Dutch Republic

The United Provinces of the

Netherlands, commonly referred to in Republic of the Seven United Netherlands
historiography as the Dutch Republic, was Republiek der Zeven Verenigde
a confederation that existed from 1579 Nederlanden (Dutch)
until the Batavian Revolution in 1795. It 1579–1795
was a predecessor state of the present-day
Netherlands and the first independent
Dutch nation state. The republic was
established after seven Dutch provinces in
the Spanish Netherlands revolted against
Spanish rule, forming a mutual alliance
against Spain in 1579 (the Union of
Utrecht) and declaring their independence
Coat of arms
in 1581 (the Act of Abjuration). The seven
provinces it comprised were Groningen Flags
(present-day Groningen), Frisia (present- Top: Prince's Flag
Bottom: Statenvlag
day Friesland), Overijssel (present-day
Overijssel), Guelders (present-day Motto: Eendracht maakt macht
Gelderland), Utrecht (present-day Utrecht), Concordia res parvæ crescunt
"Unity makes strength"
Holland (present-day North Holland and "Small things flourish by concord"
South Holland), and Zeeland (present-day
Zeeland). It was officially the Republic of
the Seven United Netherlands (Dutch:
Republiek der Zeven Verenigde
Nederlanden).

Although the state was small and had only

around 1.5 million inhabitants, it controlled
a worldwide network of seafaring trade
routes. Through its trading companies, the
Dutch East India Company (VOC) and the
Dutch West India Company (GWC), it
established a Dutch colonial empire. The
income from this trade allowed the Dutch
Republic to compete militarily against
much larger countries. It amassed a huge Republic of the Seven United Netherlands in 1789
fleet of 2,000 ships, initially larger than the Capital None (de jure)
fleets of England and France combined. The Hague (de facto)
Major conflicts were fought in the Eighty Common languages Dutch, Dutch Low Saxon, West
Years' War against Spain (from the Frisian
foundation of the Dutch Republic until
1648), the Dutch–Portuguese War (1598– Religion Dutch Reformed (state religion),[1]
1663), four Anglo-Dutch Wars (1652– Catholicism, Judaism,
1654, 1665–1667, 1672–1674, and 1780– Lutheranism
1784), the Franco-Dutch War (1672–1678), Demonym(s) Dutch
War of the Grand Alliance (1688–1697),
Government Confederal parliamentary republic
the War of the Spanish Succession (1702–
Stadtholder
1713), the War of Austrian Succession
(1744–1748), and the War of the First • 1581–1584 William I, Prince of Orange
• 1584–1625 Maurice, Prince of Orange
Coalition (1792–1795) against the
• 1625–1647 Frederick Henry, Prince of
Kingdom of France. Orange
• 1647–1650 William II, Prince of Orange
The republic was more tolerant of different
• 1672–1702 William III, Prince of Orange
religions and ideas than contemporary • 1747–1751 William IV, Prince of Orange
states, allowing freedom of thought to its • 1751–1795 William V, Prince of Orange
residents. Artists flourished under this Grand pensionary
regime, including painters such as • 1581–1585 (first) Paulus Buys
Rembrandt, Johannes Vermeer, and many • 1787–1795 (last) Laurens Pieter van de Spiegel
others. So did scientists, such as Hugo
Legislature States General
Grotius, Christiaan Huygens, and Antonie
• State Council Council of State
van Leeuwenhoek. Dutch trade, science,
armed forces, and art were among the most Historical era Early modern period

acclaimed in the world during much of the • Union of Utrecht 23 January 1579
17th century, a period which became • Act of Abjuration 26 July 1581
known as the Dutch Golden Age. • Vranck Deduction 12 April 1588
• Peace of Münster 30 January 1648
The republic was a confederation of • Rampjaar 1672
provinces, each with a high degree of • Peace of Utrecht 11 April 1713
independence from the federal assembly: • Batavian Revolution 19 January 1795

the States General. In the Peace of Population

Westphalia (1648), the republic gained • 1795 1,880,500[2]
approximately 20% more territory, located Currency Guilder, rijksdaalder
outside the member provinces, which was
ruled directly by the States General as Preceded by Succeeded by
Generality Lands. Each province was led Spanish Batavian Republic
by a stadtholder (Dutch for 'steward'); this Netherlands Kingdom of
office was nominally open to anyone, but Prussia
most provinces appointed a member of the Electorate of
Cologne
House of Orange. The position gradually
First French
became hereditary, with the Prince of Republic
Orange simultaneously holding most or all
of the stadtholderships, making him Today part of Netherlands
effectively the head of state. This created Belgium
tension between political factions: the Germany
Orangists favoured a powerful stadtholder,
while the Republicans favoured a strong States General. The Republicans forced two Stadtholderless
Periods, 1650–1672 and 1702–1747, with the latter causing national instability and the end of great
power status.
Economic decline led to
History of the Low Countries
the 1780–1787
Frisii Belgae
Patriottentijd, a period of Chamavi, Gallia Belgica (55 BC–c. 5th AD)
political instability.[3] This Cana–
nefates
Tubantes Germania Inferior (83–c. 5th)

unrest was temporarily Salian Franks Batavi

unpopulated Salian Franks
suppressed by a Prussian (4th–c. 5th)
Saxons
(4th–c. 5th)
invasion in support of the Frisian Kingdom Frankish Kingdom (481–843)—Carolingian Empire (800–843)
stadtholder. The French (c. 6th–734) Austrasia (511–687)

