Chapter II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents the conceptual literature from books and other publications

and studies used in the present study and the research literature as well from the different

theses ad dissertations.

Conceptual Literature

The conceptual literature discusses the information and facts which were related

to the hospitality industry performance gaps and deficiencies: As student trainee’s

perspective.

On-the-Job Training. According to E.B. Hippo (2008). Training fills areas of

gaps with knowledge and skills, and change all negative attitude to positive attitude. It

improves performance of employees to enhance productivity adopt proactive and zero

defect culture, and encourage. Innovative and creative ideas of employees for optimum

use of materials. Payos (2010) said that training is the development of skills and expertise

of one individual remains one of the crucial key to business success. It is an organized

learning activity in the organization to improve the performance and/or personal growth,

for the purpose of improving job, the individual and the organization. The goal of training

is for individuals to master the knowledge, skills and behavior emphasized in training

program and to apply them to their day to day activities. It focuses on learning the

necessary skills required to perform a job. Lastly, it helps to improve individual

performance and a continuing process to increase productivity.

Reyes (2009) Stated that the on-the-job training is a carefully monitored work or a

service experience in which a student has international learning goals and actively
 2

reflects on what he/she is learning. It is designed to provide student with pre-professional

experiences before they graduate in order to test various career options while developing

communication, teamwork, leadership and other industry-specific skills, expand

knowledge in a particular field, explore career options, and apply or test academic

learning while gaining hands-on-experience in the professional work setting. In

additional, local on-the-job training program in Batangas State University is supervised

and carried out by the Industry Academic Education Program Office (IACEPO).

On the other hand, on-the-job training as discussed by (Dela Cueva, 2008) is a

process in which the employee observes and practices a task while performing his or her

job. This method is a mainstay of training in the hospitality industry. Planned training

sessions must be incorporated into on-the-job training if this approach is to be successful.

This method trains the new employees to perform task on an as needed basis; the

employees learns a skill only when he or she has to use it on the job. The hands-on

experience gained during an on-the-job training will make your credential more attractive

to future employers and can help you to make more informed decision about the career

path you choose following graduation. It also provides valuable networking opportunities

that may lead to future full-time employment. On the job training is working with others

this is the most fundamental training program. OJT means that the employee immediately

begins his or her task and learns by doing or watches others for a while and imitates

them, right at the work place. It is easiest kind of training to implement and can be

effective where job is easily learned where respective physical task is done. More tedious

or intricate jobs easily require a more intense training effort, Training is become more
 3

complex. Furthermore, training is expanding to include education and personal

development.

Training. One of the very important basis part of performance best when it

provides a real challenge to learners and is reasonably within their grasp. At first the

challenge is light, and when it is increased proportionate to the capability of the learner.

Training and development include all attempts to improve performance by increasing an

employee’s ability to perform through learning. The process of creating training and

development program includes accessing the organization’s needs and employees skills

to determine training needs, and evaluating the training effectiveness. (De Vera and

Nohay 2009).

Training Program. According to Dimaano (2010), training as well as constant

process of training new employees never ends. Retraining and diversifying the training of

establishment personnel, training programs themselves become obsolete or elements of

the content of the programs cease to the opposite due to march of technology or change in

legislation or company director.

Performance gaps. Is a description of current work behavior in relation to work

standards or mutually agreed upon work objectives. Performance measures are out-come

based either in terms of specified standards or in comparison with specific business

objectives. Many factors can affect the performance of individual employees their

abilities, motivations, the support they receive, the nature of the work they are doing and

their relationship with the organization. There are three important elements of

performance, the expectations, outcome and results. Expectations are those things that

can anticipate what will or think should happen. These can be both realistic and
 4

unrealistics. Outcomes are the things produced by the efforts to meet the expectations.

Results are the impact that outcomes have on the environment in which it is performed.

(Dalisay and Rivera 2008).

In addition, Ariola, et al. (2009) found out that in the respondents’ level of

performance, time management ranked first. This was followed by job knowledge,

commitment to work and peer relationships respectively which were interpreted as very

satisfactory.

Deficient performance. is typically an employee-based problem .In any event,

when an employee is not meeting performance standards, the supervisor should make the

employee aware of deficient performance as it occurs. Related to deficient performance

take one of three forms: Lack of job knowledge, Unsuitability to the job, and Emotional

or external factors. These are the factors that can affect to the performance of the

employees and the company rating performance. (www.hrm.oa.pa-

gov>documents>addressing-performance-deficiencies.pdf)

According to Fusch & Gillespie, 2012 there are some of the causes of

performance gaps on the organization-controlled hard side of management in the

Information subcategory:

Breakdowns in communication. Lack of communication systems, breakdowns in

communication from individuals failing to share information, departments and teams not

talking to each other, too much useless information such as e-mails sent to everybody

when only a small group or specific individuals need the communication.

