employment opportunities include work with consulting structural engineers,
construction companies, building development companies, engineering departments of
private corporations, and government agencies.

6)GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING is the branch of civil engineering concerned with

the engineering behavior of earth materials. It uses the principles of soil mechanics and rock
mechanics to solve its engineering problems.
Geotechnical engineering is the study of the behavior of soils under the influence of loading
forces and soil-water interactions. This knowledge is applied to the design of foundations,
retaining walls, earth dams, clay liners, and geo synthetics for waste containment. The goals
of geotechnical engineers could range from the design of foundations and temporary
excavation support, through route selection for railways and highways, to the increasingly
important areas of landfill disposal of wastes and groundwater contamination. As such, the
geotechnical engineer is involved in field and laboratory investigations to determine the
engineering properties of site soils

5
 Recent computational and computer advances are extending our ability to predict the
behavior of soil and soil-water systems under a wide variety of conditions. In recent years,
the activities of geotechnical engineers have also involved geo environmental engineering.
Geo environmental engineers design strategies for the clean-up of contaminated soils and
groundwater and develop management systems for contaminated sites.
Geotechnical engineers investigate and determinate the properties of subsurface conditions
and materials. They also design corresponding earthworks and retaining
structures, tunnels, and structure foundations, and may supervise and evaluate sites, which
may further involve site monitoring as well as the risk assessment and mitigation
of natural hazards.
Employment opportunities include geotechnical and engineering consultants, public
utilities, governmental agencies, environmental agencies, specialized contractors and
resource industry companies.

7)TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

Transportation has always played an essential role in the development of society, originally
with regard to trade routes and harbours, but more recently with regard to land- and air-
based systems as well. It is the transportation engineer's responsibility to plan, design, build,
operate and maintain these systems of transport, in such a way as to provide for the safe,
efficient and convenient movement of people and goods.
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING OR TRANSPORT ENGINEERING is the
application of technology and scientific principles to the planning, functional design,
operation and management of facilities for any mode of transportation in order to provide
for the safe, efficient, rapid, comfortable, convenient, economical, and environmentally
compatible movement of people and goods transport.
Transportation engineering, primarily involves planning, design, construction,
maintenance, and operation of transportation facilities. The facilities support air, highway,
railroad, pipeline, water, and even space transportation.
The design aspects of transportation engineering include the sizing of transportation
facilities (how many lanes or how much capacity the facility has), determining the materials
and thickness used in pavement designing the geometry (vertical and horizontal alignment)
of the roadway (or track).
Transport Engineering is connected to similar disciplines such as: Electrical Engineering,
Mechanical Engineering, Aerospace and Marine Engineering.
The main branches of Transport Engineering are: traffic engineering, highway engineering,
port and harbour engineering, airport engineering, infrastructure engineering. Academic
study programs include topics such as Transportation Safety and Design, Urban Planning,
Traffic Engineering and Simulation, Highway Traffic Operations, Public Transportation
Systems.
Transportation engineering graduates can follow careers in railway companies, public
transport companies, local roads administration, research institutes, road and rail traffic
design.

6
8)HYDRAULIC AND WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING

Water resources engineering is the quantitative study of the hydrologic cycle -- the
distribution and circulation of water linking the earth's atmosphere, land and oceans. Surface
runoff is measured as the difference between precipitation and abstractions, such as
infiltration (which replenishes groundwater flow), surface storage and evaporation.
Applications include the management of the urban water supply, the design of urban storm-
sewer systems, and flood forecasting.
Hydraulic engineering consists of the application of fluid mechanics to water flowing in an
isolated environment (pipe, pump) or in an open channel (river, lake, and ocean). Civil
engineers are primarily concerned with open channel flow, which is governed by the
interdependent interaction between the water and the channel.
Applications include the design of hydraulic structures, such as sewage conduits, dams and
breakwaters, the management of waterways, such as erosion protection and flood protection,
and environmental management, such as prediction of the mixing and transport of pollutants
in surface water. Hydroelectric-power development, water supply, irrigation and navigation
are some familiar applications of water resources engineering involving the utilization of
water for beneficial purposes. More recently, concern for preserving our natural
environment and meeting the needs of developing countries has increased the importance
of water resources engineering.
Civil engineers play a vital role in the optimal planning, design and operation of water
resource systems. Job opportunities in hydrology and water resources are quite varied.
Positions are available in large and small consulting firms, and at all levels of government
(municipal, provincial and federal). Particularly in Quebec, due to its abundant water
resources, hydrology has played an important role in the social and economic development
of the province.

9)ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
The goal of environmental engineering is to ensure that societal development and the use of
water, land and air resources are sustainable. This goal is achieved by managing these
resources so that environmental pollution and degradation is minimized.
Environmental engineers study water, soil and air pollution problems, and develop technical
solutions needed to solve, attenuate or control these problems in a manner that is compatible
with legislative, economic, social and political concerns. Civil engineers are particularly
involved in such activities as water supply and sewerage, management of surface water and
groundwater quality, remediation of contaminated sites and solid waste management.
The activities of such engineers include, but are not limited to, the planning, design,
construction and operation of water and wastewater treatment facilities in municipalities
and industries, modelling and analysis of surface water and groundwater quality, design of
soil and remediation systems, planning for the disposal and reuse of wastewaters and
sludges, and the collection, transport, processing, recovery and disposal of solid wastes
according to accepted engineering practices.
Environmental engineers are called upon to play an important role in environmental
protection, because engineering solutions are required to meet the environmental standards
set by legislation.

7
 Consulting firms, municipalities, government agencies, industries and non-governmental
organizations and specialized contractors are potential employers for civil engineers with a
specialization in environmental engineering.

10)BUILDING CONSTRUCTION AND PLANNING

Construction planning is the process of organizing and coordinating all the activities and
resources required to successfully complete a construction project. It involves the
development of a detailed plan. This plan outlines the sequence of tasks, timelines,
resources, and costs associated with the project. Construction planning is crucial for
ensuring that the project is executed efficiently, within budget, and according to the desired
specifications.
In civil engineering, construction planning refers to the process of developing a detailed
plan and strategy for executing a construction project. These projects can include roads,
bridges, buildings, dams, airports, water supply systems, sewerage networks, etc.
Construction planning in civil engineering involves several key aspects like Site analysis
and feasibility, Project design and documentation, Resource allocation and management,
Project scheduling, Cost estimation, etc.
The goals of construction planners is to keep a check on the project time, cost, quality, and
safety.
Proper project planning helps allocate resources effectively. By identifying the required
materials, equipment, and labour ahead of time, construction companies can optimise
resource utilisation, minimise waste, and reduce costs.

TYPES OF PLANNING IN CONSTRUCTION

There are seven main types of planning in construction. These include
oStrategic Planning
oProject Planning
oOperational Planning
oFinancial Planning
oRisk Management Planning
oQuality Planning
oSafety Planning

11)CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

CEMENT
A cement is a binder, a chemical substance used for construction that sets, hardens, and
adheres to other materials to bind them together. Cement is seldom used on its own, but
rather to bind sand and gravel (aggregate) together. Cement mixed with fine aggregate
produces mortar for masonry, or with sand and gravel, produces concrete. Concrete is the
most widely used material in existence and is behind only water as the planet's most-
consumed resource. Cement quality is one of the most important things that plays a key role
in the structural strength of the building. The variation in each type of cement lies in its
properties, application, and material composition. When you are planning to build your
house, make sure you have gathered the idea about them. Here's a detailed guide on different
cement types used in India

8
TYPES OF CEMENT
1.Ordinary Portland cement (OPC)
2.Portland Slag cement
3.Portland Pozzolana cement
4.White cement
5.Sulphate resisting cement
6.Low heat Portland cement
7.Rapid hardening cement
8.Extra Rapid Hardening Cement
9.Quick setting cement
10.Blast Furnace Slag cement
11.High Alumina cement
12.Colored cement
13.Air Entraining cement
14.Expansive cement
15.Hydrographic cement
ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT (OPC)
Three different grades of Ordinary Portland cement are available in the Indian market,
which are grade 33 (IS: 269), grade 43 (IS: 8112), and grade 53 (IS: 12269).
Grade 33 uses M20 grade concrete and is used for plastering. Grade 43 is applied for precast,
plastering, and flooring. It uses M30 concrete. Grade 53 applies a higher concrete grade and
is utilized for building roads, bridges, and multistoried buildings, among others.
Throughout the modern age of construction, cement is an essential construction material.
A major ingredient in concrete, mortar, and plaster is cement. Cement is available in
different grades, signifying the strength of the concrete mix. Hence, one must know the
cement grade and how it can affect the construction of the house. Generally, three grades
of cement are available in the market, viz., 33 grade, 43 grade and 53 grade.
The most commonly used type of cement in India is the Ordinary Portland cement. All
three grades are popularly used for various construction purposes. The type of
construction decides the type of cement to be used in India.
AGGREGATES
Aggregates are materials such as crushed stone, sand, and gravel. Along with water and
cement, these are essential ingredients for cement. For a decent cement mix, it is required
that aggregates be clean and robust materials, free of any chemicals or coatings that may
deteriorate concrete.
Aggregates comprise around 70% of concrete composition and are presented in two forms:
(1) fine aggregate and (2) coarse aggregate.

FINE AGGREGATES
When the aggregate is sieved through a 4.75mm sieve, the aggregate passed through it called
fine aggregate. Natural sand is generally used as fine aggregate, silt and clay also come
under this category. The purpose of the fine aggregate is to fill the voids in the coarse
aggregate and to act as a workability agent.

9
 Fine aggregate is the essential ingredient in concrete that consists of natural sand or crushed
stone. The quality and fine aggregate density strongly influence the hardened properties of
the concrete.

Fine aggregate Size variation (mm)

Coarse Sand - 2.0mm – 0.5mm
Medium sand - 0.5mm – 0.25mm
Fine sand - 0.25mm – 0.06mm
Silt - 0.06mm – 0.002mm
Clay - <0.002

COARSE AGGREGATE
Coarse Aggregate: When the aggregate is sieved through 4.75mm sieve, the aggregate
retained is called coarse aggregate. Gravel, cobble and boulders come under this category.
The maximum size aggregate used may be dependent upon some conditions. In general,
40mm size aggregate used for normal strengths, and 20mm size is used for high strength
concrete. The size range of various coarse aggregates given below.

Coarse aggregate Size variation (mm)

Fine gravel 4mm – 8mm
Medium gravel 8mm – 16mm
Coarse gravel 16mm – 64mm
Cobbles 64mm – 256mm
Boulders >256mm

BRICKS
A brick is a type of construction material used to build walls, pavements and other elements
in masonry construction. Properly, the term brick denotes a unit primarily composed of clay,
but is now also used informally to denote units made of other materials or other chemically
cured construction blocks. Bricks can be joined using mortar, adhesives or by
interlocking. Bricks are usually produced at brickworks in numerous classes, types,
materials, and sizes which vary with region, and are produced in bulk quantities.
Bricks are a versatile building material, able to participate in a wide variety of applications,
including:
 Structural walls, exterior and interior walls
 Bearing and non-bearing sound proof partitions
 The fireproofing of structural-steel members in the form of firewalls, party walls,
enclosures and fire towers
 Foundations for stucco
 Chimneys and fireplaces
 Porches and terraces
 Outdoor steps, brick walks and paved floors
 Swimming pools

10
 Brick size: Standard size and nominal sizeIn India, clay is burned in a kiln to create bricks.
Bricks that are standard size are 190 x 90 x 90 mm without mortar. The nominal size is
defined as 200 x 100 x 100 mm for bricks with mortar (10 mm).
Based upon the physical and mechanical properties the bricks are classified into four types
such as, I first class, second class, third class, fourth class.