Revolution and subsequent Middle Francia (843–855) West

War of the First Coalition Kingdom of Lotharingia (855– 959) Francia
Duchy of Lower Lorraine (959–) (843–)
reignited these tensions.
Frisia
Following military defeat
by France, the stadtholder
Duchy of County of
was expelled in the Brabant Hainaut
(1183–1430) (1071–1432) P.-Bish. Duchy of
Batavian Revolution of Frisian County of Bishopric of County of
of Liège Luxem-
Freedom Holland Utrecht Flanders
1795, ending the Dutch (862–1384)
bourg
(11–16th (880–1432) (695–1456) Duchy of County of (980–1794) (1059–1443)
century) Guelders
Republic, which was (1046–1543)
Namur
(981–1421)
succeeded by the Batavian
Republic. Burgundian Netherlands (1384–1482)

Habsburg Netherlands (1482–1795)

(Seventeen Provinces after 1543)

History Dutch Republic Spanish Netherlands

(1581–1795) (1556–1714)

Until the 16th century, the

Austrian Netherlands
Low Countries— (1714–1795)

corresponding roughly to
United States of Belgium R. Liège
the present-day (1790) (1789–'91)
Netherlands, Belgium, and
Luxembourg—consisted of
Batavian Republic (1795–1806) associated with French First Republic (1795–1804)
a number of duchies, Kingdom of Holland (1806–1810) part of First French Empire (1804–1815)
counties, and prince-
bishoprics, almost all of
Princip. of the Netherlands (1813–1815)
which were under the Kingdom of the Netherlands (1815–1830)
supremacy of the Holy Gr D. L.
(1815–)
Roman Empire, with the Kingdom of the Netherlands (1839–) Kingdom of Belgium (1830–)
exception of the County of
Gr D. of
Flanders, most of which Luxem-
bourg
was under the Kingdom of (1890–)
France.

Most of the Low Countries had come under the rule of the House of Burgundy and subsequently the
House of Habsburg. In 1549, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V issued the Pragmatic Sanction, which
further unified the Seventeen Provinces under his rule. In 1568, the Netherlands, led by William I of
Orange, together with Philip de Montmorency, Count of Hoorn, and Lamoral, Count of Egmont revolted
against Charles's successor, Philip II of Spain, because of high taxes, persecution of Protestants by the
government, and Philip's efforts to modernize and centralize the devolved-medieval government
structures of the provinces.[4] This was the start of the Eighty Years' War. During the initial phase of the
 war, the revolt was largely unsuccessful. Spain regained control over most of
the rebelling provinces. This period is known as the "Spanish Fury" due to
the high number of massacres, instances of mass looting, and total
destruction of multiple cities and in particular Antwerp between 1572 and
1579.

In 1579, a number of the northern provinces of the Low Countries signed the
Union of Utrecht, in which they promised to support each other in their
defence against the Army of Flanders. This was followed in 1581 by the Act
of Abjuration, the declaration of independence of the provinces from Philip
II. Dutch colonialism began at this point, as the Netherlands was able to
William of Orange, by
swipe a number of Portuguese and Spanish colonies, particularly in the Asia-
Adriaen Thomasz Key.
Pacific region. After the assassination of William of Orange on 10 July 1584,
both Henry III of France and Elizabeth I of England declined offers of
sovereignty. However, the latter agreed to turn the United Provinces into a protectorate of England
(Treaty of Nonsuch, 1585), and sent the Earl of Leicester as governor-general. This was unsuccessful and
in 1588 the provinces became a confederacy. The Union of Utrecht is regarded as the foundation of the
Republic of the Seven United Provinces, which was not recognized by Spain until the Peace of
Westphalia in 1648.