Lack of leadership. Managers who fall short in leadership skills, leading in the

wrong direction, unclear expectations, no job description or a job description that does

not match the job, too many managers with opposing directives.

Insufficient knowledge reservoir. Lack of a viable knowledge management

system or too much information without a system to identify useful information that

workers need to perform well in their jobs. Or the right information is unavailable when

needed.

Withholding information. Lack of useful information for the workers who need it.

Security measures in place that prevent access to those who need the information. Often

kept in a division, group, team, or individual vault without sharing with others who

would benefit from having the information.

Resisting change. Given the plethora of research on change management and the

human resistance to change, this cause may represent lack of vision, lack of resources,

lack of knowledge, or complacency. The performance-gap causes on the soft side of

management (below the line) in the Information subcategory likely indicate that the

workers do not have the necessary knowledge or abilities or are affected by other

influences that impact their ability to process information.

The performance-gap causes on the organization-controlled hard side of

management in the Instrumentation subcategory may include the following:

Poor physical environment. An environment where the facility causes constraints

in workplace performance. May include poor climate control, inadequate lighting, poor

facility layout, and safety hazards. Potential hazards and dangerous chemicals with

inadequate safety protocols. Frequent injuries or hazard regard for worker welfare.
 6

Deficient ergonomics. A workplace environment where workers must perform

physical actions that may cause fatigue or injury over time.

Inadequate equipment. Equipment that is poorly maintained, is not functioning

properly, causes hazards to workers, and fails to provide the best return on investment

(ROI) for its use.

The performance-gap causes on the soft side of management in the

Instrumentation subcategory likely indicate that the workers do not have the psychomotor

skills, abilities, or competence to perform their tasks. (Fusch & Gillespie, 2012).

The performance-gap causes on the organization-controlled hard side of

management in the Motivation subcategory may include the following.

Unclear work expectations. It is common for workers to be hired or transferred

without a clearly defined job role. All too often managers do not define their expectations

or communicate them to their workers.

No/minimal incentives and rewards. Lack of rewards, including compliments,

recognition, and appraisals identifying positive contributions. Lack of opportunity for

career development or advancement. Low pay and/or lack of a benefits package.

Elimination of pay, benefits, or other rewards.

Undefined workplace culture. A culture that is hostile or less than desirable. A

culture where you must lose yourself to conform and survive.

Devaluing worker behaviors. Leadership and/or coworkers who do not value

positive worker behaviors.

The performance-gap causes on the soft side of management in the Motivation

subcategory likely indicate problems in any of the other management categories. This

affects the workers’ attitude and willingness to perform.

Every organization has specific issues and concerns that cause performance gaps.

The leading scientific methods to identify performance gaps include performance

indicators, direct observation, worker interviews, exit interviews, focus groups, project

teams, ad hoc committees, and questionnaires. (Fusch & Gillespie, 2012).

Lack of Knowledge. Can usually be corrected with the transfer of information.

The supervisor is responsible to determine if the employee knows how to perform his or

her job. If not, training or instruction often can help. Probationary periods are the

appropriate time to focus on and determine if an employee has the capacity for the work

and if he or she has acquired sufficient knowledge to do the job satisfactorily.

(www.hrm.oa.pa-gov>documents>addressing-performance-deficiencies.pdf)

Unsuitability to the job. The supervisor observe the employee if he or she is well

suited to the job. If the employee is not capable, then he or she is not well suited to the

job and transfer, demotion, or dismissal may be necessary.

(www.hrm.oa.pa-gov>documents>addressing-performance-deficiencies.pdf)

Emotional or External factors. May affect the employee’s performance. However,

the supervisor should not diagnose or become involved in an employee’s personal

problem. If deteriorating job performance is identified, the supervisor should inform the

employee of the professional service available. (www.hrm.oa.pa-

gov>documents>addressing-performance-deficiencies.pdf)
 8

Developing an action plan. Is essential. When supervisors identify deficient

performance, they should discuss the problem with the reviewing officer and the Labor

Relations Coordinator. Together, they can create an action plan to deal with the

employee’s performance problem. (www.hrm.oa.pa-gov>documents>addressing-

performance-deficiencies.pdf).

Knowledge. is an important benefit of training, Accumulation of information

ideas, and concepts located in this domain accept. (De Vera and Nohay 2009).

Attitudes. which are observed only through actions and patterns of

behavior .Attributed to this is the affective domain of learning as knowledge and skills.