CEMENT CONCRETE
Concrete is a mixture of paste and aggregates. The paste, composed of Portland cement and
water, coats the surface of the fine and coarse aggregates. Through a chemical reaction
called hydration, the paste hardens and gains strength to form the rock-like mass known as
concrete.

Concrete’s durability, strength and relatively low cost make it the backbone of buildings
and infrastructure worldwide—houses, schools and hospitals as well as airports, bridges,
highways and rail systems. The most-produced material on Earth will only be more in
demand as, for example, developing nations become increasingly urban, extreme weather
events necessitate more durable building materials and the price of other infrastructure
materials continues to rise

Plain concrete is weak in tension and strong in compression. Tensile property for concrete
structures is obtained by incorporating steel reinforcement. The steel reinforcement is
strong in both tension and compression. The tensile property provided by the steel
reinforcement will prevent and minimize concrete cracks under tension loads. The
coefficient of thermal expansion of steel reinforcement and concrete are similar in that
they undergo similar expansions during temperature changes. This property will ensure
that the concrete is subjected to minimal stress during temperature variations. The surface
of the steel reinforcement bars is patterned to have a proper bond with the surrounding
concrete material. The two main factors that provide strength to the concrete structures are
steel and concrete. The design engineer will combine both the elements and design the
structural element such a way that the steel resists the induced tensile and shear force,
while the concrete takes up the compressive forces.

STEEL
Steel is commonly used as good reinforcing material because of the following reasons: Steel
is highly ductile material. It can deform without losing its toughness. Young's Modulus of
elasticity of steel is equal in both tension and compression.
Steel reinforcement are steel bars that are provided in combination with plain cement
concrete to make it reinforced concrete. Hence these structures form steel reinforced cement
concrete structure (R.C.C). Steel reinforcement is commonly called as ‘rebars’.

Reinforcement for concrete is provided by embedding deformed steel bars or welded wire
fabric within freshly made concrete at the time of casting. The purpose of reinforcement
is to provide additional strength for concrete where it is needed

11
 Reinforcement is mainly provided to increase the Rcc structure capacity either in tension,
shear, compression, torsion etc.

The steel reinforcement used in concrete construction is mainly of 4 types. They are:
1.Hot Rolled Deformed Steel Bars
2.Cold Worked Steel Bars
3.Mild Steel Plain Bars
4.Pre-stressing Steel Bars

12)INTRODUCTION TO PREFABRICATED CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES

Prefabrication is the practice of assembling components of a structure in a factory or other
manufacturing site, and transporting complete assemblies or sub-assemblies to the
construction site where the structure is to be located

THE BENEFITS OF PREFABRICATED CONSTRUCTION

The prefabricated building has various benefits over traditional techniques of construction.
Among the many advantages are:

Construction time is greatly decreased when building components are manufactured off-site.
Prefabricated modules can be constructed concurrently with site preparation, resulting in
quicker project completion.

Cost Savings: Because of economies of scale, lower labor costs, and reduced material waste,
prefabrication allows for cost savings. Weather-related delays and expenses are reduced in
factory-controlled settings.

Prefabrication improves quality control since components are fabricated under rigorous
factory conditions. Higher-quality constructions are ensured by consistent standards, exact
measurements, and stringent quality inspections.

The prefabricated building encourages environmentally friendly techniques. Controlled

industrial conditions save energy, and careful material planning reduces waste. Modules can
also be constructed to be energy efficient and include renewable technology.

Flexibility and adaptability: Prefabrication enables design modification and flexibility.

Modular components are useful for projects that require future growth or relocation since
they can be readily dismantled, moved, or modified.

12
 BASIC CIVIL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

UNIT II

SURVEYING

Surveying

Surveying is the art of determining the relative position of points on, above or beneath the
surface of the earth by taking necessary field measurements. It includes the art of establishing
points by predetermined angular and linear measurements. The application of surveying requires
skill as well as the knowledge of mathematics, physics and astronomy.

Objectives of Surveying
The main objectives of surveying are as summarized below:

oTo determine the relative position of any objects or points on the earth.
oTo determine the distance and angles between various objects.
oTo prepare a map or plan to represent an area on a horizontal plane.
oTo define control points and boundaries of an area, for example, a cadastral survey.

Principle of Surveying

The fundamental principles upon which the various methods of surveying are based are of two
aspects as follows:

oWorking from whole to part

oLocation of a point by measurement from two points of reference

a.Working from Whole to Part

oIt is essential to establish a system of control points and fix them with greater accuracy.
Less precise methods can then establish minor control points, and the details can be
located using these minor control points by minor traverses. The idea behind this principle
is to prevent the accumulation of errors and to control and localise minor errors that would
expand to greater magnitudes.

b.Location of a Point by Measurement from Two Points of Reference

oThe relative positions of the points to be surveyed should be located by measurement from
at least two points of reference, the positions of which have already been fixed.

1
Types of surveying

a.Plane Surveying
In this type of surveying the mean surface of the earth is considered as a plane.
The spherical shape is neglected. All triangles formed by survey lines are considered as plane
triangle. The level lines is considered as straight and all plumb lines are considered parallel.
b.Geodetic Surveying
In this type of surveying the spheroidal shape of the earth is taken into account.
All lines lying in the surface are curved lines and the triangles are spherical triangles. This
survey need more work with high degree of precision.

Horizontal Distance Measurement

One of the basic measurements in surveying is the determination of the distance between two
points on the earth’s surface for use in fixing position, set out and in scaling. Usually spatial
distance is measured. In plane surveying, the distances measured are reduced to their equivalent
horizontal distance either by the procedures used to make the under revision measurement or by
applying numerical corrections for the slope distance (spatial distance). The method to be
employed in measuring distance depends on the required accuracy of the measurement, and this
in turn depends on purpose for which the measurement is intended.
 Pacing: – where approximate results are satisfactory, distance can be obtained by pacing
(the number of paces can be counted by tally or pedometer registry attached to one leg).
Average pace length has to be known by pacing a known distance several times and
taking the average. It is used in reconnaissance surveys& in small scale mapping
 Odometer of a vehicle: - based on diameter of tires (no of revolutions X wheel
diameter); this method gives a fairly reliable result provided a check is done periodically
on a known length. During each measurement a constant tyre pressure has to be
maintained.
 Tachometry: -distance can be measured indirectly by optical surveying instruments like
theodolite. The method is quite rapid and sufficiently accurate for many types of
surveying operations.

2
  Taping (chaining): - this method involves direct measurement of distances with a tape or
chain. Steel tapes are most commonly used .It is available in lengths varying from 15m to
100m. Formerly on surveys of ordinary precision, lengths of lines were measured with
chains.
 Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM): - are indirect distance measuring
instruments that work using the invariant velocity of light or electromagnetic waves in
vacuum. They have high degree of accuracy and are effectively used for long distances
for modern surveying operations.

Angular Measurements

Horizontal angle
In topography, the angle made by two ground lines is measured horizontally, and is called a
horizontal angle. You may replace these ground lines by two lines of sight AB and AC. These
lines of sight are directed from your eyes, which form the summit A of the angle BAC, towards
permanent landmarks such as a rock, a tree, a termite mound, a telephone pole or the corner of a
building.

The lines of sight in angle BAC

Expressing horizontal angles

2. Horizontal angles are usually expressed in degrees. A full circle is divided into 360 degrees,
abbreviated as 360. Note from the figure these two particular values:
 a 90 angle, called a right angle, is made of two perpendicular lines. The corners of a
square are all right angles;
 a 180 angle is made by prolonging a line. In fact, it is the same as a line.

3. Each degree is divided into smaller units:

 1 degree = 60 minutes (60');
 1 minute = 60 seconds (60").

These smaller units, however, can only be measured with high-precision instruments.

3
Vertical angle

The vertical angle is measured in a vertical plane containing the inclined line of sight. The
vertical angle is the angle of elevation when the line of sight is inclined upwards from the
horizontal line. For measurements of the vertical angle, the instrument should be leveled with the
help of altitude level.

Introduction to Bearings
The bearing in surveying is defined as the angle formed by the reference meridian and the given
line. The angle is less than 360 degrees when measured from north or south to east or west. The
angle is represented by the letters N or S, followed by the angle value and the direction E or W.
Bearings are important for measuring angles of different lines for carrying out survey works.
Marks are placed at known distances and angles to one another during a survey to accurately lay
out the land. This can be done with the help of bearings. Bearing in surveying works are
commonly used to measure slopes and drain lines.

Types of Bearing in Surveying

The bearing of a line is its orientation in relation to a specific meridian. Meridians are imaginary
lines of longitude that run from the North Pole to the South Pole. A principal meridian is a
reference line used to survey a large area. The types of Bearing in Surveying works with respect
to different meridians are as follows:-

True Bearing in Surveying works

True Meridian- A true meridian along a line is defined as a line along which a plane aligns with
the earth's surface after passing through the true north and south extremes. As a result, it
traverses both, the true north and the true south. Astronomical studies can be used to determine
the path of the true meridian through a point.

True Bearing- A line's true bearing is the horizontal angle it forms with the true meridian
through one of its extremities. Because the true meridian through a point remains constant, the
true bearing of a line is a constant quantity.

Magnetic Bearing in Surveying Works

Magnetic Meridian- The direction shown by a freely floating and balanced magnetic needle
free of all other attractive forces is the magnetic bearing through a point. A magnetic
compass can be used to determine the magnetic meridian's direction.

4
Magnetic bearing- The magnetic bearing of a line is the horizontal angle formed by the
magnetic meridian passing through one of the line's extremities. To measure it, a magnetic
compass is used.

Arbitrary Bearing in Surveying Works

An arbitrary meridian is any convenient direction towards a permanent and significant mark or
signals, such as a church spire or the top of a chimney. These meridian lines are used to compute
the relative positions of lines in a small area.

Arbitrary Bearing- The horizontal angle formed by a line with any arbitrary meridian at one of
its extremities. A theodolite or sextant is used to measure it.

Designations of Bearing in Surveying Works

The following are the common designations of bearing in surveying works:-

oWhole circle bearing system

oQuadrantal bearing system

Whole Circle Bearing System

The bearing of a line is measured clockwise from magnetic north in this system. As a result, the
value of the bearing ranges from 0 to 360 degrees in this system of bearing in surveying works.
The Prismatic Compass is graduated in this method.

For instance, if a line forms part of the circumference of a circle, its bearing is the angle it makes
with the circle's centre. This method is used to calculate the bearing of a line in relation to
another fixed point or object.

Quadrantal Bearing System or Reduced Bearing

The bearing of a line is measured eastward or westward from north or south, depending on which
is closest, in this system of bearing in surveying works. As a result, both north and south are used
as reference meridians, with the direction varying either clockwise or anticlockwise depending
on where the line is located. The quadrant in which lines are located must be specified in a
quadrantal bearing system. These bearings are observed using a surveyor's compass.

