VIJAYASRI ORGANICS LIMITED,

VISAKHAPATANAM
Submitted by

KARRI JAGAN
(22065-CHOT-020)

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING (OIL TECHNOLOGY)

GOVERNMENT INSTITUTEOFCHEMICAL ENGINEERING VISAKHAPATNAM-
530007

( Dec2025 to May 2025)

 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that MR. KARRI JAGAN (22065-CHOT-020)
a student at Government institute of Chemical Engineering,
studying DIPLOMA IN CHEMICAL ENGINEERING (OIL
TECHNOLOGY) Visakhapatnam has undergone industrial
training from DEC 2025 TO MAY 2025

During the period of training, he has participated in

production activities and he acquired good knowledge about the process
equipment in this section and consigned to their duty in a safe and
efficient manner.

During this training their conduct and performance was found to

be………………………...

TRAINING INCHARGE HR DEPARTMENT

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the management of
Vijayasri organics. Ltd, for providing us the opportunity to do industrial training
in their industry. This acknowledgement transcends the reality of formality
when we like to express deep gratitude and respect to all those people behind
the screen who guide, inspire and helped us for the completion of the report. we
are grateful to all production employees of other departments like maintenance,
safety and instrumentation department for sharing their valuable experience
with us

We express our sincere thanks to Mr. KISHORE [HR DEPERTMENT]

We are grateful to all production employees, shift in-charges,

technicians,
and other employees of other departments like maintenance, safety, and
instrumentation departments for sharing their valuable experience with us.

Our encomium goes to shri. Dr. K.V. RAMANA Ph.D,

principal of GICE. Shri. D. DAMODAR M. Tech, Head of chemical section.
(OIL TECHNOLOGY) Shri. Dr. P. KRISHNA REDDY Ph.D, Training in
charge. We express our deep veneration to the faculty of Chemical Engineering,
Visakhapatnam for giving us this opportunity for the successful completion of
industrial training.
On conclusion we will remember our experience in this industrial training
and put of presenting the experience to prove our ability and work for pride of the
organization in all respect wherever we get an opportunity.

KARRI JAGAN
22065-CHOT-020
 INDEX

01) INTRODUCTION

02) DEPARTMENTS IN VIJAYASRI ORGANICS PVT LTD.

03) PRODUCTION

04) EQUIPMENT

04.1) REACTORS

 TYPES OF REACTORS

 PARTS OF REACTORS

04.2) FILTRATION

 TYPES OF FILTERS

04.3) DRYING AND TYPES

OF DRYERS

04.4) SIZE REDUCTION EQUIPMENTS

 MULTI MILLER

 MICRONIZER

 SIFTER

4) DISTILLATION COLUMN

5) HEAT EXCHANGERS

6) PUMPS

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 CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
 POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMP

 RECIPROCATING PUMP

 PISTON OR PLUNGER PUMP

 GEAR PUMP

 DIAPHRAGM PUMP

 VACUUM PUMP

7) SCRUBBER

8) BLOWERS

9) EFFLUENT TREATMENT PLANT

10) INSTRUMENTATION

10.1) GAUGES, INDICATORS & TRANSMITTER

10.2) VALVES

10.3) TYPES OF VALVES 11) UTILITIES  REVERSE OSMOSIS PLANT

 CHILLED WATER (VAM)

 STEAM

 CHILLED BRAIN (CHILLER)

 COOLING WATER (COOLING TOWERS)

 HOT WATER(HWS)

 NITROGEN (NITROGEN PLANT)

 VACUUM

 COMPREESED AIR PLANT.

DEPARTMENTS IN VIJAYASRI ORGANICS PVT LTD

CORE DEPARTMENTS
Human Relations (HR): Responsible for recruiting qualified personnel, conducting
employee training programs, managing payroll and benefits, ensuring compliance with
labor laws, and fostering a healthy work environment to improve employee satisfaction
and productivity.

Finance: Manages the company’s financial health by preparing budgets, controlling

costs, handling accounts payable and receivable, conducting financial audits, managing
tax compliance, and providing financial analysis to support business decisions.

Warehouse and Finished Goods: Oversees receipt, proper storage, inventory

management, and dispatch of raw materials, packaging components, and finished
pharmaceutical products. Ensures stock rotation and compliance with Good Storage
Practices (GSP).

Quality Control (QC): Performs rigorous physical, chemical, microbiological, and

stability testing of raw materials, in-process materials, and finished products to ensure
compliance with specifications and regulatory requirements.