(De Vera and Nohay 2009). According to Balahadia-Cabrera et al 2012, The host

establishments assessed the practicumers to be excellent in demonstrating dedication and

commitment to the tasks assigned to him/her, in recognizing and respecting authority, in

demonstrating cooperation, in showing interest and enthusiasm, in practicing self-

discipline in work, in using mature judgment, in showing constructive and positive

behavior, in observing punctuality, and in performing tasks without much supervision.

According to Milton Barbosa (2013) he said about attitude is everything in

hospitality industry.

“It is easy to train someone to do a job, but it’s very hard to train someone with

poor attitude to be highly motivated.” The work attitude of individual staff is important

not just to fair own well-being, but also for that of their workmates. “While a positive

team member is productive, he can also motivate others”.

Skills. On work skills, the practicumers were assessed to be excellent when they

show flexibility (whenever the need arises) in the process of going through his/her tasks,

manifest thoroughness and precise attention to details, handle the details of the work

assigned to him/her and demonstrate the ability to operate machine/s needed on the job.

They were very satisfactory in showing leadership skills. On social skills, the

practicumers were assessed to be excellent when they willingly help others (whenever

necessary) in performance of their tasks, show appreciation and gratitude for any form of

assistance granted to him/her by others, show respect and courtesy in dealing with peers

and superiors, 69 and show tact in dealing with different people they come in contact

with. (Balahadia-Cabrera et al., 2012).

Organizational Work Environment. According to Steve (2011) there’s a seven

steps in creating a great work environment namely: be flexible, communicate, recognize,

success, offer development opportunities build trust, give and receive feedback and

provide a sense of purpose. In Paul et.al. (2012), he defined the on-the-job training as an

important strategy for general practitioners to deliver appropriately community health

service in China. This literature is mainly focused in on the job trainees as the

respondents of this study. “Trainees can learns as they contribute to the aims of the

enterprise.” And later that there are limitations to be followed by the management as they

let the trainees work. The trainees are important strategy to the community. In study of

Alcaraz (2009), he defined OJT program as a program for augmenting the knowledge

skills and competencies of the task and activities, it means knowledge starts from the four

corners of the classroom and they apply their learning to work environment. On the Job

Training is learning at the actual place or work which requires the students to apply the
 10

theories, learned in the classroom into practice. It is never ending learning process

experienced by the students in a real work environment (Cogalo, Martinez and Paňa

2015). According to Balahadia-Cabrera et al 2012 that the practicumers disagreed that the

following are problems they encountered during their OJT. First, the distance of the

company is too far from school or practicumers home. Second, the company does not

offer part time job to deserving practicumers. Third, time conflicts between classes and

on-the-job training schedule. Forth, inadequate knowledge regarding the task assigned to

the practicumers. Fifth, there is a risk of accident in the place. Sixth, the facilities and

equipment used in the place of OJT is not modernized. Seventh, the company gives task/s

not related to the course. Eighth, the company does not allow the practicumer to render

overtime. Ninth, superiors are not willing to listen to whatever suggestions or

recommendations are made. Tenth, a superior does not set a positive example to follow.

And lastly, the superior does not have a good working.

Research Literature

Hereunder are researches and studies of different educators who also identified

other factors that affect the performance of students on their on-the-job training. Further,

the related studies presented here in the selected on the basis of their relevance in

promoting directions. For this study, these studies are discussed in the following

paragraphs.

Flores, Icaro, Marquez (2012). On the job training is included in the curriculum to

graduate. It provides the students with basic concepts and skills necessary for their work

exposure to enable them to apply their practical learning inside the classroom. Without

the foundational concepts and skills, any type of practicum training will not be success.
 11

Students must be aware that the practicum training is not just only a requirement of the

course. It can also the students to have a good job after they graduated because majority

of the student trainees usually get absorbed when the establishments noticed that they

have a potential to be part of the organization.

Hernandez and Montealto (2009) mentioned that majority of the BSHRM student-

trainees assessed the International Practicum Training Program (IPTP) objectives as

implemented and evaluated to a very great extent. Moreover, student trainees were found

to have competencies performed to a very great extent and there is no significant

relationship between the effectiveness of the IPTP and the competency level of the

BSHRM student-trainees. Proposed courses of action to enhance the competency level of

BSHRM student-trainees are providing a career placement; conducting seminar for the

would be graduating BSHRM students; providing a pre-section process on the IPTP

trainees-aspirants; providing intensive job orientation seminar for the prospective

BSHRM student-trainees; and improving and developing the knowledge, skills, and

attitude of BSHRM student-trainees through quality instruction are best fit to the

objectives and implementation of the program. The researchers used the descriptive

method of research with 30 BSHRM student-trainees as respondents currently taking up

on-the-job training in Singapore.