When a line's bearing is measured to one of four points on the circle's periphery, the quadrantal
bearing system is used. For instance, if a line forms part of the circumference of a circle, its
bearing is the angle it forms with the circle's centre. Four arbitrary meridians with equal
distances between them are chosen for the quadrantal method of bearing in surveying works. The
true bearings of these meridians are recorded by using chains of specified size.

5
Formula to convert WCB to RB
1. When WCB lies between 0° and 90°: RB = WCB
2. When WCB lies between 90° and 180 degrees: RB = 180 - WCB
3. When WCB lies between 180° and 270 degrees: RB = WCB - 180
4. When WCB lies between 270° and 360 degrees: RB = 360 - WCB

To convert RB to WCB, you can use the same formulas. You can as well draw the
diagram and check if it is all too confusing.

More Examples on WCB to RB

Convert WCB = 35° to RB
 It is in the First quadrant (NE)
 Angle = 35°
 RB = N35°E
Convert WCB = 130° to RB
 It is in the Second quadrant (SE)
 Angle = 180 - 130° = 50°
 RB = S50°E
Convert WCB = 240° to RB
 It is in the Third quadrant (SW)
 Angle = 240° - 180° = 60°

6
  RB = S60°W
Convert WCB = 290° to RB
 It is in the Fourth quadrant (NW)
 Angle = 360°-WCB=360°-290°=70°
 RB = N70°W

LEVELLING

Leveling in surveying is the process of determining the height of one level relative to another. It
is used to establish the elevation of a point relative to a datum, or to establish a point at a
given elevation relative to a datum.

Types of Leveling Instruments used in Surveying

The following instruments used in levelling during surveying

1.Dumpy level
2.Wyes or Y level
3.Tilting Level

1.Dumpy Level
The most often used device in levelling is the dumpy level. The dumpy level is an optical device
that is used for surveying and levelling. It is made up of a telescopic tube that is securely kept in
place by two collars and adjustable screws. The vertical spindle controls the entire instrument.

The telescope may be rotated in the horizontal plane when it is positioned on the dumpy level.
The dumpy level can be used to estimate the relative height of survey locations on the ground.

The telescope is prohibited from moving in its horizontal plane at this height, and it is fastened to
its support. On the telescope’s top, there is a bubble tube. The levelling head, on the other hand,
maybe rotated horizontally with the telescope.

7
The internal focusing telescope is a metal tube with four major components, which are listed
below.
 Objective lens
 Negative lens
 Diaphragm
 Eye-piece

Uses of Dumpy Level

 In the surveying of a building site, the use of a dumpy level is important. The precision
and portability of the dumpy level have made it a popular option among surveyors.
 The primary goal of levelling on a building site is to create a level and smooth surface.
 To find the height differences between the two locations.
 Using the theory of relativity, estimate the height and distance of several surveying land
places.
 To determine the distance between several points on the surveyed land.
 Creating building levels and sloped surfaces.
 To trace the outlines of a piece of land.

2.Wye or Y Level
The Y level, also known as the wye level, is the oldest and most bulky of the earlier optical
instruments. A low-powered telescope is installed in a pair of clamp mounts, then levelled using
a spirit level set parallel to the main telescope. The stage of this instrument has two “wye”
supports in which the telescope is mounted.

Two equal-diameter hanging collars are attached to the telescope’s body. The “Wyes” is where
these collars lay. The telescope may be adjusted around its longitudinal axis or removed and put
in the wyes end-to-end.

8
A clamp and a tangent screw are included to aid in precise object sighting. This is a fragile
instrument with a significant number of loose and unattached components. Because of the
telescope’s reversibility, it may be easier to test it for permanent modifications.

3.Tilting Level
The telescope, together with its bubble tube, may be levelled by a micrometer screw without
utilizing the instrument’s foot screws, and the collimation line can be set horizontal without
regard to the vertical axis. As a result, the collimation line may not be perpendicular to the
vertical axis.

Tilting levels were originally intended primarily for preliminary work, but they have since grown
in popularity and are now used for regular levelling as well. The level is termed a tilting level
because the micrometer screw tilts the telescope in a vertical plane. The vertical axis of a tilting
level is only roughly fixed vertical by levelling screws when it is used for levelling work.

9
Contouring
Contour is an imaginary line on the ground surface joining the points of equal elevation.
It facilitates depiction of the terrain in a two dimensional plan or map. In other words contour is
a line in which the ground surface is intersected by a level surface obtained by joining points of
equal elevation. This line on the map represents a contour and is called contour line. Contouring
is the Science of representing the vertical dimension of the terrain on a two dimensional map.

Contour Map A map showing contour lines is known as contour map. A contour map gives an
idea of the altitudes of the surface features as well as their relative position in plan serves the
purpose of both, a plan and a section

Contour Line A contour line is an imaginary outline of the terrain obtained by joining its points
of equal elevation.

Contour interval It is the vertical distance between any two consecutive contours. If a map
includes contour lines of 101m, 100m, 99m, 98m and so on, the contour interval here is 1m.

Horizontal Equivalent (HE) It is the horizontal distance between two consecutive contour lines
measured to the scale of the map.

10
 CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS

1.All the points on a contour line have same elevation or same reduced level.
2.Flat surface is represented by widely spaced contours.
3.Steep ground is represented by closely spaced contours.
4.Plane surface is represented by straight, parallel and equally spaced contours.
5.Uniform slope is represented by uniformly spaced contours.
6.Uneven surface is represented by irregular contours.
7.A series of approximately concentric closed contour lines represents a depression or pond if A
series of approximately concentric closed contour represents a hill if the higher values are inside.
(Fig b)

8.Contour lines are not drawn across the water in the river or stream because the water level in the
river or stream is not constant.
9. Contour lines are not drawn across the water in the river or stream because the water level in the
river or stream is not constant.
10.Contour lines of V shape with convexity towards higher ground represent valley. (Fig c)
11.Contour lines of U shape with convexity towards lower ground represent ridge line. (Fig d)

11
12.Contour lines do not intersect each other except in case of overhanging cliff or a cave.
13.When several contour lines coincides or meet it indicates a vertical cliff. (Fig e) Note –
Horizontal equivalent is zero in vertical cliff.

LEVELLING AND APPLICATIONS

Define Levelling. What are the uses of leveling?
Levelling is a branch of surveying, the object of which is; (i). To find the elevations of given
points with respect to a given or assumed datum, and (ii). To establish points at a given elevation
or at different elevations with respect to a given or assumed datum.

Define benchmark and reduced level. Benchmark:

Benchmark is a relatively permanent point of reference whose elevation with respect to some
assumed datum is known.

Reduced level or Elevation:

The vertical distance of a point above or below the datum is known as the elevation or R.L of
that point. R.L of a point may be positive or negative according as the point is above or below
the datum.

What are the different kinds of bench marks?

A BM is the reference point of known elevation. It may be classified into following types.

(i).G.T.S Bench Mark: The great trigonometrical survey (G.T.S) bench marks are established by
the survey of India throughout the country. The levels of this bench marks are established very
accurately at a large interval with respect to the mean sea level at Bombay port.

(ii). Permanent Bench Mark: These are established by different Government departments like
PWD, Railways, Irrigation etc,. The RL of these points are determined with reference to the
G.T.S Bench Marks. Points on rocks, culvert, gate pillars, etc.

(iii).Temporary Bench Mark: These are established temporarily whenever required. These are
generally chosen to close the day's work and to start the next days. Points on roofs, walls,
basements, etc.

(iv).Arbitrary Bench Mark: When the RL of some fixed points are assumed, they are termed
arbitrary benchmark.

12
What do you mean by datum surface?
It is any surface, to which elevations are taken as a reference for the determination of elevations
of various points. In India the datum adopted for the great trigonometrical survey (G.T.S) is the
mean sea level at Bombay port.

What is mean by line of collimation and height of collimation?

Line of collimation (Line of sight): It is an imaginary line passing through the intersection of the
cross hairs at the diaphragm and the optical centre of the object glass and its continuation.

Height of collimation (HOC): The elevation of the Line of collimation (Line of sight) is known
as Height of collimation. HOC = RL of BM + BS.

Write the different types of levels.

1. Dumpy level
2. Tilting level
3. Quick setting level.
4. Y-level.
5. Reversible level.
6. Automatic level
7. Lazer level.

List the essential parts of a Level.

Telescope, Eyepiece, Objective
Focusing screws. Longitudinal bubble
Foot screws, Upper parallel plate (Tribrach), Foot plate (Trivet).
Diaphragm adjusting screws, Bubble adjusting screws, Tripod.

What are the different type's leveling staffs?

1)Target Staff
2)Self-reading Staff.
3)Solid Staff
4)Folding Staff
5)Telescopic Staff.

Define and distinguish between 'Back sights' and 'Fore sight' in the process of fly Levelling.

Back sights (BS)

1. This is the first staff reading taken in any setup of the instrument. It is always taken on a point
of known elevation (BM).

2. It is used to determine the height of the instrument.

HI = known RL + BS

Fore sight (FS)

13
 1. This is the last staff reading taken in any setup of the instrument and, after that instrument is
shifted.

2. It is used to determine the elevation (RL) of the staff station.

RL = HI - FS.

10. Explain the theory of direct leveling.

It is the branch of leveling in which the vertical distances with respect to a horizontal line may be
used to determine the relative difference in elevation between two adjacent points. Steps
involved:

HI = known RL (BM) + BS RL = HI - FS.

11. Distinguish between differential levelling and reciprocal levelling.

Differential levelling

1. Difference in elevation between two or more points is determined by without any regard to the
alignment of the points is called differential leveling.
2. It is used when:
(i). two points are a large distance apart.
(ii). the difference in elevation between two points is large.
(iii). some obstacles intervenes between the points.

Reciprocal levelling
1. Difference in elevation between two points is accurately determined by two sets of reciprocal
observations.

2. It is used when:
(i). The instrument cannot be setup between the two points due to an
obstruction such as a valley, river, etc.

12. Reduced level of Bench Mark A - 50.000m

Reading on staff held at A - 2.435m
Reading on staff held at station point B - 1.650m
Find: (a) Height of collimation.
(b) Reduced level of station point B.
(c) Rise/fall of B with respect to A.

(a). Height of collimation = RL of BM A + BS

(HOC) = 50.000 + 2.435
= 52.435m

14
(b) Reduced level of station point B.
= HOC - FS.
= 52.435 - 1.650
= 50.785 m
(c). Rise/fall of B with respect to A.
= 2.435- 1.65 (Lower staff reading being higher)
= 0.785m,
= with compare to A, the station point B being 0.785m higher.

13. Compare height of collimation method and rise and fall method.
a. Height of collimation method
b. Rise and fall method

1. It is more rapid, less tedious and it is as it involves few calculation. Involving

b. more laborious and tedious , simpler several calculations.

2. There is no check on the RL of the intermediate points.

There is a check on the RL of the intermediate points.

4.Errors in intermediate RL's cannot be detected.

Errors in intermediate RL's can be detected.

5.There are two arithmetic checks on the accuracy of RL calculation. ? BS -? FS = Last RL -

First RL.
There are three arithmetic checks on the accuracy of RL calculation. ? BS -? FS =? Rise -? Fall
=Last RL -First RL.