Religious toleration and refugees

An important factor in the growth of the Netherlands as an economic power
was the influx of groups seeking religious toleration of the Dutch Republic.
In particular, it became the destination of Portuguese and Spanish Jews
fleeing the Inquisitions in Iberia in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.[5]
and later, poorer German Jews. The Portuguese Jewish community had many
wealthy merchants who, both lived openly as Jews and participated in the
thriving economy on a par with wealthy Dutch merchants. The Netherlands
became home to many other notable refugees, including Protestants from
Antwerp and Flanders, which remained under Spanish Catholic rule; French
Huguenots; and English Dissenters, including the Pilgrim Fathers). Many Anonymous portrait of
immigrants came to the cities of Holland in the 17th and 18th century from the Dutch philosopher
Baruch Spinoza. He was
the Protestant parts of Germany and elsewhere. The number of first-
of Portuguese-Jewish
generation immigrants from outside the Netherlands in Amsterdam was origin.
nearly 50% in the 17th and 18th centuries. Amsterdam, which was a hub of
the Atlantic world, had a population primarily of immigrants and others not
considered Dutch, if one includes second and third generation immigrants. There were also migrants from
the Dutch countryside. People in most parts of Europe were poor and many were unemployed. But in
Amsterdam there was always work. Religious toleration was important, because a continuous influx of
immigrants was necessary for the economy. Travellers visiting Amsterdam reported their surprise at the
lack of control over the influx.
Economic growth
The era of explosive economic growth is roughly coterminous
with the period of social and cultural bloom that has been
called the Dutch Golden Age, and that actually formed the
material basis for that cultural era. Amsterdam became the
hub of world trade, the center into which staples and luxuries
flowed for sorting, processing, and distribution, and then
reexported around Europe and the world.[6]

During 1585 through 1622 there was the rapid accumulation

of trade capital, often brought in by refugee merchants from
Antwerp and other ports. The money was typically invested The Amsterdam Stock Exchange, by Job
in high-risk ventures like pioneering expeditions to the East Adriaenszoon Berckheyde

Indies to engage in the spice trade. These ventures were soon

consolidated in the Dutch East India Company (VOC). There were similar ventures in different fields
however, like the trade on Russia and the Levant. The profits of these ventures were ploughed back in the
financing of new trade, which led to its exponential growth.[7]

Rapid industrialization led to the rapid growth of the nonagricultural labor force and the increase in real
wages during the same time. In the half-century between 1570 and 1620 this labor supply increased 3
percent per annum, a truly phenomenal growth. Despite this, nominal wages were repeatedly increased,
outstripping price increases. In consequence, real wages for unskilled laborers were 62 percent higher in
1615–1619 than in 1575–1579.[8]

Amsterdam
By the mid-1660s Amsterdam had reached the optimum
population (about 200,000) for the level of trade, commerce
and agriculture then available to support it. The city
contributed the largest quota in taxes to the States of Holland
which in turn contributed over half the quota to the States
General. Amsterdam was also one of the most reliable in
settling tax demands and therefore was able to use the threat
to withhold such payments to good effect.[9][10]
Dam Square in the late 17th century:
painting by Gerrit Adriaenszoon Amsterdam was governed by a body of regents, a large, but
Berckheyde closed, oligarchy with control over all aspects of the city's
life, and a dominant voice in the foreign affairs of Holland.
Only men with sufficient wealth and a long enough residence within the city could join the ruling class.
The first step for an ambitious and wealthy merchant family was to arrange a marriage with a long-
established regent family. In the 1670s one such union, that of the Trip family (the Amsterdam branch of
the Swedish arms makers) with the son of Burgomaster Valckenier, extended the influence and patronage
available to the latter and strengthened his dominance of the council. The oligarchy in Amsterdam thus
gained strength from its breadth and openness. In the smaller towns family interest could unite members
on policy decisions but contraction through intermarriage could lead to the degeneration of the quality of
the members.
In Amsterdam the network was so large that members of the same family could be related to opposing
factions and pursue widely separated interests. The young men who had risen to positions of authority in
the 1670s and 1680s consolidated their hold on office well into the 1690s and even the new century.[11]

Amsterdam's regents provided good services to residents. They spent heavily on the water-ways and other
essential infrastructure, as well as municipal almshouses for the elderly, hospitals and churches.[12]

Amsterdam's wealth was generated by its commerce, which

was in turn sustained by the judicious encouragement of
entrepreneurs whatever their origin. This open door policy
has been interpreted as proof of a tolerant ruling class. But
tolerance was practiced for the convenience of the city.
Therefore, the wealthy Sephardic Jews from Portugal were
welcomed and accorded all privileges except those of
citizenship, but the poor Ashkenazi Jews from Eastern Europe
were far more carefully vetted and those who became
dependent on the city were encouraged to move on.[13]
Similarly, provision for the housing of Huguenot immigrants
was made in 1681 when Louis XIV's religious policy was
beginning to drive these Protestants out of France; no
encouragement was given to the dispossessed Dutch from the A view of Amsterdam, by Jacob van
Ruisdael
countryside or other towns of Holland. The regents
encouraged immigrants to build churches and provided sites
or buildings for churches and temples for all except the most radical sects and the Catholics by the
1670s[14] (although even the Catholics could practice quietly in a chapel within the Beguinhof).[15]

First Stadtholderless Period (1650–1675)