Quality Assurance (QA): Ensures overall product quality by overseeing documentation

control, validation of processes and equipment, compliance with GMP guidelines,
conducting internal audits, handling deviation investigations, and coordinating with
regulatory bodies.

Technical Services: Provides technical expertise to support manufacturing, helps

troubleshoot production issues, optimizes process parameters, and assists in technology
transfer and scale-up activities to enhance product yield and quality.

Process Development Lab (PDL): Focuses on research and development of new

processes, improving existing manufacturing methods, conducting pilot plant studies, and
scaling up laboratory results to commercial production.

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Commercial: Manages procurement strategies, vendor development, contract
negotiations, and timely sourcing of raw materials and packaging materials to ensure
uninterrupted production flow at cost-effective rates.

Production: Responsible for executing manufacturing operations according to batch

production records and SOPs, maintaining cleanliness and safety in the production area,
and ensuring timely completion of batches to meet demand.

SUPPORT DEPARTMENTS
Security: Provides security surveillance, controls access to sensitive areas, protects
personnel and property, and implements safety protocols for emergencies and asset
protection.

Information Services (IT): Manages the IT infrastructure, including hardware,

software, networks, data security, and plant automation systems. Supports digital
transformation and ensures smooth flow of information across departments.

Occupational Health Center (OHC): Offers on-site medical care, conducts routine
health checkups, manages employee vaccination programs, and provides immediate
treatment for workplace injuries or illnesses.

SAFETY & UTILITIES DEPARTMENTS

Environmental & Health Safety (EHS): Develops and implements policies for
occupational safety, environmental protection, waste management, risk assessments,
employee safety training, and ensures compliance with environmental regulations and
safety standards.

Engineering:

• Maintenance: Conducts preventive and corrective maintenance of

machinery and equipment to minimize downtime and extend asset life.
• Civil: Manages building maintenance, infrastructure development, and
ensures compliance with construction and safety standards.
• Electrical: Maintains power distribution systems, emergency power
backups, lighting, and electrical safety systems.
• Instrumentation: Calibrates and maintains process control instruments,
analyzers, and automation devices to ensure accurate process monitoring.
 • Projects: Oversees new plant installations, equipment upgrades, and
expansion projects from planning through execution.

Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP): Treats liquid effluents generated from manufacturing
processes by removing harmful contaminants to meet environmental discharge norms and
minimize pollution.

Solvent Recovery System: Recovers and purifies solvents used during production
through distillation or other processes, reducing waste and lowering raw material costs.

Fire Hydrant System: Maintains fire detection and suppression infrastructure including
hydrants, alarms, and emergency response equipment to ensure safety in case of fire
emergencies.

Utilities: Provides essential services such as steam generation, compressed air, chilled
water, purified water, and nitrogen supply that support manufacturing and plant
operations.

Boiler House: Operates boilers to produce steam at required pressure and temperature used
for heating, sterilization, and various manufacturing needs

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TYPES OF EQUIPMENTS USED IN PRODUCTION DEPARTMENT

Reactors
Reactor is an equipment. It is a closed vessel. It is used to react two or more components
or materials are converted into products with in a suitable or required temperature &
pressure. A Chemical reaction is a process that results in the conversion of chemical
substances. The substance or substances initially involved in a chemical reaction are
called reactants. A reactor consists of a tank with an agitator, jacket and integral
heating/cooling system. Reactors are designed based on features like mode of operation
or types of phases present or the geometry of reactors.

In Pharmaceutical Industries Mainly two types of Batch reactors are used they are:
• Stainless Steel Reactor
• Glass Lined Reactor

Stainless Steel Reactor

In this reactor used a non-corrosive chemical (Non-acidic materials). The stainless steel
reactor is made by spraying glass powder which contains high concentrations of silica
onto the internal surface of a steel vessel. After reasonable high temperature sintering, the
glass powder firmly adheres to the metal surface, forming a composite material product.
The close-type stainless steel reactor consists of the lid and tank which can be separated.
There are sealing gaskets between the lid and the tank, and the two are fixed by camps. It
is the best equipment for hydrolysis, neutralization, crystallization, mixing and
emulsifying, the stainless-steel reactor is widely used in the chemical, petroleum,
pharmaceutical, pesticide, food, dye, and other industries.
  A typical batch reactor (also known as a stainless-steel reactor) consists of a
tank with an agitator and an integral heating/cooling system.
 These vessels can vary in size, ranging from less than 1 liter to more than
15,000 liters.
 They are usually fabricated using materials such as steel, stainless steel, or
exotic alloys.
 Liquids and solids are typically charged via connections in the top cover of
the reactor, while vapors and gases discharge through similar connections at the
top.
Liquids are usually discharged from the bottom.
 The batch reactor’s versatility allows it to perform a sequence of different
operations without breaking containment, which is especially useful when
handling toxic or potent compounds.