6.It is suitable in the case of L.S and C.S, Contour etc.

It is suitable in fly leveling where I intermediate sights are less.

14. Write the formula for curvature correction, refraction correction and combined correction.
Curvature correction CC = 0.07849 d2 (negative) m Refraction correction Cr = 0.01121
d2 (positive) m Combined correction. C = CC - Cr = 0.06728 d2 (negative) m.

Note:’d’ is to be substituted in Km, while the corrections will be in m.

15. List out the various sources of errors in levelling.

Three principal sources:
(i). Instrumental error
a. Error due to imperfect adjustment
b. Error due to sluggish bubble.
c. Error due to movement of objective slide.
d. Error due to defective joint.

15
e. Error due to incorrect length of staff.
(ii). Natural error.
a. Earth's curvature.
b. Atmospheric refraction.
c. Variations in temperature.
d. Settlement of tripod.
e. Wind vibrations.
(iii). Personal errors.
a.Mistakes in manipulation.
b.Mistake in staff handling
c.Mistake in reading the staff.
d.Error's in sighting.
e.Mistakes in recording.
16. List out the leveling problems.
a)Levelling on Steep Slope.
b)Levelling on Summits and Hollows.
c)Levelling Ponds and Lakes too Wide to be Sighted across.
d)Levelling across River.
e)Levelling on Past High Wall.

17. Define sensitivity of a bubble. State any two factors affecting the same.
The sensitiveness of a bubble is defined the angular value of one division of the bubble tube.
It means the capability of showing small angular movements of the tube vertically.
It can be increased by:
1. Increasing the internal radius of the tube.
2. Increasing the diameter of the tube.
3. Increasing the length of the tube.
4. Decreasing the roughness of the walls.
5. Decreasing the viscosity of the liquid.

18. What is a spire test?

It is used to make the horizontal axis perpendicular to the vertical axis. This test is also known as
the test for the adjustments of the standards. It is done by means of the adjustments of the
vertical hair. It is one of the permanent adjustment of the level and theodolite.

19. Define Contour, contour interval and, horizontal equivalent.

Contour: A contour is an imaginary line on the ground joining the points of equal elevation.

Contour interval: It is the vertical distance between any two consecutive contours. It depends
upon the nature of the ground, the scale of the map and the purpose of the survey.

Horizontal equivalent: It is the horizontal distance between any two consecutive contours. It
varies according to the steepness of the ground.

20. What are the different Characteristics of contour?

16
1)Contour lines are closed curves. They may either within the map itself or outside the map
depending upon the topography.
2)Uniformly spaced, contour lines indicate a uniform slope.
3)A series of closed contours with increase in elevation from outside to inside in plan denotes a
hill.
4)A series of closed contours with increase in elevation from inside to outside in plan denotes a
depression.
5)The spacing between the contour lines depends upon the slope of the ground. In steep slopes,
the spacing is small and for gentle slope, the spacing is large.

21. What are the uses of contours?

1. Volume of earthwork for any work can be estimated.
2. The capacity of the reservoir or the area of the catchments can be calculated.
3. Very useful in military operations to decide the position of the guns, the line of March.
4. Longitudinal and cross section can be drawn along any direction to know the nature of the
ground.

17
 UNIT-3-PART-1
1.Write short note on importance of transportation engineering.
The primary function of transportation is the transfer of messages and
information. It is also needed for rapid movement of troops in case of emergency
and finally movement of persons and goods. The political decision of construction
and maintenance of roads has resulted in the development of the transportation
system.
An effective transport system offers social, economic, political and cultural
advantages like accessibility to markets, infusion of investors, distribution of
resources, etc that result in an indirect impact on the growth and development of a
country.

2.What are the Types of Transportation System

Highways
Railways
Waterways
oInland waterways
oSeaways
Ropeways
Highways
A road or a highway is a public through fare on land through which vehicles
and pedestrians move from one place to another.
Airways

3.Explain Advantages of Highways over other modes of Transport

1.Roads facilitate communication on land.
2.Roads are essential for the general and economic prosperity of a country.
3.It helps in the growth of trade. ed.
4.Roads can be used by all vehicles.
5.Natural resources of an area are easily identified and improv
6.Sub Grade Roads are used to reach tallest hills to smallest villages.

1
 7.This is an economical mode of transport.
4. Explain Composition of Road Structure. [MAY/JUNE-2009] [UNDERSTAND]
Road Structure Cross Section is composed of the following components:
1.Surface/Wearing Course
2.Base Course
3.Sub Base
4.Subgrade.
1. Surface/Wearing Course in pavement cross section:
The top layers of pavement which is in direct contact with the wheel of the vehicle.
Usually constructed of material in which bitumen is used as binder materials.
a. Bituminous Pavement:
Consists of combination of mineral aggregate with bituminous binder ranging from
in expensive surface treatment ¼ in or less thick to asphaltic concrete. For good
service throughout the full life bituminous pavement must retain following
qualities.
Freedom from cracking or raveling.

Resistance to weather including the effect of surface water heat and cold.

Resistance to internal moisture, particularly to water vapors.

Tight impermeable surface or porous surface (if either is needed for

contained stability of underlying base or subgrade).
Smooth riding and none skidding surface.

The design should be done so that to meet the above requirements for considerable
number of years (need proper design and construction supervision). Pavement
meeting all the requirements above have been product if six distinctly different
construction processes as follows:
2. Base course
It is the layer immediately under the wearing surface (Applies whether the wearing
surface is bituminous or cements concrete and or more inch thick or is but a thin
bituminous layer). As base course lies close under the pavement surface it is
subjected to severe loading. The material in a base course must be of extremely
high quality and its construction must be done carefully.

2
Types of Base Course
1.Granular Base Course
2.Macadam Base
3.In-water bound Macadam
4.Treated Bases
3. Sub Base:
It is layer of granular material provided above subgrade generally natural gravel. It
is usually not provided on subgrade of good quality. It is also called granular
subbase.
a. Function of Sub base in Road Cross Section
It enables traffic stresses to be reduced to acceptable levels in sub-grade in
the Road Cross Section so that excessive deformation is prevented.
It acts as a working plate form for the construction of upper pavement
layers.
Acts as a drainage layer, by protecting the sub grade from wetting up.

It intercept upward movement of water by capillary action.

It acts as a separating layer b/w subgrade and road base. By this it prevent
the two layers from mixing up.
4.Sub Grade:a surface of earth or rock leveled off to receive a foundation (as of a
road).
Function of sub grade:
Serves as the foundation and acts as a uniform support to pavements. Sub
grades bear the entire load of the payments along with the service load of
traffic.
5. Explain briefly classification of roads.[Important question] [UNDERSTAND]
Classify roads into three types:
1.National Highways – The National Highways cover a total road length of 66.8
thousand kilometers. This is a mere 1.5 percent of the total length of the road
system in India. However, these highways take the burden of nearly 40 percent
of the goods and passenger traffic. The National Highway system is our
primary road grid. Further, it is the direct responsibility of the
Central Government.

3
2.State Highways– The State Highways cover a total road length of 154.5
thousand kilometers. This is around 3.8 percent of the total length of the roads
in India. The individual States are responsible for the construction and
maintenance of State Highways.
3.District and Rural Roads – There are many roads that have been constructed
under the Minimum Needs program (MNP), Rural Landless Employment
Guarantee Program (RLEGP), National Rural Employment Program (NREP),
and Command Area Development (CAD). The core idea is to link all the
villages in the country.
4.Express Highway- Express highway are the highest class of road. They usually
have 6 to 8 lanes. Currently, approximately 1,583.4 km of expressways are
operational in India. The National Highways Development
Project by Government of India aims to expand it by adding an additional
18,637 km by 2022.
8. Draw neat sketch of cross section of road. [Important question] [UNDERSTAND]

Cross Section of a Road

9. What do you understand by ‘Super Elevation? [MAY/JUNE-2009]
Super elevation
Super elevation helps motorists maintain both safety and optimal speeds on curved
roads. Without super elevation, many vehicles would slide or skid through curves
— or even tip and roll over — especially in wet or icy conditions, or at high
speeds. It also allows traffic to maintain some speed on curves, preventing
excessive slowdowns every time the road bends.

4
 10. Difference between flexible pavements and rigid pavements.
[Important question] [ANALYZE]

11. What is Water Bound Macadam? Explain types of macadam roads.

[MAY/JUNE-2009] [REMEMBER]

The Water Bound Macadam (WBM) Roads which is the most ordinarily utilized
road construction procedure for over 100 years. The Water Bound Macadam is
named based on the Scottish engineer, Sir John Macadam who initially presented
and construct the WBM roads. He was the Surveyor General of Roads in England.
Macadam set forward an altogether new method for road construction.
Water Bound Macadam Road is a kind of flexible pavement where base and
surface layer contains broken rock pieces or crushed stones and materials are

5
interlocked with the help of a roller. Then, the voids are stacked up with the help of
binding materials and screening materials close by water and compaction.
In Water Bound Macadam, the quantity and thickness of each compacted layer
depends on the loading and design thought. Notwithstanding, they generally differ
from 7.5 cm to 10 cm thick. The Water Bound Macadam layers can undoubtedly
deteriorate because of moving vehicle loads and surface water, accordingly the
surface layer is typically disallowed to furnish with the WBM layer. The road
camber of 1 out of 36 to 1 out of 48 is generally ideal in WBM roads.
Types of Macadam Road
1.Water Bound Macadam
2.Traffic Bound Macadam
3.Bituminous Macadam
4.Cement Macadam

Cement Concrete Road

Road having their wearing surface consisting of cement concrete slab are called as
cement concrete road. Cement concrete roads are considered as most serviceable
and rigid pavements.
12. What are the Advantages and disadvantages of Cement Concrete
Road? [JUNE/JULY-2019] [REMEMBER]
Life span of such road is more.

Such roads provide an impervious layer.cement

Cement concrete roads are strong and durable and are unaffected much by
weathering agencies.
They give good visibility at night.

Cement concrete roads provide dustless and sanitary surface.

Cement concrete roads does not develop corrugations and hence it grants
noiseless surface.
It can be designed more accurately for load distribution.

Cement concrete roads is practically unaffected by weather and temperature.

6
 It is possible to make use of old concrete road as foundation for new
concrete road or for bituminous road.
Disadvantages of Cement Concrete Road
Following are the disadvantages of a cement concrete road :
Initial cost of construction is high especially when suitable aggregate is not
locally available.
It is liable to crack, warp and twist.

Skilled supervision as well as skilled workmanship is required for their

construction.
It become noisy under iron tyred traffic.

Cement concrete roads cannot be opened to traffic earlier as it require long

time curing.
In case of such pavements, it is very difficult to locate and repair sewers and
water mains, which are lying under it.
13. Explain the procedure for Construction of Cement Concrete Road.
[JUNE/JULY-2019] [UNDERSTAND]

The construction of cement concrete road involves following operations:

1. Preparation of Sub-grade:
Sub-grade is natural soil on which concrete slab is laid.

It is cleaned, shaped and levelled.

After cleaning, it is prepared to the required grade and profile.

It should be seen that sub-grade has uniform strength over its entire width.