During the wars a tension had arisen between the Orange-Nassau leaders and
the patrician merchants. The former—the Orangists—were soldiers and
centralizers who seldom spoke of compromise with the enemy and looked for
military solutions. They included many rural gentry as well as ordinary folk
attached to the banner of the House of Orange. The latter group were the
Republicans, led by the Grand Pensionary (a sort of prime minister) and the
regents stood for localism, municipal rights, commerce, and peace.[16] In
1650, the stadtholder William II, Prince of Orange suddenly died; his son was
a baby and the Orangists were leaderless. The regents seized the opportunity:
Johan de Witt, Grand there would be no new stadtholder in Holland for 22 years. Johan de Witt, a
Pensionary of Holland, brilliant politician and diplomat, emerged as the dominant figure. Princes of
by Caspar Netscher Orange became the stadtholder and an almost hereditary ruler in 1672 and
1748. The Dutch Republic of the United Provinces was a true republic from
1650 to 1672 and 1702–1748. These periods are called the First
Stadtholderless Period and Second Stadtholderless Period.
First and Second Anglo-Dutch wars
The Dutch and English were major rivals in world trade and
naval power. Halfway through the 17th century the Dutch
States Navy was the rival of the English Royal Navy as the
most powerful navy in the world. The Republic fought a
series of three naval wars against England from 1652 to
1674.[17]

In 1651, the Parliament of England introduced the Navigation

Act, which restricted Dutch trade with English colonies. An The Battle of Scheveningen, 10 August
incident at sea concerning the Act resulted in the First Anglo- 1653

Dutch War, which lasted from 1652 to 1654, ending in the

Treaty of Westminster (1654), which left the Navigation Act
in effect.

After the Stuart Restoration in 1660, Charles II tried to serve his dynastic interests by attempting to make
Prince William III of Orange, his nephew, stadtholder of the Republic, using some military pressure. King
Charles thought a naval war would weaken the Dutch traders and strengthen the English economy and
empire, so the Second Anglo-Dutch War was launched in 1665. At first many Dutch ships were captured
and the English scored great victories. However, the Raid on the Medway, in June 1667, ended the war
with a Dutch victory. The Dutch recovered their trade, while the English economy was seriously hurt and
its treasury nearly bankrupt.[18] The greatly expanded Dutch navy was for years after the world's
strongest. The Dutch Republic was at the zenith of its power.[19]

Franco-Dutch War and Third Anglo-Dutch War (1672–1702)

The year 1672 is known in the Netherlands as the "Disaster Year"
(Rampjaar). England declared war on the Republic, (the Third Anglo-Dutch
War), followed by France, Münster and Cologne, which had all signed
alliances against the Republic. France, Cologne and Münster invaded the
Republic. Johan de Witt and his brother Cornelis, who had accomplished a
diplomatic balancing act for a long time, were now the obvious scapegoats.
They were lynched, and a new stadtholder, William III, was appointed.[20]

An Anglo-French attempt to land on the Dutch shore was barely repelled in

Stadtholder William III, three desperate naval battles under command of Admiral Michiel de Ruyter.
Prince of Orange, also The advance of French troops from the south was halted by a costly
reigned as William III of inundation of its own heartland, by breaching river dikes. With the aid of
England from 1689 to friendly German princes, the Dutch succeeded in fighting back Cologne and
1702 after the Glorious Münster, after which the peace was signed with both of them, although some
Revolution.
territory in the east was lost forever. Peace was signed with England as well,
in 1674 (Second Treaty of Westminster). In 1678, peace was made with
France at the Treaty of Nijmegen, although the Spanish and German allies of the Dutch Republic felt
betrayed by this.
In 1688, at the start of the Nine Years' War with France, the relations with England reached crisis level
once again. Convinced that he needed English support against France and that he had to prevent a second
Anglo-French alliance, Stadtholder William III decided he had to take a huge gamble and invade
England. To this end he secured the support from the Dutch States-General and from Protestant English
nobles opposed to William's Catholic father-in-law James II of England. This led to the Glorious
Revolution and cemented the principle of parliamentary rule and Protestant ascendency in England.
James fled to France, and William ascended to the English throne as co-monarch with his wife Mary,
James' eldest daughter. This manoeuvre secured England as a critical ally of the United Provinces in its
ongoing war with Louis XIV of France. William was the commander of the Dutch and English armies
and fleets until his death in 1702. During William's reign as King of England, his primary focus was
leveraging English manpower and finances to aid the Dutch against the French. The combination
continued during the War of the Spanish Succession after his death as the combined Dutch, English, and
Imperial armies conquered Flanders and Brabant, and invaded French territory before the alliance
collapsed in 1713 due to British political infighting.

Second Stadtholderless Period (1702–1747)

The Second Stadtholderless Period (Dutch: Tweede
Stadhouderloze Tijdperk) is the designation in Dutch
historiography of the period between the death of stadtholder
William III on 19 March[21] 1702 and the appointment of
William IV, Prince of Orange as stadtholder and captain
general in all provinces of the Dutch Republic on 2 May
1747. During this period the office of stadtholder was left
vacant in the provinces of Holland, Zeeland, and Utrecht,
though in other provinces that office was filled by members
of the House of Nassau-Dietz (later called Orange-Nassau)
The Inspectors of the Collegium Medicum
during various periods. in Amsterdam, by Cornelis Troost, 1724.
This period is known as the "Periwig
During the period, the Republic lost its Great-Power status Era".
and its primacy in world trade, processes that went hand-in-
hand, the latter causing the former. Though the economy
declined considerably, causing deindustrialization and deurbanization in the maritime provinces, a
rentier-class kept accumulating a large capital fund that formed the basis for the leading position the
Republic achieved in the international capital market. A military crisis at the end of the period caused the
Orangist revolution and the restoration of the Stadtholderate in all provinces.