Batch reactors are employed for a variety of process operations, including:

 Solids dissolution
 Product mixing
 Chemical reactions
 Batch distillation
 Crystallization
 Liquid/liquid extraction

 In some cases, they are referred to by specific names based on their primary
function (e.g., crystallizer or bio-reactor).

 Glass Lined Reactor

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In the reactors, quality carbon steel its lined with special ciliate glass by fritting at a high
temperature. It is irreplaceable with stainless steel, engineering plastic and other alloy
steel under a certain medium and temperature at corrosion resistance. It is also
indispensable and economic and good corrosion resistance equipment.

Properties of Glass Lined Reactor

Type of acid: Glass lining is resistant to virtually all-acid solution at all concentration up
to 130o c and in many cases up to 200 oC or higher. Exception are aqueous fluoride
containing solutions are hot concentrated phosphoric acid.

Temperature: At ambient temperature, most acid have little effect on glass lining. In
most acids changes in corrosion rate are insignificant up to 121oc.
Physical Properties of Glass:
 Specific gravity: 2.5-2.7
 Specific heat: 835 J/ (kg. K)
 Compressive strength: 800-1000 N/m2
 Glass thickness: 2 to 3 mm
Reactor Parts
• Agitator: The usual agitator is a centrally mounted drive shaft with an overhead
drive unit. Impeller blades are mounted on the shaft. A wide variety of blade designs are
used, and typically, the blades cover about two-thirds of the diameter of the reactor.

Agitator Types:
 • Anchor: This simple agitator consists of a shaft and an anchor-type propeller and
can be mounted centrally or at an angle. It is mainly used in reactors for high-viscosity
fluids.
• Propeller: Propellers give an inlet and outlet in the axial direction, preferably
downward. They are characterized by nice pumping flow, low energy consumption, low
shear magnitude, and low turbulence. Suitable for low-viscosity fluids.
• Turbine: Turbines provide shearing, turbulence, and need approximately 20 times
more energy than propellers for the same diameter and rotation speed. Often used for
mixing, blending, and gas dispersion.

Reactor Components
• Jacket: A utility storage part surrounding the reactor, covered by insulation, with a
pressure indicator, temperature indicator, utility outlet, and inlet connections. The jacket
can be used for heating or cooling the reactor contents.
• Man Hole: The head of the reactor used for charging raw materials, inspection,
sampling, and cleaning. It provides access to the reactor vessel.
• Motor & Gearbox: The motor provides power to rotate the impeller, while the
gearbox is used to adjust the speed and torque. The gearbox can be configured for
specific speed and torque requirements.
Safety and Control
• Nitrogen Line: Used to reduce oxygen content in the reactor and prevent fires or
explosions. Nitrogen blanketing can also help maintain a stable pressure.
• Atmospheric Vent: Used to vent waste gases and vapors from the reactor. The vent
can be connected to a scrubber or treatment system.
• Safety Valve: A valve mechanism for automatic release of pressure or substance
when limits are exceeded. The safety valve is designed to protect the reactor and
personnel from overpressure.
• Thermo Well: Used for temperature measurement, providing isolation between the
sensor and the environment. Thermowells can be designed for specific temperature
ranges and process conditions.
Reactor Internals
• Baffles: Stationary blades that break up flow caused by the rotating agitator, fixed
to the vessel cover or side walls. Baffles help improve mixing and reduce dead zones.

Others

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 • Solvent Lines: Used for adding solvents to the reactor from holding tanks. Solvent
lines can be configured for specific flow rates and pressures.
• Temperature Indicator: Used to measure the temperature of the mass in the
reactor and utility in the jacket. Temperature indicators can be digital or analog.
• Pressure Indicator: Used to measure pressure buildup in the reactor and steam
pressure in the jacket. Pressure indicators can be digital or analog.

After reaction crystallization takes place in the reactor only

CRYATALLIZATION: Crystallization is a natural process which happens when the
materials solidify from a liquid, or as they precipitate out of a liquid or gas. The
driving force of crystallization is supersaturation.