De La Cruz and Miranda (2010) in the study entitled “Foodservice Establishments

Physical Facilities and Equipment as Correlates to the Student Trainees Competence of

Batangas State University Malvar” stated that majority of the AHRM student trainees

were female, age, ranges, from 18-19 received a final grade of 1.50 as a result they

assessed that physical facilities and equipment in terms of dining area layout and
 12

atmosphere to moderate satisfactory and adequacy of equipment to a very satisfactory. It

is also established that there is a significant relationship between the respondents profile

in terms in gender, age and OJT final grade and their competencies. Moreover student

trainees were found to have competencies performed to a great extent and a significant

relationship between the student trainees’ assessment on physical facilities and equipment

to their competencies.

The study of Dimaano, Maralit, Siman (2010). emphasized that majority of the

respondents are 19-20 years old. Most of the AHRM students have a height of 5’2-5’5.

The local OJT grades of the student trainees were found to be outstanding. It was shown

that height of AHRM student trainees has no significant effect of to there performance.

Thus, it is recommended that school committees offering AHRM courses with

knowledge, skills, strong motivation and posture impression of their course to maintain

high general weighted average of the student.

According to the American Society for Training and Development (2008),

professional trainers recognize that as times becomes a critical strategic resource. “Just-

In-Time Training”-training provided during real time on-the-job is proving to be the most

effective means of facilitating learning in the workplace. Yet in many organizations, on-

the-job training is typically left to the devices of supervisors, executives, and other well-

mentioned workers who lack the necessary skills to plan and execute it successfully.

Improving on-the-job training offers a complete, step-by-step action guide to establishing

or improving a comprehensive on-the-job training program in all job categories in any

occupation or industry. “it goes far beyond a simple description of what on-the-job
 13

training (OJT) is, to explore key management and organizational issues and to help

improve employee performance and increase an organization profitability.

Malabanan and Penaloza. In this study, recommends on the basis of the findings

and conclusion, the researchers gave the following. First, that the students should develop

their confidence to uplift their job morale for them to perform the various tasks assigned

to them by their superiors. Second, that the school may provide exposure, other training

activities and workshops for additional knowledge and for acquiring more skills. The

school must also provide tools and equipment so that the students will use them on their

on the job training. Third, which the instructors in the department may be resourceful

with a high sufficient way of teaching to make the students more knowledgeable on other

matters which the students can use and relate to their training. Fourth, that a course of

action to enhance the On-the-Job Training Programs in the university should be

implemented to develop the skills and commitment of the student trainees in the

demanding hospitality industry. And the last, that similar study must be conducted to

enhance the On-the-Job training programs in the university.

However, Bansil, Marollano, Moren (2012), in this study aimed to assess the

learning experience of Hotel and Restaurant Management student trainees to determine

the strength and weaknesses of the respondents on their on-the-job training. The learning

experience of Hotel and Restaurant Management student’s trainees in Batangas State

University Malvar, Campus has shown its potential in the study. To successfully meet the

necessary data, this study used descriptive method of research. It also used appropriate

tool like validated and approved questionnaire from TESDA and he use of electronic
 14

device to gather pertinent data and information which were needed in assessing learning

experience of hotel and restaurant management student trainees.

The study of Pascual (2009), showed that learning acquired in school are relevant

to their actual work practice; emotional, financial, spiritual, cultural, geographical

location and communication are the barriers that effect their work performance;

observing, adapting, interacting, and seeking information by asking are the ways they use

to deal with these barriers; training is beneficial, trainers learned and experienced lot of

things; new skills have been acquired while having the training; trainees are equipped

with enough knowledge necessary for task accomplishment; benefits acquired in the

training greater than the cost incurred; trainers improved in many aspects making them

better individuals.

Ariola (2009), found out that in the respondents level of performance, time

management ranked first. This was followed by job knowledge, commitment to work and

peer relationships respectively which were interpreted as very satisfactory. The study also

found out that among the given four (4) job stressors, the respondent assessed that the

most stress-causing was the work itself. Followed by work environment family and

relationship with the co-worker all which were interpreted as moderately agree (MA).

The study further found out that there is no significant relationship between respondents’

profile and job stressors. However, the nature of employment is significant with regards

to work environment on the other hand, it was found out that job stressors have no effect

on the level of performance while peer relationship is significant with regards to work

itself.
 15

On the other hand, Evangelio (2008), found out that intrinsic factors such as

achievement, recognition responsibility, promotion, growth and training and development

were assessed to affect performance of employees to a great extent. Similarly, the study

also revealed that the extrinsic factors such as pay and benefits, policy and

administration, relationship with co-workers, supervision and working environment,

affect to a great extent the performance of the employees.

