BIOLOGY 2 - BIO 1204
PRESENTATION
Glucose Regulation
By
Lim Er Vin
Muhammad Hammad
Sng Kim Sia
INSULIN
AND
GLUCAGON
PART 1
Insulin and Glucagon
Similarity
1) Hormone
2) Polypeptide Protein ( Tertiary structured )
3) Involved in the regulation of glucose
4) Secreted at the islets of Langerhans (IL) area of pancreas
Differences
Insulin Glucagon
- Secreted by beta-cells in IL - Secreted by alpha-cells at IL
Pancreas of Pancreas
- Main function : Store excess - Main Function : Cut down
energy macromolecules to produce
energy
Where and how Insulin is secreted ?
Insulin
- Undergoes the same process as protein synthesis in beta cell
of pancreas.
Transcription, translation, synthesis
- The first form of insulin is prepro-insulin.
- Then become inactive pro-insulin through endoplasmic
reticulum, where sorting occurs and A peptide, B peptide
and C peptide are formed.
- Pro-insulin then go through Golgi apparatus undergoes
modification, C peptide, B peptide and A peptide are
separated.
- Peptide A and B will be linked together and form the insulin.
What is the destiny of insulin ?
Production of insulin is stimulated by the high concentration
of macromolecule in the bloodstream, might be after meal.
- After insulin is produced, it travel to the bloodstream
through pancreatic duct and small intestine.
- The insulin can target several organ, such as liver and
skeletal muscle.
- The insulin will bind to the insulin receptor at the plasma
membrane of targeted cell.
Insulin receptor consist of Tyroxin Kinase at the intracellular
matrix and alpha cell at outside, beta cell which is
transmembrane.
- The alpha cell will binds with the insulin.
- Then the tyrosine kinase will phosphorylate or activate the
IRS.
What IRS can do ?
IRS could send a variety of signals to stimulate
many intracellular activity :
- Growth, where gene expression occurs, because of storing
of macromolecules, growth can be promoted.
- Protein synthesis from amino acid, to store excess energy
and macromolecules.
- Fat synthesis in liver, when there are excess glucose,
- Promotion of expression of glucose transporter ( GLUT )
protein.
Glucose Transporter
Glucose transporter will promote the uptake of glucose into the
cell.
- When there are high concentration of glucose in the bloodstream,
insulin is secreted. Insulin will activate the IRS to send signaling
protein to signal the production of glucose transporter protein.
- Thus, more glucose can be transported into the cell to store the
glucose in various form.
- Glycogenesis : The glucose can be converted to Glucose-6-
phosphate and then to glycogen through to be stored in liver or
skeletal muscle.
- When there are excess glucose, glucose can be packed into low
density lipoprotein in the liver and sent to the adipose tissue to be
stored as fat.
- When energy is needed, fat and glycogen can supply energy to the
body through gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis respectively,
producing glucose for oxidation.
Store excess energy
Inhibit Signal the
breaking down Insulin
expression
of protein of GLUT
Inhibit Inhibit
Glycogenolysis Oxidation
Glycogen
of fat
synthesis
Protein Fat
synthesis synthesis
Where and how glucagon is secreted ?
Glucagon
- Undergoes the same process as protein synthesis in alpha cell
of pancreas.
Transcription, translation, synthesis
- The first form of glucagon is the preproglucagon.
- After going through the rough endoplasmic reticulum, where
sorting occurs and become proglucagon, which has 29 amino
acid glucagon, GRPP and major proglucagon fragment.
- After going through Golgi apparatus, three of it separated,
where 29 amino acid glucagon will be the glucagon hormone
which is important to us.
* The cell of small intestine also has the same gene that
produce the glucagon hormone.
What is the destiny of glucagon ?
Glucagon can target liver cell and adipose tissue, but can’t target
the muscle cells as muscle cells don’t have glucagon receptor.
- When glucagon is secreted, It travel to the pancreatic duct
and enter to the small intestine. After that it diffuse into the
bloodstream.
- When there is low concentration of glucose in the
bloodstream, the alpha cell of pancreas will be stimulated to
produce glucagon and then glucagon will bind to the G-
protein complex receptor of for example, liver cell.
- The receptor will undergoes conformational change and then
the G protein beside the receptor will move to activate an
enzyme at the plasma membrane, Adenylate Cyclase.
- The Adenylate Cyclase will convert ATP to cAMP, an enzyme
which will activate the PKA, Protein Kinase A.
What Protein Kinase A (PKA) can do ?
- PKA stimulate many enzymes to promote :
1) Gluconeogenesis
2) Glycogenolysis
3) Decreasing of Glycogenesis
4) Decreasing of Glycolysis
Searching and Breaking down of macromolecule to supply energy
Glucagon
Protein -> Amino Acid ->
Gluconeogenesis in liver Glucose-6-Phospate （G6P ) -
> Glucose
Fat -> Glycerol + Fatty Acid
Glycerol - > G6P -> Glucose
Fatty Acid - > Ketone Bodies
Glycogenolysis , liver and skeletal Glycogen -> G6P -> Glucose
muscle
Decreasing of Glycolysis in liver and Decrease the uptake of glucose by cell
skeletal muscle that will be converted to pyruvate or
glycogen by insulin
Decreasing of Glycogenesis by insulin Decrease the making of glycogen
in liver and skeletal muscle
HYPERGLYCEMIA
AND
HYPOGLYCEMIA
PART 2
Hyperglycemia and Hypoglycemia
•Hyperglycemia
1 • What is hyperglycemia?