Supersaturation solution is a chemical solution that contains more solute than the
solvent can normally hold. Types of crystallization:
 Evaporative crystallization
 Cooling crystallization
 Anti-solvent crystallization
 Reactive crystallization
Filtration equipments

A Top-Load Centrifuge (also called a vertical basket centrifuge) is a solid-liquid

separation equipment widely used in pharmaceuticals, chemicals, and API industries.
Top-Load Centrifuge
Working Principle:

 The slurry is fed from the top into a rotating perforated basket lined with filter
cloth.  Centrifugal force pushes the liquid through the basket wall, while solids
remain inside, forming a cake.
 After separation, liquid is discharged via outlet ports.
 Solids are manually removed from the top after stopping the centrifuge.

Main Parts:

 Perforated Basket – Rotating drum that holds solids and allows liquid to pass.
 Filter Cloth – Retains solid particles, allows filtrate through.
 Drive Motor & Shaft – Provides rotation to the basket.
 Casing/Housing – Encloses the centrifuge; ensures safety.
 Inlet Nozzle – For slurry feed from the top.
 Filtrate Outlet – For discharged liquid.
 Lid with Safety Lock – For covering and accessing the basket.

Advantages:

 Simple, robust construction.

 Cost-effective and easy to maintain.
 Suitable for a wide range of solid-liquid separations.
 Good for crystalline and granular products.
 Easy to operate and clean.
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Disadvantages:

 Manual cake discharge – labor-intensive and time-consuming.

 Risk of operator exposure (not ideal for toxic APIs).
 Lower productivity in comparison to automated systems.
 Not suitable for fully enclosed or sterile processes without modifications.

Typical Specifications (varies by manufacturer):

Parameter Range
Basket Diameter 400 – 1500 mm
Basket Speed 800 – 2000 rpm
Filtration Area 0.2 – 2.5 m²
Solids Holding Capacity 10 – 250 kg per batch
Motor Power 3 – 25 HP
Material of Construction SS304 / SS316 / Hastelloy etc.
Operation Type Batch

Candle Filter
Working Principle:

 A candle filter is a pressure filter that operates in batch mode.

 The slurry is pumped into a pressure vessel containing multiple vertical candle-
shaped filter elements.
 Solids are retained on the outer surface of the filter candles (covered with filter
cloth or mesh), forming a filter cake.
 The clear filtrate passes through the filter media and is collected from the inside of
the candles.

 After filtration, the cake is dried (by air/nitrogen) and then removed by back-
pulsing (blowback) or slurry re-slurrying.

Main Parts:

 Filter Candles – Vertical elements made of porous material (SS mesh, sintered
metal, polymer) with filter cloth.
 Pressure Vessel – Encloses the candles and holds the slurry under pressure.
 Filtrate Outlet – Collects clean liquid from the inside of candles.
 Slurry Inlet – Introduces the feed slurry into the vessel.
 Gas Inlet (Nitrogen/Air) – Used for cake drying or back-flushing.
  Cake Discharge Port – For cake removal (manually or automatically). 
Drain/Flush Valves – For cleaning and washing.

Advantages:

 Fully enclosed operation – safe for toxic or sterile products.

 High filtrate clarity – excellent for polishing.
 Dry cake discharge – useful for downstream processing or disposal.
 Minimal operator contact – good for GMP compliance.
 Suitable for hazardous and flammable systems.
 Easy automation and cleaning (CIP/SIP possible).

Disadvantages:

 Higher capital cost compared to simpler filters.

 Batch-wise operation – not ideal for high-throughput continuous processes.
 Requires precise precoat or filter aid if handling very fine solids.  Maintenance of
candles and seals can be complex.

Typical Specifications (varies by model/capacity):

Parameter Range
Candle Length 1000 – 2000 mm
Number of Candles 5 – 150+
Filtration Area 2 – 50 m²
Pressure Range 2 – 6 bar (30 – 90 psi)
Solids Holding Capacity Up to 1000 kg/batch
MOC SS316, Hastelloy, PP-lined, etc.
Cake Thickness 10 – 25 mm
Automation Manual to fully automated

Micron Filter

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Working Principle:

 A micron filter is used to remove fine particles from liquids or gases, typically in
the range of 0.1 to 100 microns.
 The fluid is passed through a porous filter cartridge or membrane housed in a
cartridge holder.
 Particles larger than the pore size are retained, while filtered liquid/gas flows out. 
Usually operated under pressure or gravity.