If any local weak spots are found, they should be removed and strengthened
by placing new material which is compacted.
When concrete is to be directly placed on sub-grade, the surface should be
saturated with water for 6 to 20 hrs in advance of placing the concrete.
This is done to ensure that sub-grade does not absorb water from the
concrete.

2. Provision of Sub-base:
When natural sub-grade is not very firm, a sub-base over the sub-grade is
provided.

7
 Depending upon the type of soil, design load, intensity of traffic and
economic consideration, the decision for providing the sub-base is taken.
The sub-base serves the following three purposes :
It provides a capillary cut-off and the damage caused by mud pumping is
prevented.
Provides a strong supporting layers.
It reduces the thickness of concrete slab and thus leads to lower cost of
construction.
The sub-base may consists of any one of the following layers :
A layer of well graded soil-gravel mixture of maximum thickness 15 cm.

Brick soling with one layer of W.B.M. of maximum total thickness 10 cm.

Two layers of W.B.M. of maximum total thickness 15 cm.

A layer of lean cement concrete of maximum thickness 10 cm.

When sub-grade soil is very poor, the sub-base should be placed over a blanket of
some granular material or stabilized soil.
Also Read : Earth Road : Types and Construction Procedure
3. Placing the Forms in Cement Concrete Road :
The forms may be made up of steel or timber.

The steel forms are of mild steel channel sections and their depth is equal to
the thickness of the pavement.
Forms are properly braced and fixed to the ground by means of stakes.

Forms are fixed in position by 3 stakes at back of each 3 m length.

When the forms are fixed, they must be checked for their trueness.

The maximum deviations permissible in the vertical plane is 3 mm and in

horizontal plane 5 mm in 3 m length of the form.
The forms are oiled before placing concrete in them.

4. Watering the Prepared Sub-grade or Sub-base :

After the forms are fixed, the prepared surface to receive concrete is made
moist.
If the sub-grade is dry, it should be sprinkled with as much quantity of water
as it can absorb.

8
 It is advisable to wet the surface at least 12 hrs in advance of placing the
concrete.
When insulating layer of water-poof paper is provided, the moistening of the
surface prior to placing the concrete is not required.
5. Batching of Materials and Mixing :
After determining the proportions of ingredients for the Concrete mix, the
fine and course aggregates are properly proportioned by weight in weight-
batching plant.
They are then fed into the hopper along with necessary quantity of cement
which is also measured by weight.
The ingredients of concrete are mixed in proper proportions in dry state. The
mixing should preferably be done in a concrete mixer.
The measured quantity of water is added so that the desired water cement
ratio is obtained.

6. Transporting and Placing of Concrete :

After mixing, the concrete is transported to the site in wheel burrows or in
pans which are manually carried.
The mixed concrete is deposited rapidly on the sub-grade in layer of
thickness not more than 50 mm to 80 mm or about two or three times the
size of aggregates.
The concrete should be placed over the entire width of bay in successive
batches as a continuous operation and topmost layer is laid about 10 mm
higher than the actual profile for further tamping.
The top layer should also be laid to the required camber and gradient, while
placing the concrete it is roded with suitable tool to eliminate voids.
Segregation of concrete is avoided during transportation and placing. When
reinforcement has been specified in road slab, concrete is placed in two
stages.
In first stage, concrete is placed and compacted to the depth corresponding
to the level of reinforcement shown on the drawings.
Reinforcement is then placed on top of compacted concrete and remaining
thickness of slab is then completed in second stage.

9
7. Compaction of Cement Concrete Road:
After the concrete is placed in its position, it should brought in its proper
position by heavy screed or tamper fitted with suitable handles.
The wooden tamper is at least 75 mm wide and its underside is shaped to the
finished cross-section of the slab.
Its weight is about 10 kg/m.

It should have sufficient strength to retain its shape under all the working
conditions
Its length is equal to length of bay plus 60 mm.

The underside of tamper is provided by a metal plate of 5 mm thickness.

The tamper is placed on the side form and its handles are griped by the men
who use the tamper.
Concrete is also compacted by means of a power driven finishing machine
or by vibrating hand screed.
Upton 12.5 cm thickness of slabs screed vibrators alone can be used for
compaction.
For greater thickness, immersion vibrator is used.

8. Floating:
After compaction, the entire slab surface is floated longitudinally with a
wooden float board.
The purpose of floating is to provide an even surface free from corrugations.

9. Belting:
After floating, the surface is further finished by belting just before the
concrete become hard.
The purpose of belting is to make the road surface non-slippery and skid
resistant. This operation is sometimes omitted.
10. Booming:
After belting, booming is done by drawing brushes at right angles to the
center line of road from edge to edge.
Booming is done just before the concrete becomes non- plastic.

This operation is also sometimes omitted.

10
11. Edging:
After booming, the edges of the slab are carefully finished with an edging
tool before the concrete is finally set.
12. Curing Process of Cement Concrete Road :
Curing consist of checking the loss of water from the concrete slab, and
keeping the fresh concrete slab moist during hardening period.
Initial curing is done for 24 hrs.

By this time, the concrete becomes hard enough to walk upon and then wet
mats are removed and final curing done for 2 to 3 weeks.
Final curing is done by any one of the following methods :

1.Pending Method.
2.By covering the slab with 4 to 8 cm thick layer of wet sand or earth.
3.Spraying a suitable chemical such as sodium or calcium chloride on concrete
surface.
13. Fillings of Joints and Edging :
After curing, the surface is cleaned and washed.

The joints are then properly filled-in attains with a suitable sealing
compound.
14. Opening to Traffic:
Concrete road is opened to traffic when it attains the required strength or after 28
days of curing.
14.Explain Types of Defects in Cement Concrete Road.[ NOV/DEC-2015]
[UNDERSTAND]

Spelling of Concrete.
Deformation.

Surface Texture Defects.

Joint Sealant Defects.

Cracking.
When the concrete dries and hardens, the excess water from the concrete
evaporates and the concrete shrinks. As a result, cracks are developed in cement
concrete road.

11
Due to too dry Weather, after the wet concrete mix is spread it takes few weeks to
complete the whole hydration process.
The hydration process gives strength to the concrete and needs sufficient water for
hydration it tends to develop cracks.
Incorrect selection of cement: Cement comes in different grades as per the strength
requirement of the concrete. In case you have selected wrong or weak cement, your
concrete won’t built enough strength and will develop cracks.
15.Draw the layout of Harbor and explain the components briefly.
[MAY/JUNE-2009] [REMEMBER]

Components of a harbour
A Harbor essentially consists of
1.Breakwaters
2.Wharves, Piers and Bulkheads

12
 3.Docks
4.Transit sheds
5.Warehouses
6.Dolphins
7.Fenders
8.Mooring accessories
9. Navigational aids.
Breakwaters:
It is the structural construction in the sea to provide an enclosed water basin for
safe berthing of ships. The breakwater breaks the force of the seawaves.
Wharves, piers and Bulkheads:
oWharf: A wharf or quay is a dock for ships which is parallel to the shore.
oPier: A pier or a jetty is a dock which is projecting into the water. The
pier may be perpendicular or inclined to the shore line.
oBulkhead: A bulkhead or quay is similar to a wharf but is away from the
shore line
Docks:
It is an essential component of the harbour and ports. It is provided to build the
ships, repair and renovate the ships. In general, docks are classified into,
oDry dock
oLift dock
oFloating dock
Transit sheds:
Sheds for goods in transit is attached to a berth. A port does not charge any rental
for its use upto 3-5days.
Ware houses:
Storage facility for long periods of goods than what transit sheds will permit.
Dolphins:
Located at the entrance of a locked basin or along side of wharf or pier to absorb
the impact forces of the vessel or to provide mooring facility and are equipped with
fenders.

13
Fenders:
A jetty face is provided with a cushion called fender for ships to come in contact
with in order to absorb small impacts and introduce wearable material between the
structure and the ship. It is provided in various forms and various materials like
rubber or timber.
Mooring accessories:
Mooring referred to the parking of ships or vessels in harbour.
Navigational aids: The accessories used to guide the ships in their routes and to
warn them of hit and dangers are called navigational aids. They give
information about the hidden dangers. The aids commonly adopted are lights
along the coast, light ships, light house, fixed lights and beacon lights.
Buoys: Buoys are diverse designs. Float that is anchored in navigable waters to
mark channels and indicate dangers to navigation (isolated rocks, mine fields,
cables, and the like).
16. What is a Tunnel and types of tunnel.[JUNE/JULY-2019] [REMEMBER]
Tunneling is a way to cross terrain or boundaries that could not normally be
crossed. Similarly, in networking, tunnels are a method for transporting data
across a network using protocols that are not supported by that network.
Tunneling works by encapsulating packets: wrapping packets inside of
other packets. (Packets are small pieces of data that can be re-assembled at their
destination into a larger file.)
Types of Tunnels
Traffic tunnels

Hydropower tunnels

Public utility Tunnel

Traffic tunnel
Tunnels that are excavated to divert traffic load from the surface to subsurface
routes for a short length to facilitate. The flow of traffic at the desired speed,
maximum convenience and at minimum cost, are called traffic tunnels.
Hydropower Tunnel
As the name suggests these tunnels are excavated for hydropower generation. They
are driven through rocks carrying the water under gravity.

14
Public Utility Tunnel
These specific purpose tunnels excavated for disposal of urban waste, for carrying
pipes, cables, and supplies of oil, also water, etc. Nowadays, they also excavated
for underground parking and storage in densely populated cosmopolitan cities.
Classification of tunnel
Based on the purpose of the tunnel :
1.Traffic tunnels
2.Conveyance tunnels
Based on the type of material for the construction of the tunnel :

1.Tunnel in hard rock.

2.Tunnel in soft rock.
3.Open cut tunnel.
4.The tunnel underneath the river bed or submarine tunnel.
5.Tunnel in quicksand.
Based on the alignment of the tunnel :
1.Saddle and base tunnel.
2.Spiral tunnel.
3.Off spur tunnel.
4.Slope tunnel.
Based on the shape of the tunnel :
1.Circular tunnel.
2.Egg-shaped tunnel.
3.Horseshoe tunnel.
4.Elliptical tunnel.
5.Vertical walls with arch roof type.
6.Polycentric.
7.
17. Draw the layout of an airport and give a brief note on
components. [MAY/JUNE-2009] [REMEMBER]

15
An airport is mainly divided into two areas −
Airside Area

Landside Area

Airside Area
It is the area beyond landside area inside the airport. It includes runways, taxiways,
and ramps.
Runway − An area where aircraft takes off and lands. It is made of soft
grass, asphalt, or concrete. It has white markings, which help the pilot during
take-off and landing. It also has lamps on the sides to guide the pilot during
night. The vehicles other than the aircrafts are strictly prohibited to enter this
area of the airport.
Ramp − Also called Apron, this area is used for parking the aircrafts. It can
be accessed for boarding and alighting the aircraft. The airline staff or
ground duty staff can access this area.
Taxiway − It is a path on the airport that connects the ramp to the runway.

Landside Area
It is the area in the airport terminal and the area towards city. It has access to the
city roads and it contains parking area as well as public transport area.