• Causes
• Solution
•Hypoglycemia
• What is hypoglycemia?
2 • Causes
• Solution
What is Hyperglycemia?
• Biological term for high glucose level or blood
sugar.
Symptoms
• Frequent urination.
• High level of sugar in urine.
• Thirsty feeling frequently.
• High blood glucose.
Causes
• Happens when the body has less insulin or
the insulin is not being used properly.
• Less consumption of insulin.
• Over eating.
• Lack of exercise.
• Stress from an illness.
• Stress over personal problems.
Solution
• Exercise frequently.
• Cut down the amount of food you eat.
• Take insulin as prescribed by the doctor.
• Check your blood glucose more often.
What is Hypoglycemia?
• Term given to low glucose level or blood
sugar. (less than 70 mg/dl)
Symptoms
• Sweating.
• Shakiness.
• Fast heartbeat.
• Dizziness.
• Anxiety.
• Nausea and hunger.
• Frequent headaches.
• Fatigue.
• Anger.
• Unconsciousness.
Causes
• Happens when body produces too much
insulin, also known as insulin shock.
Solution
• Recheck your blood glucose regularly
• Consume about 20 grams of glucose.
• You can use glucose tablets, gumdrops or hard
candies.
• Injectable glucagon kits for severe cases.
(Releases a hormone glucagon that passes
stored glucose from the liver to bloodstreams.)
• Maintain your diet accordingly.
DIABETES
PART 3
Diabetes
1 • What is Diabetes?
• Types of Diabetes
• Type 1
2 • Type 2
• Gestational Diabetes
What is DIABETES???
Diabetes
A disorder of metabolism
Normal Condition
INSULIN
Diabetic Patient Condition
LITTLE
or
NO
INSULIN
OR CELLS DOES NOT RESPOND APPROPRAITELY
TO THE INSULIN PRODUCED
Types of Diabetes
Type 1
Type 2
Gestational Diabetes
Percentage of Patient having Diabetes Type 1 or 2
Type 1
10%
Type 2
90%
Diabetes Type 1
• Can be known as:
1. Juvenile onset diabetes
2. Childhood diabetes
3. Insulin-dependent diabetes
• Normally diagnosed in children/adolescent
• Usually sudden/clear cut
Increased
urination
Tingling or
pain in the Thirst/dry
hands, feet mouth
or both
Symptoms
Frequent or
continuous Hunger
infections
Weight lost
despite
Blurred
normal or
vision increased
eating
Causes
• This type of diabetes occurs because no
production of insulin in the body.
• This is because the individual is suffering
from autoimmune disease.
– Which means the body is destroying the insulin
producing beta-cells in the pancreas.
– Own body destroy good stuff in your body
Solution
• Solution is to take insulin regularly either via
injections or through insulin pump, in order
to stay alive
• Insulin, nutrition and exercise need to be
kept in balance
More details about Diabetes Type 1
• Type 1 is not preventable as it has no
relationship with the person’s physical body,
example, fat or thin, fit or unfit.
• Type 1 cannot be revert and prevent because
the beta cells that produces insulin is already
being destroyed.
Diabetes Type 2
• Can be known as
1. Adult onset diabetes
2. Non-insulin dependent diabetes
• Appears late in life/adulthood
• Most of the patient are overweight/unfit
Increased
urination
Tingling or
pain in the Thirst/dry
hands, feet mouth
or both
Symptoms
Frequent or
continuous Hunger
infections
Weight lost
despite
Blurred
normal or
vision increased
eating
Causes
•Cells are not responding
properly to insulin/resist
effect of insulin
OR
•Not enough insulin is being
produced
Cells build up
insulin
resistance
Lots of food
Pancreas puts
trigger more
out more
insulin Occurs insulin
because of production
insulin
resistance
Frequent
Too much
high insulin
insulin is toxic
speeds up
for cells
the process
Insulin Resistance
Insulin resistance
will reach a point The solution
where insulin
produced is not is to take
enough to make more insulin
up for cells
Solution
• Healthy diet and exercise
• Oral/injectable medication (serious)
Gestational Diabetes
• A temporary condition which sugar level is
high during pregnancy
• 2 to 4% of pregnancy is affected by this
disease
Causes
• Cause by increased production of hormones
that make the body less able to use insulin as
well as it should
Solution
• Will goes away after birth but has higher risk
to obtain type 2 than others
• RISKS
– Effects are increased risks of developing diabetes
for both mother and child
• Healthy diet and doing exercise decreases the
risk of diabetes type 2 in the future
THE END
Thank you for your time