Economic decline after 1730

The slow economic decline after 1730 was relative: other countries grew faster, eroding the Dutch lead
and surpassing it. Wilson identifies three causes. Holland lost its world dominance in trade as competitors
emerged and copied its practices, built their own ships and ports, and traded on their own account directly
without going through Dutch intermediaries. Second, there was no growth in manufacturing, due perhaps
to a weaker sense of industrial entrepreneurship and to the high wage scale. Third the wealthy turned their
investments to foreign loans. This helped jump-start other nations and provided the Dutch with a steady
income from collecting interest, but leaving them with few domestic sectors with a potential for rapid
growth.[22][23]
After the Dutch fleet declined, merchant interests became dependent on the goodwill of Britain. The main
focus of Dutch leaders was reducing the country's considerable budget deficits. Dutch trade and shipping
remained at a fairly steady level through the 18th century, but no longer had a near monopoly and also
could not match growing British and French competition. The Netherlands lost its position as the trading
centre of Northern Europe to Britain.

Although the Netherlands remained wealthy, investments for the nation's money became more difficult to
find. Some investment went into purchases of land for estates, but most went to foreign bonds and
Amsterdam remained one of Europe's banking capitals.

Culture and society

Dutch culture also declined both in the arts and sciences.
Literature for example largely imitated English and French
styles with little in the way of innovation or originality. The
most influential intellectual was Pierre Bayle (1647–1706), a
Protestant refugee from France who settled in Rotterdam
where he wrote the massive Dictionnaire Historique et
Critique (Historical and Critical Dictionary, 1696). It had a
major impact on the thinking of The Enlightenment across
Winter landscape with skaters near the
Europe, giving an arsenal of weapons to critics who wanted to city of Kampen, by Hendrick Avercamp
attack religion. It was an encyclopaedia of ideas that argued
that most "truths" were merely opinions, and that gullibility
and stubbornness were prevalent.[24]

Religious life became more relaxed as well. Catholics grew

from 18% to 23% of the population during the 18th century
and enjoyed greater tolerance, even as they continued to be
outside the political system. They became divided by the feud
between moralistic Jansenists (who denied free will) and
orthodox believers. One group of Jansenists formed a splinter
sect, the Old Catholic Church in 1723. The upper classes
willingly embraced the ideas of the Enlightenment, tempered
by the tolerance that meant less hostility to organized religion
The Doctor's Visit , by Jan Steen
compared to France.[25]

Dutch universities declined in importance, no longer

attracting large numbers of foreign students. The Netherlands remained an important hub of intellectual
exchange, creating reviews of foreign publications that made scholars aware of new works in French,
German, and English. Dutch painting declined, no longer being innovative, with painters pursuing the
styles of the old masters.

Life for the average Dutchman became slower and more relaxed in the 18th century. The upper and
middle classes continued to enjoy prosperity and high living standards. The drive to succeed seemed less
urgent. Unskilled laborers remained locked in poverty and hardship. The large underclass of unemployed
required government and private charity to survive.
The Orangist revolution (1747–1751)

Stadtholderates of William IV and

William V
1747–1795

Chronology
Second Batavian Republic
Stadtholderless Period

During Anthonie van der Heim's tenure as Grand Pensionary

(1737–1746), the Dutch Republic was reluctantly drawn into
the War of Austrian Succession, despite efforts to remain
neutral. French attacks on Dutch fortresses in the Spanish
Netherlands and occupation of the Dutch Zeelandic Flanders
led to the Republic joining the Quadruple Alliance, which
suffered a significant defeat at the Battle of Fontenoy. The
French invasion exposed the weaknesses of Dutch defenses,
William IV, Prince of Orange, stadholder
from 1747 to 1751 CE leading to memories of "Disaster Year" of 1672 and
widespread calls for the restoration of the stadtholderate.[26]
William IV, Prince of Orange, seized this opportunity to
consolidate power and place loyal officials in strategic
government positions to wrest control from the regenten.[26]
The struggle involved religious, anti-Catholic, and democratic
elements, as well as mob violence and political agitation. The
war concluded with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), and
the French voluntarily retreated from the Dutch frontier.
However, William IV died unexpectedly in 1751 at the age of
40.[26]

Regency and indolent rule (1752–1779)