16
 Terminal − It is a part of airport building that where travelers come to board
their flight or arrive from a flight. There are security checking, baggage
checking, amenities, and waiting areas at the terminal.
Car Parking − This area is outside but adjacent to the terminal where vehicles can
be parked on chargeable basis.
18. Briefly explain about the airport Master plan. [NOV/DEC-2015]
[UNDERSTAND]

An airport master plan provides a road map for efficiently meeting aviation
demand through the foreseeable future while preserving the flexibility necessary to
respond to changing industry conditions. The general goals and objectives
addressed by an airport master plan include the following:

To provide a framework for long-range planning (20 to 30 yrs)

To graphically present preferred airport development concepts

To define the purpose and need for development projects

To comply with all applicable FAA requirements

To enable the airport to achieve its mission

To assure compatible land use development

To support the financial health of one of a region’s most powerful economic

engines
To identify facility requirements for all airport users

The definition of a successful master plan includes the following characteristics:

Financially feasible – the phasing of the plan’s capital projects should be aligned

with identified need and the ability to secure available funding

Environmentally compatible – the plan should minimize potential environmental

impacts
Balanced – the plan should maintain a balance between airport development needs

and community impacts

Technically sound – the plan should comply with Federal, State, and local

requirements and it should be able to be constructed efficiently and cost effectively

Responsive – the plan should address the physical and operational needs of
stakeholders

17
Flexible – the plan should consider changes in industry dynamics which will
enable CVG to be responsive and prosper.
20. Define ‘Gauge’ of the railway track. [MAY/JUNE-2009] [REMEMBER]
The gauge of the railway track is a clear minimum vertical distance between the
inner sides of two tracks is called a railway gauge. That is, the distance between
the two tracks on any railway route is known as a railway gauge.
Approximately sixty percent of the world's railway uses a standard gauge of
1,435 mm.

21. Explain the components permanent way and its ideal requirements.
NOV/DEC-2015] [UNDERSTAND]

Component Parts of A Permanent Way

Following are the components of a permanent way.
(i)Sub-grade or formation
(ii)Ballast
(iii)Sleepers
(iv)Rails
(v)Fixture and Fastening.

1 .Sub-grade or formation
The sub-grade layer of a pavement is, essentially, the underlying ground. It is also
known as the "Formation Level", which can be defined as the level at which
excavation ceases and construction starts.
2. Ballast
Heavy material used especially to make a ship steady or to control the rising of a
balloon. 2. : gravel or broken stone laid in a foundation for a railroad or used in
making concrete.
3. Sleepers.
(i)Sleepers are the horizontal supports which lie underneath the rails, helping hold
them in place. They can be made of wood, concrete or metal. Special fasteners

18
 connect the rail to the sleepers.

4. Rails
Railway lines. A rail is a horizontally extending steel bar between supports that
serves as a track for trains, automobiles, and other vehicles

5. Fixture and Fastening.

rail construction, there are typically 4 main fastener types that each have their
own unique selling points and uses. These fastener types being blind bolts, fang
bolts, spring spikes and screw spikes.

22. Compare roadways and railways. [JUNE/JULY-2019] [ANALYZ}

1.Roadways are for buses, cars, bikes, scooters, etc.
2.Roadways are suitable for short-distance services.
3.It provides door to door services.
Railways:

19
1.Roadways are for trains.
2.Railways are suitable for long-distance services.
3.Railways cannot provide door to door services.

SHORT ANSWERS QUASTIONS:

1.Define transportation engineering.
Transportation engineering is a branch of civil engineering that focuses on the
planning, design, construction, and maintenance of transportation systems
and infrastructure. It involves the study and optimization of various modes of
transportation, such as roads, bridges, railways, airports, and transit systems,
to ensure safe, efficient, and sustainable movement of people and goods.
Transportation engineers work to address traffic congestion, improve road
safety, and enhance overall transportation networks.
2. What are the Types of Transportation Systems?
a. Highways
b. Railways
c, Waterways
Inland waterways
Seaways
c. Ropeways
3.Define super elevation.
Super elevation, also known as "banking" or "cant," is an important concept in
transportation engineering, particularly for road and rail design. It refers to the
tilting or banking of a road or railway track around curves to help vehicles or
trains negotiate turns safely and comfortably.
4.What are the Functions of sleepers.
(a) Hold the rails strongly and to maintain uniform gauge.
(b) Transfer the load from rails to the ballast or ground.
(c) Reduce the vibrations coming from rails.
(d) Offer longitudinal and lateral stability.

20
 5.What are the Functions of Ballast.
a. It provides leveled bed or support for the railway sleepers.
b. It transfers the load from sleepers to sub grade and distributes the load
uniformly on sub grade.
c. It holds the sleepers in a firm position while the trains pass by.
d. It prevents the longitudinal and lateral movement of sleepers.
6.What are the Functions of rails in Railways.
(a) Rails provide a continuous and level surface for the movement of trains.
(b) Rails provide a pathway which is smooth and has very little friction. The friction
between the steel wheel and the steel rail is about one-fifth of the friction between
the pneumatic tire and a metal led road.

7.What are the Functions of fasting and bolts.

a. Hold rails securely in the rail seat.
b. Limit the rotation of the rail about the outer edges of the rail foot.
c. Minimize longitudinal movement of rails through creep and thermal forces.
d. Assist in retention of track gauge.
e. Not cause damage to the rail.
8.What are the layers of below the Road.
The sub grade is the compacted natural soil below the pavement layers
and it is the finished or compacted surface on which the pavement rests.

9.What are the types of Gauges.

There are 4 types of railway gauges used in India.
Broad gauge- 1.676m
Meter Gauge- 1m
Narrow gauge- 610mm
Standard gauge - 1,435m (for Delhi Metro)
10.What are the component parts of harbor.

21
 Break waters. Sheds, buoys, god owns, fire protection towers,
lights, anchors, warehouses, moorings etc. are the component of
the layout of harbor.
11.Define port and Harbor.
Port is a commercial water facility used for ships and their cargo. It is
equipped with cranes, forklifts, warehouses and docks, a port offers
many convenient facilities for ships.
Harbour is a section along the coastline where the ship and other
water vessels are parked or stored.

13. What are the component parts of road way.

a. Sub Grade: Subgrade is the foundation of the road, thus its the lowest and
most important component of road structure. ...
b. Sub Base: Consists of: ...
c. Road Base: ...
d. Carriage Way: ...
e. Formation Width: ...
f. Kerb ...
g. Medians: ...
h. Camber
14. Define shoulder in road way.

A “Road Shoulder”, which often serves as an emergency stopping

lane, is a reserved lane by the verge of a road or motorway, on the right
side of the road. Typically the shoulder is not for use by moving traffic.

15. Draw neat sketch of road way structure.

22
23
 UNIT-3-PART-2
Water Resources and Environmental Engineering
Introduction:

Water and Environmental Engineering is a multidisciplinary field that focuses on the

sustainable management of water resources, water treatment and distribution, wastewater
treatment, and the protection and improvement of environmental quality. It plays a critical role in
addressing global challenges related to water scarcity, pollution, and environmental degradation.

Key Concepts in Water and Environmental Engineering:

1.Water Cycle: Understanding the natural processes of evaporation, condensation,

precipitation, and runoff is fundamental. Engineers work to manage and optimize these
processes to meet human needs.

2.Hydraulics: This involves the study of the behavior of fluids, particularly water, in various
environments. This knowledge is crucial for designing systems like water supply networks,
storm water management, and dams.

3.Hydrology: Hydrology is the study of the distribution, movement, and properties of water in
the atmosphere and on Earth's surface. It's essential for assessing water availability and
designing water resource management strategies.

4.Water Quality Management: This involves monitoring and controlling the physical,
chemical, and biological characteristics of water to ensure it is safe for consumption and does
not harm the environment.

5.Water Treatment: Engineers design and implement processes to purify water from various
sources (like rivers, lakes, or groundwater) to make it safe for drinking, industrial use, and
agriculture.

6.Wastewater Treatment: This involves the removal of contaminants from used water before
it is returned to the environment. Effective wastewater treatment is crucial for protecting
natural ecosystems and public health.

7.Environmental Protection and Sustainability: Engineers work to minimize the impact of

human activities on the environment. This can involve designing systems for pollution
control, waste management, and sustainable land use planning.

8.Climate Change and Resilience: Given the challenges posed by climate change, engineers
in this field work on solutions to mitigate its effects, including designing infrastructure that
can withstand extreme weather events.

1
Sources of water:

Sources of water are the various natural reservoirs or systems from which water is obtained for
various purposes. These sources can be categorized into two main types: surface water and
groundwater. Below Fig. shows sources of water.

Surface Water Sources:

1.Rivers and Streams: These are one of the most common sources of freshwater. Rivers
and streams are dynamic bodies of water that flow from higher elevations to lower ones,
eventually emptying into lakes, seas, or oceans.

2.Lakes and Reservoirs: Natural lakes and man-made reservoirs store large quantities of
water. They are often used for municipal water supply, irrigation, recreation, and as a
source of hydropower.

3.Ponds: Small, man-made or natural, ponds are often used for local water supply,
irrigation, and as water sources for livestock.

4.Dams: Dams are built across rivers to impound water and create large reservoirs. These
reservoirs serve as a reliable source of water for various purposes including drinking,
irrigation, and electricity generation.

Groundwater Sources:

1.Aquifers: These are underground geological formations that can store and transmit
water. Aquifers can be replenished by percolation from precipitation, rivers, or lakes.
Wells are drilled into aquifers to extract water.

2.Wells: Wells are drilled or dug holes in the ground that tap into groundwater resources.
Different types of wells include dug wells, driven wells, and drilled wells.

2
 3.Springs: Springs are natural outlets where groundwater emerges at the surface. They
occur where an aquifer's water table intersects the ground surface.

Other Sources:

1.Rainwater Harvesting: Collecting and storing rainwater is a valuable source of

freshwater, especially in regions with limited access to surface or groundwater.

2.Desalination: In coastal areas, seawater can be desalinated through processes like reverse
osmosis or distillation to produce freshwater.

3.Ice and Snow Melt: Glaciers, ice caps, and snowfields can serve as a source of
freshwater, especially in polar and mountainous regions.

4.Recycled or Reclaimed Water: Treated wastewater from homes, businesses, and

industries can be purified to a high standard and reused for non-potable purposes like
irrigation, industrial processes, or even for indirect potable use.

Quality of water:

The quality of water refers to its physical, chemical, biological, and microbiological
characteristics. Ensuring good water quality is essential for public health, environmental
sustainability, and various industrial and agricultural processes. Here are some key factors that
contribute to water quality:

1.Physical Characteristics:
 Temperature: The temperature of water can affect its suitability for various
purposes, such as aquatic ecosystems and industrial processes.
 Turbidity: Turbidity measures the cloudiness or haziness of a fluid caused by
large numbers of individual particles. High turbidity can indicate pollution or
sediment runoff.

2.Chemical Characteristics:
 pH: pH measures the acidity or alkalinity of water. It can impact the solubility of
minerals and the health of aquatic life.
 Dissolved Oxygen (DO): Oxygen is vital for aquatic organisms. Low DO levels
can lead to oxygen-deprived "dead zones" in bodies of water.
 Nutrients: Excessive levels of nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus can cause
water pollution and lead to harmful algal blooms.
 Heavy Metals: Elevated levels of heavy metals (e.g., lead, mercury, cadmium)
can be toxic to humans and aquatic life.