Based on the study of Gonda (2009), the distance or location was one of the

problems of the trainees. Most of the trainees applied their on-the-job training far from

their residence which caused tardiness and absenteeism on their part and additional

expenses of their allowance in the part of their parents. It was also found out that

equipment and facilities were the most important many business establishment but since

some of them are valuables; they are sometimes denied to operate because of the fear that

the equipment will be destroyed and some of them happened to be assigned in task not

related to their course. In addition, they also found out that the supervisor and co-trainees

were also a problem.

Catapang (2010), this study identified the profile of the respondents in terms of

course and gender, the current programs of the colleges regarding on-the-job training and

the bases of guidelines in the on-the-job training program. The study also determined the

perceptions of the respondents about the on-the-job training program in terms of training

awareness, training implementation and training evaluation, the extent of influences of

on-the-job training program on the level of training outcome in terms of reaction,

learning, behavior and result and the difference between the on-the-job training program

and their perception that lead to assess to the importance of the program. That the
 16

employee rising up the ranks today might have strong credentials, but they often lack the

practical, real world experienced of their own predecessors. Manager as well as departing

talent needs tools and opportunity to transfer knowledge to less experienced members of

an organization to build proper worktable strength. He also observed that more male

undergo on-the-job training since most of the training needs active participation

especially in some industries. He also said that experiential learning has long been proven

the most effective adult learning strategy.

On-the-job training often works out really well for the new employee since the

traditional training periods tend to have a training allowance that maybe lower than the

regular pay scale for the job. Also, there is no need or the new worker to have travel to

one place for the training and another for the job. Many times the person also will be

doing the training and evaluation is the new workers supervisors or manager so this also

establishes job expectation right at the start, the feedback during on-the-job training is

also immediate, so the new employee many experience faster growth in the jb tan he or

she would other types of training situations. (Lite,2009).

In this study, was to expand the knowledge on the influence of feedback delivery

association and performance improvement in operations managers. Previous studies

revealed that various components of the on-the-job training program is our knowledge,

skill, ability/understanding and attitude. For this study developed an understanding of the

impact of these feedback delivery association and performance improvement in

operations managers in the hospitality industries. Identifying feedback associations such

as knowledge, skill, ability/understanding and attitude helped to identify the performance

in the hospitality industry. This study involved a training transfer of an objective

feedback model through the implementation of a feedback training intervention.

(Mayfield,2009).

According to Richardson (2008), the commitment of an employee to an industry

is often determined by his perception towards such industry and hence, hospitality

graduates should be motivated to have a positive perception to the hospitality industry.

The student poor perception of the industry will let them steer clear of it and an essence,

the industry will required more qualified and skills trainings because otherwise this could

negatively impact customer satisfaction, quality of service and overall of performance in

the hospitality industry while having taking the on-the-job training program. In this case,

have to focus on the factors that influence potential in the future employees in the

hospitality industry.

Synthesis

The study of Payos said that training is the development of skills and expertise of

one individual remains one of the crucial key to business success. It is an organized

learning activity in the organization to improve the performance and/or personal growth,

for the purpose of improving job, the individual and the organization.

Reyes and Flores, Icaro, Marquez had similarity to the present study on the job

training in which a student has the basic concepts and skill for their work exposure.

Students must be aware that the practicum training is not just only a requirement of the

course. It can also the students to have a good job after they graduated because majority

of the student trainees usually get absorbed when the establishments noticed that they

have a potential to be part of the organization. A student has international learning goals
 18

and actively reflects on what he/she is learning and to provide student with pre-

professional experiences before they graduate in order to test various career options while

developing communication, teamwork, leadership and other industry-specific skills,

expand knowledge in a particular field, explore career options, and apply or test academic

learning while gaining hands-on-experience in the professional work setting.

The study of Dela Cueva et.al, 2008) is a process in which the employee observes

and practices a task while performing his or her job. This method is a mainstay of

training in the hospitality industry. Planned training sessions must be incorporated into

on-the-job training if this approach is to be successful.

Dimaano et.al, conducted the study about the process of training new employees

never ends. Retraining and diversifying the training of establishment personnel, training

programs themselves become obsolete or elements of the content of the programs cease

to the opposite due to march of technology or change in legislation or company director.

Dimaano, Maralit, and Siman the study On-the-job training program is

responsibility to provide a favorable work experience or On-the-job training (OJT) to the

student’s trainees in accordance with the agreed training plan and scheduled of activities.