His son, William V, was 3 years old when his father died, and
a long regency characterised by corruption and misrule began.
His mother delegated most of the powers of the regency to
Bentinck and her favorite, Duke Louis Ernest of Brunswick-
Lüneburg. All power was concentrated in the hands of an
unaccountable few, including the Frisian nobleman Douwe
Willem V of Orange, stadholder from Sirtema van Grovestins.[26] Still a teenager, William V
1751 to 1806, and Wilhelmina of Prussia assumed the position of stadtholder in 1766, the last to hold
with three of their five children. From left that office. In 1767, he married Princess Wilhelmina of
to right: the future William I of the Prussia, the daughter of Augustus William of Prussia, niece of
Netherlands, Frederick, and Frederica Frederick the Great.
Louise Wilhelmina.
The position of the Dutch during the American War of
Independence (1775–1783) was one of neutrality. William V,
leading the pro-British faction within the government, blocked attempts by anti-Orangist, and later pro-
French, elements to drag the government to war. However, things came to a head with the Dutch attempt
to join the Russian-led League of Armed Neutrality, leading to the outbreak of the disastrous Fourth
Anglo-Dutch War in 1780. After the signing of the Treaty of Paris (1783), the impoverished nation grew
restless under William's rule.

An English historian summed him up uncharitably as "a Prince of the profoundest lethargy and most
abysmal stupidity."[27] And yet he would guide his family through the difficult French-Batavian period
and his son would be crowned king.

Fourth Anglo-Dutch War (1780–1784)

The Fourth Anglo–Dutch War (1780–1784) was a conflict
between the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Dutch
Republic. The war, tangentially related to the American
Revolutionary War, broke out over British and Dutch
disagreements on the legality and conduct of Dutch trade with
Britain's enemies in that war.

Although the Dutch Republic did not enter into a formal

Battle of Dogger Bank (1781) by Thomas
alliance with the United States and their allies, U.S.
Luny
ambassador (and future President) John Adams managed to
establish diplomatic relations with the Dutch Republic,
making it the second European country to diplomatically recognize the Continental Congress in April
1782. In October 1782, a treaty of amity and commerce was concluded as well.

Most of the war consisted of a series of largely successful British operations against Dutch colonial
economic interests, although British and Dutch naval forces also met once off the Dutch coast. The war
ended disastrously for the Dutch and exposed the weakness of the political and economic foundations of
the country.[28] The Treaty of Paris (1784), according to Fernand Braudel, "sounded the knell of Dutch
greatness."[29]

Patriot rebellion and its suppression (1785–1795)

After the war with Great Britain ended disastrously in 1784, there was growing unrest and a rebellion by
the anti-Orangist Patriots. Influenced by the American Revolution, the Patriots sought a more democratic
form of government. The opening shot of this revolution is often considered to be the 1781 publication of
a manifesto called Aan het Volk van Nederland ("To the People of the Netherlands") by Joan van der
Capellen tot den Pol, who would become an influential leader of the Patriot movement. Their aim was to
reduce corruption and the power held by the stadtholder, William V, Prince of Orange.[30]

Support for the Patriots came mostly from the middle class. They formed militias called
exercitiegenootschappen. In 1785, there was an open Patriot rebellion, which took the form of an armed
insurrection by local militias in certain Dutch towns, Freedom being the rallying cry. Herman Willem
Daendels attempted to organise an overthrow of various municipal governments (vroedschap). The goal
was to oust government officials and force new elections. "Seen as a whole this revolution was a string of
violent and confused events, accidents, speeches, rumours, bitter enmities and armed confrontations",
wrote French historian Fernand Braudel, who saw it as a forerunner of the French Revolution. The Patriot
movement focused more on local political power, where they had no say in their towns' governance.
Although they were able to curtail the power of the
stadholder, and hold democratic elections in select towns,
they were divided in their political vision, which was more
local than national. Supporters were drawn from religious
dissenters and Catholics in particular places, while pro-
stadholder Orangists had more widespread geographical
support of sections of the lower classes, the Dutch Reformed
clergy, and the Jewish community.[31]

In 1785 the stadholder left The Hague and moved his court to
Nijmegen in Guelders, a city remote from the heart of Dutch Firefight on the Vaartse Rijn at Jutphaas
political life. In June 1787, his energetic wife Wilhelmina (the on 9 May 1787. The pro-revolutionary
sister of Frederick William II of Prussia) tried to travel to The Utrecht Patriots are on the right; the
Hague. Outside Schoonhoven, she was stopped by Patriot troops of stadholder William V, Prince of
militiamen and taken to a farm near Goejanverwellesluis. She Orange on the left. (Painted by Jonas
Zeuner, 1787)
was forced to return to Nijmegen. She appealed to her brother
for help, and he sent some 26,000 troops to invade, led by
Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick, to suppress the rebellion. The Patriot militias could not
contend with these forces, melting away.[32] Dutch banks at this time still held much of the world's
capital. Government-sponsored banks owned up to 40% of Great Britain's national debt and there were
close connections to the House of Stuart. The stadholder had supported British policies after the
American Revolution and in foreign policy, the stadholder was "little more than a pawn of the British and
Prussians", so that Patriot pressure was ignored by William.[33]

This severe military response overwhelmed the Patriots and put the stadholder firmly back in control. A
small unpaid Prussian army was billeted in the Netherlands and supported themselves by looting and
extortion. The exercitiegenootschappen continued urging citizens to resist the government. They
distributed pamphlets, formed "Patriot Clubs" and held public demonstrations. The government
responded by pillaging those towns where opposition continued. Five leaders were sentenced to death,
forcing them to flee. Lynchings also occurred. For a while, no one dared appear in public without an
orange cockade to show their support for Orangism. Many Patriots, perhaps around 40,000 in all, fled to
Brabant, France (especially Dunkirk and St. Omer) and elsewhere. Before long the French became
involved in Dutch politics and the tide turned toward the Patriots.