3
  Chemical Contaminants: These include various pollutants such as pesticides,
industrial chemicals, and pharmaceuticals.

3.Biological Characteristics:
 Bacteria and Microorganisms: The presence of harmful bacteria like E. coli can
indicate contamination and pose health risks.
 Aquatic Life: The health and diversity of aquatic ecosystems, including fish and
other organisms, can reflect water quality.

4.Microbiological Characteristics:
 Pathogens: Bacteria, viruses, and parasites that can cause diseases in humans can
be present in water. Effective treatment is essential to remove or inactivate these
pathogens.

5.Taste and Odor: The presence of certain substances or contaminants can affect the taste
and odor of drinking water. While not necessarily harmful, they can be undesirable.

6.Suspended Solids: Particles and sediments in water can affect its clarity and overall
quality.

Monitoring and managing water quality is crucial to ensure that water is safe for drinking,
supports aquatic ecosystems, and meets various industrial and agricultural needs. Water quality
standards and regulations are established by governmental agencies to protect public health and
the environment. These agencies set permissible limits for various water quality parameters, and
water treatment facilities work to meet these standards before distributing water for
consumption.

Regular testing and analysis of water from various sources, as well as the implementation of
appropriate treatment and pollution control measures, are essential for maintaining and
improving water quality. Additionally, public awareness and conservation efforts play a
significant role in preserving and enhancing the quality of this precious resource.

Specifications of Water:

IS 10500:2012 is an Indian Standard that provides specifications for drinking water. It

covers various physical, chemical, and microbiological parameters that are important for
ensuring the quality of water that is suitable for human consumption. Here are the key
specifications outlined in IS 10500:2012:

Physical Parameters:

1.Appearance: Water should be clear and free from visible impurities.

2.Taste and Odour: Water should be free from objectionable tastes and odours.

4
 3.Temperature: The recommended temperature range is 10-25°C.

4.Turbidity: The turbidity of water should not exceed 5 NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity
Units).

Chemical Parameters:

5.pH: The pH of water should be within the range of 6.5-8.5.

6.Total Hardness: Total hardness (as CaCO3) should not exceed 600 mg/l.

7.Calcium (Ca) and Magnesium (Mg): Calcium and magnesium levels should be within
permissible limits.

8.Total Dissolved Solids (TDS): TDS should not exceed 500 mg/l.

9.Chlorides (Cl): Chloride concentration should not exceed 200 mg/l.

10.Sulphate (SO4): Sulphate concentration should not exceed 200 mg/l.

11.Iron (Fe): Iron content should not exceed 0.3 mg/l.

12.Manganese (Mn): Manganese content should not exceed 0.1 mg/l.

13.Nitrate (NO3): Nitrate concentration should not exceed 45 mg/l.

14.Fluoride (F): Fluoride concentration should be within the range of 1.0-1.5 mg/l.

15.Arsenic (As): Arsenic content should not exceed 0.01 mg/l.

16.Cadmium (Cd): Cadmium content should not exceed 0.01 mg/l.

17.Lead (Pb): Lead content should not exceed 0.01 mg/l.

18.Chromium (Cr): Chromium content should not exceed 0.05 mg/l.

Microbiological Parameters:

19.Total Coliform Count: Absence of coliform bacteria per 100 ml.

20.Escherichia coli (E. coli): Absence per 100 ml.

Radioactive Substances:

21.Alpha and Beta Particles Activity: These should be below the permissible limits.

22.Residual Free Chlorine: Residual chlorine should be present at a concentration of at

least 0.2 mg/l.

Remember that these are the specifications set by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) for
drinking water in India. Different countries may have their own standards. It's crucial to

5
regularly monitor and test water quality to ensure that it meets these specifications and is safe for
human consumption.

Introduction to Hydrology:

Hydrology is the scientific study of water in its various forms, distribution, movement,
and properties in the Earth's atmosphere and on its surface. It encompasses the occurrence,
distribution, movement, and properties of water, including its relationship with the environment,
ecosystems, and human activities. This field of study plays a critical role in water resource
management, flood control, and environmental protection. Below Fig. shows hydrological cycle.

Key Concepts in Hydrology:

Water Cycle: Understanding the continuous movement of water on, above, and below
the surface of the Earth is fundamental to hydrology. This cycle involves processes like
evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, runoff, and transpiration.

Precipitation: This refers to any form of water - liquid or solid - that falls from the
atmosphere to the Earth's surface. It includes rain, snow, sleet, and hail.

Evaporation and Transpiration: These are processes by which water is returned to the
atmosphere. Evaporation is the transformation of liquid water into water vapor from
water bodies, while transpiration is the release of water vapor by plants.

6
 Infiltration: This is the process by which water seeps into the soil and replenishes
groundwater resources.

Surface Runoff: This occurs when precipitation exceeds the infiltration capacity of the
soil. Excess water flows over the surface and eventually collects in streams, rivers, lakes,
and oceans.

Groundwater Flow: Water that infiltrates the soil can move through underground layers
of rock and sediment. This flow is an essential component of aquifers and sustains wells
and springs.

Hydrological Modeling: Hydrologists use mathematical models to simulate the

movement of water within a watershed, predicting flows, flooding, and drought
conditions.

Hydraulic Structures: Engineers design and build structures like dams, levees, and
canals to manage and control water flow.

Applications of Hydrology:

Water Resource Management: Hydrology provides crucial information for the

sustainable allocation and use of water resources for drinking, agriculture, industry, and
other purposes.

Flood Control and Management: Understanding rainfall patterns, runoff, and river
behavior helps in designing effective flood control measures.

Irrigation Planning: Hydrology plays a vital role in designing irrigation systems to

optimize water use for agriculture.

Hydropower Generation: Knowledge of water availability and flow patterns is essential

for planning and operating hydropower plants.

Environmental Protection: Hydrology is crucial for maintaining the health of aquatic

ecosystems, ensuring water quality, and protecting wetlands and riparian areas.

Climate Change Impact Assessment: Hydrologists study the effects of climate change
on water resources, including shifts in precipitation patterns and changes in snowmelt
timing.

Urban Planning and Infrastructure Design: Hydrology informs the design of storm
water management systems, drainage networks, and water supply systems in cities.

Hydrology is an interdisciplinary field that draws on knowledge from geology, meteorology,

geography, environmental science, and engineering. It plays a vital role in ensuring the
sustainable and equitable management of one of our most essential resources: water.

7
Rainwater Harvesting:

Rainwater harvesting is a sustainable and environmentally-friendly practice of collecting

and storing rainwater for later use. It is an ancient technique that has gained renewed interest in
recent years due to water scarcity concerns and environmental conservation efforts. Below Fig.
shows rainwater harvesting from an individual house.

Components of Rainwater Harvesting:

Catchment Surface: This is the surface on which rainwater falls and is collected. It can
be a roof, terrace, or any impermeable surface.

Conveyance System: This includes gutters, downspouts, and pipes that channel
rainwater from the catchment surface to the storage tank.

Filtering Mechanism: A filter system removes debris, leaves, and other contaminants
from the collected rainwater before it enters the storage tank. This ensures that the water
is relatively clean.

8
 Storage Tank: The storage tank holds the collected rainwater. It can be above-ground
(cisterns or tanks) or below-ground (like a sump). Tanks should be designed to prevent
evaporation and contamination.

First Flush Diverter: This is a mechanism that diverts the first flush of rainwater away
from the storage tank. The first rain often contains more contaminants, and diverting it
helps maintain better water quality.

Benefits of Rainwater Harvesting:

Conservation of Potable Water: Rainwater can be used for non-potable purposes like
irrigation, flushing toilets, and washing vehicles, which reduces the demand on treated
municipal water.

Reduction of Stormwater Runoff: Harvesting rainwater helps prevent soil erosion,

reduces the burden on stormwater drainage systems, and minimizes the risk of urban
flooding.

Sustainable Water Management: It promotes self-sufficiency in water supply,

especially in areas with unreliable or limited access to centralized water sources.

Lower Water Bills: Using harvested rainwater for non-potable purposes can lead to
significant savings on water bills.

Promotion of Groundwater Recharge: By reducing runoff, rainwater harvesting

contributes to replenishing local groundwater reserves.

Environmental Benefits: It helps in conserving natural water bodies by reducing the

demand for water from rivers and lakes. It also reduces the energy required for water
treatment and distribution.

Considerations for Rainwater Harvesting:

Legal and Regulatory Considerations: Ensure compliance with local regulations and
obtain necessary permits if required.
Water Quality: Regular maintenance and filtering systems are crucial to ensure that
harvested rainwater is safe for its intended use.
System Sizing: Calculate the amount of rainwater that can be collected based on the
catchment area, local rainfall patterns, and storage capacity needed.
Seasonal Variations: Consider the seasonal variations in rainfall patterns when
designing and sizing the system.
Maintenance: Regularly clean gutters, filters, and tanks to prevent contamination and
ensure the quality of stored water.

9
 Rainwater harvesting is a sustainable practice that empowers individuals, communities, and
industries to take an active role in conserving water resources. It complements other water-
saving measures and contributes to a more sustainable and resilient water supply system.

Water storage and Conveyance structures:

Water storage and conveyance structures play a crucial role in managing water resources
for various purposes, including agriculture, industry, municipal supply, and flood control. These
structures are designed to capture, store, and transport water efficiently and safely. Here are
some key types of water storage and conveyance structures:

Water Storage Structures:

1.Dams: Dams are large barriers built across rivers or streams to store water. They can be
made of concrete, earth, or other materials. Dams are used for water supply, hydropower
generation, flood control, and recreation.

2.Reservoirs: Reservoirs are large artificial lakes created by impounding rivers or streams
with the help of dams. They serve as a source of stored water for various purposes,
including drinking water supply, irrigation, and recreational activities.

3.Ponds and Tanks: These are small-scale water storage structures commonly used in
agriculture. They are often excavated in the ground and can be lined with materials to
prevent seepage.

4.Cisterns: Cisterns are underground or above-ground tanks used for storing rainwater.
They are especially valuable in regions with irregular or limited rainfall.

5.Aquifers and Groundwater Storage: Natural underground reservoirs, known as

aquifers, store vast amounts of water. Managed aquifer storage (MAS) involves
artificially recharging these aquifers during periods of surplus, for later withdrawal
during times of need.

Water Conveyance Structures:

1.Canals: Canals are artificial waterways constructed to transport water over long
distances. They are used for irrigation, municipal supply, and industrial purposes.

2.Pipelines: Pipes are used to transport water from its source to where it is needed. They
are common in municipal water supply systems, industries, and for the conveyance of
treated wastewater.

3.Open Channels: These are natural or artificial watercourses that carry water from one
place to another. Examples include streams, rivers, and ditches.

10
 4.Aqueducts: Aqueducts are large, elevated or underground channels that carry water over
long distances. They have been used historically to transport water to cities and arid
regions.

5.Tunnels: Water tunnels are used to convey water through obstacles like mountains. They
are common in hydropower projects and municipal water supply systems.

6.Siphons: Siphons are pipes or conduits that allow water to flow over an obstacle, like a
hill or a river, and then down again. They are often used in irrigation systems.

7.Pumping Stations: These facilities use pumps to lift or move water from a lower
elevation to a higher one. They are essential for supplying water to areas with higher
demand or elevation differences.

8.Flumes: Flumes are channels designed to control and measure the flow of water. They
are used in irrigation systems and for environmental monitoring.

Designing and managing these structures requires careful consideration of factors like
hydrology, topography, geology, and local regulations. Additionally, ongoing maintenance is
crucial to ensure the safety and efficiency of these systems. Effective water storage and
conveyance structures are vital for the sustainable management of water resources and for
meeting the diverse needs of communities and industries

Introduction to dams and Reservoirs:

Dams and Reservoirs: Enhancing Water Management

Introduction:

Dams and reservoirs are critical components of water resource management, providing a range of
benefits including water supply, hydropower generation, flood control, and recreational
opportunities. They are engineered structures that store and regulate the flow of water in rivers
and streams.

Dams:

A dam is a barrier or structure built across a river or stream to impound water. They come in
various types, including concrete, earthen, and rock-fill dams. Dams serve several key purposes:

1.Water Storage: Dams store water during periods of surplus, such as rainy seasons, and
release it during drier periods. This ensures a reliable water supply for various needs.

2.Hydropower Generation: By regulating the flow of water, dams can generate electricity
through hydropower plants.

3.Flood Control: Dams can mitigate the impacts of floods by storing excess water and
releasing it in a controlled manner.

11
 4.Recreation: Reservoirs created by dams often provide opportunities for boating, fishing,
and other recreational activities.

5.Irrigation: Dams can significantly enhance agricultural productivity by providing a

consistent water source for irrigation.

6.Navigation: In some cases, dams are built to create navigable waterways, allowing for
transportation and commerce.

Reservoirs:

A reservoir is a man-made water body created by the impoundment of a river or stream behind a
dam. They serve as large storage facilities for water. Reservoirs offer several advantages:

1.Water Supply: They provide a reliable source of water for municipalities, industries, and
agriculture.

2.Recreation: Reservoirs often offer opportunities for boating, fishing, swimming, and
other recreational activities, benefiting local economies.

3.Hydropower Generation: The stored water in reservoirs can be released through

turbines to generate electricity.

4.Flood Control: By regulating the release of water, reservoirs can help control
downstream flooding during periods of heavy rainfall.

5.Environmental Benefits: Well-managed reservoirs can enhance the natural

environment, providing habitats for wildlife and supporting aquatic ecosystems.

6.Drought Management: Reservoirs can store water during wet periods, ensuring a steady
supply during dry spells.

Challenges and Considerations:

1.Environmental Impact: The construction of dams and reservoirs can have significant
environmental impacts, including habitat disruption, altered river flow, and changes in
sediment transport.

2.Safety: Proper design, construction, and maintenance are essential to ensure the safety
and integrity of dams.

3.Siltation: Over time, sediment carried by rivers can accumulate in reservoirs, reducing
their storage capacity.

4.Socio-economic Considerations: The creation of dams and reservoirs can have social
and economic implications, including displacement of communities, changes in land use,
and economic benefits from water-related activities.

12
 5.Regulation and Management: Effective regulation and management of dams and
reservoirs are crucial to balance the diverse needs of water users and minimize negative
impacts.

Types of Dams:

Dams come in various types, each designed to serve specific purposes and adapt to different
environmental conditions. Here are some of the most common types of dams:

1.Arch Dams:

Description: Arch dams are curved structures that rely on their own weight and
shape to resist the force of water. They curve upstream, redirecting the water's force
into the abutments on the sides.
Usage: Arch dams are used in narrow canyons or valleys where solid abutments are
present. They are often employed for hydroelectric power generation.

2.Embankment Dams (or Earth Dams):

Description: Embankment dams are made of compacted earth, rock, or other fill
materials. They rely on the weight and strength of the fill to hold back water.
Usage: Embankment dams are versatile and can be built in a wide range of
environments. They are commonly used for water supply, flood control, and
irrigation.

3.Gravity Dams:

Description: Gravity dams are massive structures constructed from concrete or

masonry. They use their sheer weight and the force of gravity to resist the pressure of
water.

13
 Usage: Gravity dams are used in locations with wide valleys and strong, stable
foundations. They are commonly employed for reservoirs, water supply, and
hydropower.

4.Arch Gravity Dams:

Description: Arch gravity dams combine features of both arch dams and gravity
dams. They have the arch shape but rely on their weight and gravity for stability.
Usage: Arch gravity dams are suitable for locations with narrow gorges and strong
foundations. They are often used for hydropower generation.

5.Buttress Dams:

Description: Buttress dams have a series of vertical supports or buttresses on the

downstream side. These buttresses transfer the force of water to the foundation.
Usage: Buttress dams are used in locations with wide valleys and weaker rock
foundations. They are suitable for hydroelectric power generation.

14
 6.Concrete Faced Rock Fill Dams (CFRD):

Description: CFRD dams combine an impervious concrete face with a rock fill core.
The concrete face provides a waterproof barrier, while the rock fill provides support.
Usage: CFRD dams are used where solid bedrock is deep below the surface. They are
effective for water storage and hydroelectric power.

7.Homogeneous Earthen Dams:

Description: These dams are constructed entirely from earth materials and may have
a clay core. They are typically less engineered than other types of dams.
Usage: Homogeneous earthen dams are used for smaller-scale projects, such as
agricultural irrigation or livestock watering.

8.Rock Fill Dams:

Description: Rock fill dams are constructed from large boulders or chunks of rock.
They are designed to withstand the force of water using the mass of the rock.
Usage: Rock fill dams are used in locations where suitable earth materials are not
readily available. They are common for flood control and irrigation projects.

Each type of dam has its advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of dam type
depends on factors like geological conditions, available materials, intended purpose, and
environmental considerations. Engineers carefully assess these factors before selecting the most
appropriate type of dam for a specific project.

Types of reservoirs:

Reservoirs, also known as impoundments, are man-made water bodies created by the
construction of dams across rivers or streams. They serve various purposes, including water
supply, hydropower generation, flood control, and recreation. Reservoirs can be categorized
based on their primary function and characteristics:

1.Water Supply Reservoirs:

Purpose: These reservoirs are primarily designed to store and supply water for
municipal, industrial, and agricultural use.

15
 Characteristics: Water supply reservoirs often have large storage capacities and are
located near populated areas to meet urban and industrial water demands.

2.Hydropower Reservoirs:

Purpose: These reservoirs are created to store water that can be released to generate
electricity through hydropower plants.
Characteristics: Hydropower reservoirs are typically designed to regulate the flow of
water to optimize power generation, and they may experience significant water level
fluctuations.

3.Flood Control Reservoirs:

Purpose: Flood control reservoirs are designed to attenuate and manage floodwaters
during periods of heavy rainfall or snowmelt.
Characteristics: These reservoirs are usually large, with the capacity to temporarily
store large volumes of water. They may have special features like controlled
spillways to regulate water release.

4.Recreational Reservoirs:

Purpose: These reservoirs are developed to provide opportunities for recreational

activities such as boating, fishing, swimming, and camping.
Characteristics: Recreational reservoirs often have facilities like boat ramps, picnic
areas, and campgrounds. Water quality and safety for recreational use are prioritized.

5.Environmental Reservoirs:

Purpose: Environmental reservoirs aim to support or restore natural ecosystems and

wildlife habitats.
Characteristics: These reservoirs may have features like wetlands, riparian areas,
and fish passages to enhance biodiversity and provide habitat for native species.

6.Multipurpose Reservoirs:

Purpose: Multipurpose reservoirs serve a combination of functions, such as water

supply, hydropower, flood control, and recreation.
Characteristics: These reservoirs are versatile and designed to balance various water
management objectives. They are common in large-scale water resource projects.

7.Irrigation Reservoirs:

Purpose: These reservoirs are specifically designed to store water for agricultural
irrigation purposes.
Characteristics: They are often located in agricultural regions and may include
features like irrigation canals, channels, and distribution networks.

16
 8.Salinity Control Reservoirs:

Purpose: These reservoirs are constructed to control and manage saltwater intrusion
in coastal areas.
Characteristics: Salinity control reservoirs are often situated at the mouths of rivers
or estuaries, where freshwater meets the sea.

The type of reservoir selected for a specific project depends on factors like local
topography, hydrology, engineering feasibility, and the intended purpose(s) of the reservoir.
Engineers and planners carefully consider these factors to design and implement reservoirs that
effectively meet the needs of communities and industries while minimizing environmental
impacts.

Site selection for Dam or reservoir:

Selecting an appropriate site for a dam or reservoir is a critical step in the planning and design
process. It requires careful consideration of various factors to ensure the safety, effectiveness,
and sustainability of the project. Here are some key considerations for site selection:

1.Hydrology and River Characteristics:

Flow Characteristics: Analyze river flow patterns, including seasonal variations, flood
frequencies, and low flow conditions. This information helps determine the dam's
capacity and operational requirements.

Sediment Transport: Evaluate sediment load and transport patterns to assess potential
siltation issues within the reservoir.

2.Geology and Geotechnical Conditions:

Foundation Stability: Assess the strength and stability of the underlying bedrock or soil
to ensure it can support the dam's weight and withstand hydraulic forces.

3.Topography:

Valley Shape: The shape of the valley or gorge can influence the type of dam that is
most suitable (e.g., arch, gravity, or embankment dam).

4.Environmental Considerations:

Ecological Impact: Assess the potential impact on local ecosystems, including habitats,
flora, and fauna. Identify measures to mitigate or minimize adverse effects.

Protected Areas: Check if the proposed site is within or near protected areas, which may
have legal or regulatory restrictions.

5.Reservoir Capacity and Size:

17
 Storage Requirements: Determine the required storage capacity based on the intended
purpose(s) of the reservoir (e.g., water supply, hydropower, flood control).

6.Accessibility and Infrastructure:

Transportation: Evaluate the accessibility of the site for construction and operation,
including roads and transportation networks.

Utilities: Ensure that necessary infrastructure (power supply, communication, etc.) is

available or can be developed.

7.Social and Economic Factors:

Population and Settlements: Consider the proximity to populated areas, and assess
potential impacts on communities, including relocation considerations.

Economic Benefits: Evaluate the economic benefits of the project, including job
creation, improved water supply, electricity generation, and recreational opportunities.

8.Regulatory and Legal Considerations:

Permitting and Approvals: Understand the regulatory framework and obtain the
necessary permits and approvals from relevant authorities.

9.Risk and Safety Assessment:

Natural Hazards: Evaluate the susceptibility to natural hazards like earthquakes,

landslides, and floods, and design the dam to withstand these events.

10.Climate Change and Climate Resilience:

Projected Climate Trends: Consider future climate scenarios and assess how they may
impact the project's design and operation.

11.Cost and Budget Constraints:

Budget Allocation: Ensure that the project can be executed within the allocated budget,
factoring in construction costs, environmental mitigation measures, and contingencies.

12.Stakeholder Engagement:

Public Opinion and Feedback: Engage with local communities, stakeholders, and
relevant authorities to gather input, address concerns, and build support for the project.

Site selection for a dam or reservoir is a complex process that requires a multidisciplinary
approach, involving engineers, environmental experts, geologists, and stakeholders. Thorough
assessments, studies, and careful consideration of these factors are essential for a successful and
sustainable project.

18