The French Revolution was popular, and numerous underground clubs were promoting it when in January
1795 the French army invaded. The underground rose up, overthrew the municipal and provincial
governments, and proclaimed the Batavian Republic in Amsterdam. Stadtholder William V fled to
England and the States General dissolved itself.[34]

Economy
During the Dutch Golden Age in the late-16th and 17th centuries, the Dutch Republic dominated world
trade, conquering a vast colonial empire and operating the largest fleet of merchantmen of any nation.
When Southern Europe was experiencing poor harvests, the Dutch very profitably exported surplus grain
from Poland.[35] The County of Holland was the wealthiest and most urbanized region in the world. In
1650 the urban population of the Dutch Republic as a percentage of total population was 31.7 percent,
while that of the Spanish Netherlands was 20.8 percent, of
Portugal 16.6 percent, and of Italy 14 percent.[36][37] In 1675
the urban population density of Holland alone was 61 percent,
compared to the rest of the Dutch Republic, where 27 percent
lived in urban areas.[38][39]

The free trade spirit of the time was augmented by the

development of a modern, effective stock market in the Low
Countries.[40] The Netherlands has the oldest stock exchange
in the world, founded in 1602 by the Dutch East India
Company, while Rotterdam has the oldest bourse in the
Netherlands. The Dutch East-India Company exchange went
public in six different cities. Later, a court ruled that the
company had to reside legally in a single city, so Amsterdam Amsterdam Stock Exchange courtyard,
is recognized as the oldest such institution based on modern 1653
trading principles. While the banking system evolved in the
Low Countries, it was quickly incorporated by the well-
connected English, stimulating English economic output.[41][42][43][44]

The Dutch Republic was a master of banking, often compared to 14th century Florence.

Politics
The republic was a confederation of seven provinces, which had their own governments and were very
independent, and a number of so-called Generality Lands. The latter were governed directly by the States
General, the federal government. The States General were seated in The Hague and consisted of
representatives of each of the seven provinces. The provinces of the republic were, in official feudal
order:

1. Duchy of Guelders (corresponding to the modern province of Gelderland)

2. County of Holland (corresponding to the modern provinces of North Holland and South
Holland)
3. County of Zeeland (corresponding to the modern province of Zeeland)
4. Lordship of Utrecht (corresponding to the modern province of Utrecht)
5. Lordship of Overijssel (corresponding to the modern province of Overijssel)
6. Lordship of Frisia (corresponding to the modern province of Friesland)
7. Lordship of Groningen (corresponding to the modern province of Groningen)
There was an eighth province, the County of Drenthe (corresponding to the modern province of Drenthe),
but this area was so poor that it was exempt from paying federal taxes, and as a consequence, it was
denied representation in the States General, which is why the official name of the state was the "Seven
United Netherlands" and not the "Eight United Netherlands".

Each province was governed by the Provincial States, their main executive official (though not the
official head of state) being a raadpensionaris or landsadvocaat. In times of war, the stadtholder, who
commanded the army, would have more power than the raadpensionaris. In theory, the stadtholders were
freely appointed by and subordinate to the states of each province. However, in practice the princes of
Orange of the House of Orange-Nassau, beginning with William the Silent, were always chosen as
stadtholders of most of the provinces.

Zeeland and usually Utrecht had the same stadtholder as Holland. There was a constant power struggle
between the Orangists, who supported the stadtholders and specifically the princes of Orange, and the
Republicans, who supported the States General and hoped to replace the semi-hereditary nature of the
stadtholdership with a true republican structure.

After the Peace of Westphalia, several border territories were assigned to the United Provinces. They
were federally governed Generality Lands. These were Staats-Brabant, Staats-Vlaanderen, Staats-
Overmaas, and (after the Treaty of Utrecht) Staats-Opper-Gelre. The States General of the United
Provinces were in control of the Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India Company, but
some shipping expeditions were initiated by some of the provinces, mostly Holland and Zeeland.

The framers of the United States Constitution were influenced by the Constitution of the Republic of the
United Provinces, as Federalist No. 20, by James Madison, shows.[45] The United States did not intend to
emulate the United Provinces; Madison describes the Dutch confederacy as exhibiting "Imbecility in the
government; discord among the provinces; foreign influence and indignities; a precarious existence in
peace, and peculiar calamities from war." However, the 1776 American Declaration of Independence is
similar to the 1581 Act of Abjuration, essentially the declaration of independence of the United
Provinces,[46] although there is no evidence of direct influence.

Map of the Republic of the The united provinces, with

Seven United Netherlands with Drenthe and the Generality
colonies, c1707-1729 Lands

Religion
In the Union of Utrecht of 20 January 1579, Holland and Zeeland were granted the right to accept only
one religion (in practice, Calvinism). Every other province had the freedom to regulate the religious
question as it wished, although the Union stated every person should be free in the choice of personal
religion and that no person should be prosecuted based on religious choice.[47] William of Orange had
been a strong supporter of public and personal freedom of religion and hoped to unite Protestants and
Catholics in the new union, and, for him, the Union was a defeat. In
practice, Catholic services in all provinces were quickly forbidden, and
the Dutch Reformed Church became the "public" or "privileged"
church in the republic.[48]

During the republic, any person who wished to hold public office had
to conform to the Reformed Church and take an oath to this effect. The
extent to which different religions or denominations were persecuted
depended much on the time period and regional or city leaders. In the
beginning, this was especially focused on Roman Catholics, being the
religion of the enemy. In 17th-century Leiden, for instance, people
opening their homes to services could be fined 200 guilders (a year's
wage for a skilled tradesman) and banned from the city.[49] Throughout
this, however, personal freedom of religion existed and was one factor Sermon at the Oude Kerk at
—along with economic reasons—in causing large immigration of Delft, 1651
religious refugees from other parts of Europe.[48]

In the first years of the republic, controversy arose within the Reformed Church, mainly around the
subject of predestination. This has become known as the struggle between Arminianism and Gomarism,
or between Remonstrants and Contra-Remonstrants. In 1618, the Synod of Dort tackled this issue, which
led to the banning of the Remonstrant faith.

Beginning in the 18th century, the situation changed from more or less active persecution of religious
services to a state of restricted toleration of other religions, as long as their services took place secretly in
private churches.

Decline
Long-term rivalry between the two main factions in Dutch
society, the Staatsgezinden (Republicans, Dutch States Party)
and the Prinsgezinden (Royalists or Orangists), sapped the
strength and unity of the country. Johan de Witt and the
Republicans did reign supreme for a time at the middle of the
17th century (the First Stadtholderless Period) until his
overthrow and murder in 1672. Subsequently, William III of
Orange became stadtholder. After a 22-year stadtholderless
Dutch troops led by the Prince of Orange
era, the Orangists regained power, and his first problem was
assault the French at the battle of
to survive the Franco-Dutch War (with the derivative Third Malplaquet
Anglo-Dutch War), when France, England, Münster, and
Cologne united against his country.

Wars to contain the expansionist policies of France in various coalitions after the Glorious Revolution
burdened the republic with huge debts, although little of the fighting after 1673 took place on Dutch
territory. The necessity to maintain a vast army against France meant that less money could be spent on
the navy, weakening the republic's economy. After William III's death in 1702 the Second Stadtholderless
Period was inaugurated. Despite having contributed much in the War of the Spanish Succession, the
Dutch Republic gained little from the peace talks in Utrecht (1713). However, the Dutch had over a
period of forty years successfully defended their positions in the Southern Netherlands and their troops
were central in the alliances which had halted French territorial expansion in Europe until 1792.[50] The
end of the War of the Austrian Succession in 1748, and Austria becoming allies with France against
Prussia, marked the end of the republic as a major military power.[51]

Fierce competition for trade and colonies, especially from France and England, furthered the economic
downturn of the country. The three Anglo-Dutch Wars and the rise of mercantilism had a negative effect
on Dutch shipping and commerce.

See also
List of countries that have gained independence from Spain
Dutch colonial empire
Dutch East India Company
Dutch West India Company

References

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3. Rietbergen, P. J. A. N. (2000). A Short History of the Netherlands: From Prehistory to the
Present Day (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/52849131) (4th ed.). Amersfoort: Bekking.
p. 159. ISBN 90-6109-440-2. OCLC 52849131 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/52849131).
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4. Geyl, Pieter (2001). History of the Dutch-Speaking Peoples, 1555–1648. Phoenix Press.
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5. Bodian, Miriam (1997). Hebrews of the Portuguese Nation: Conversos and Community in
Early Modern Amsterdam. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
6. Jonker, Joost (1996). Merchants, bankers, middlemen: the Amsterdam money market during
the first half of the 19th century (https://books.google.com/books?id=8xwWAQAAMAAJ).
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7. Charles R. Boxer, The Dutch Seaborne Empire 1600–1800 (1965)
8. de Vries, Jan; van der Woude, A. (1997). The First Modern Economy. Success, Failure, and
Perseverance of the Dutch Economy, 1500–1815. pp. 668–672.
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10. Regin, Deric (1976). Traders, Artists, Burghers: A Cultural History of Amsterdam in the 17th
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External links
Media related to Republic of the Seven United Netherlands at Wikimedia Commons

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