Main Parts:

 Filter Housing – Pressure-resistant body made

of SS, PVC, or polypropylene.
 Filter Cartridge/Element – Disposable or
reusable element (PP, PTFE, PES, Nylon, SS)
with specified micron rating.
 Inlet & Outlet Ports – For fluid flow.
 Vent & Drain Valves – For air release and
draining.
 Sealing Gaskets/O-rings – Prevent bypass of
unfiltered fluid.

Advantages:

 Provides high clarity of filtrate (often used before sterile filtration or packaging).
 Available in a wide range of micron ratings (0.2 to 100 µm).
 Compact and easy to install.
 Can be single-use or reusable depending on material.
 Suitable for sanitary and sterile environments.  Compatible with CIP/SIP systems.

Disadvantages:

 Limited solid-holding capacity – not for high-solid slurries.

 Filter cartridges need frequent replacement if heavily loaded.
 Risk of blinding or clogging with viscous or particulate-laden liquids.
 Less suitable for bulk solid-liquid separation (use sparkler, nutsche, etc. instead).

Typical Specifications:
Parameter Range
Micron Ratings 0.2 µm – 100 µm
 Flow Rate per 500 – 3000 L/h (depends on size & media)
Cartridge
Operating Pressure Up to 5 – 7 bar
Temperature Range Up to 80–120°C (based on material)
Filter Media PP, PES, PTFE, Nylon, SS
Housing Material SS316L (pharma), PP, PVC
Cartridge Length 10", 20", 30", 40" standard sizes
Applications Final polishing, pre-sterile filtration, solvent clarification,
water purification
Leaf Filter
1. Working Principle:

A leaf filter is a type of pressure filter used for separating solids from liquids in various
industrial processes. It operates on the principle of cake filtration, where solids form a
filter cake on the surface of the filter leaves (or plates), and the filtrate passes through the
filter medium.

 The slurry (mixture of solid and liquid) is fed into the filter.
 Pressure is applied (usually by a pump or compressed air) to force the liquid
through the filter medium (cloth) wrapped around the leaf plates.
 Solids accumulate on the surface of the filter cloth forming a cake.
 The filtrate passes through the cloth and is collected.
 After filtration, the filter cake is removed manually or automatically by shaking or
backwashing.

2. Main Parts of a Leaf Filter:

 Filter Leaves/Plates: Thin metal plates covered with filter cloth; the slurry passes
through these leaves.
 Filter Cloth: A permeable fabric fixed to the leaf plates which traps solid particles.
 Filter Tank/Body: A vessel that holds the slurry and filter leaves.
 Inlet: For feeding slurry into the filter.
 Outlet for Filtrate: For collecting the filtered liquid.
 Outlet for Cake: Opening or door for cake discharge.

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
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Cover/Lid: Seals the tank to withstand pressure.

Pressure System: Pump or compressed air to apply pressure for filtration.
Scraper or Shaker Mechanism: Sometimes provided to remove the cake from leaves.

3. Advantages:

 Simple design and easy operation.

 Suitable for filtering slurries with high solid content.
 Produces a dry filter cake with relatively low moisture.
 Can handle hot and corrosive slurries (depending on construction materials).
 Easy to clean and maintain.
 Does not require a vacuum, only pressure filtration.
 Multiple leaves allow for large filtration area in a compact space.

4. Disadvantages:

 Manual cake removal can be labor-intensive (in simple models).

 Limited to batch operation (not continuous).
 Not suitable for very fine particles or very viscous slurries.

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Filter cloths wear out and require frequent replacement.

 Pressure limit depends on the filter body and cloth strength.
 Cake thickness and filtration rate depend on the operator and slurry
characteristics.
5. Specifications (Typical values, may vary by manufacturer):

Parameter Typical Range/Value

Filtration Area 0.5 m² to 20 m² (depending on size)
Operating Pressure 2 to 6 bar (sometimes up to 10 bar)
Temperature Range Up to 150°C (depends on materials)
Material of Mild Steel, Stainless Steel, Cast Iron, sometimes special
Construction alloys
Filter Leaf Thickness Around 3 to 6 mm
Cake Moisture Content 20% to 50% (depending on slurry)
Slurry Feed Rate Variable, depends on size and pressure
Filtration Cycle Time Minutes to hours, depending on slurry and filter size

Drying Equipments

Tray Dryer

1. Working Principle:

A tray dryer is a batch-type drying equipment used to remove moisture from solid
materials by circulating hot air over the material placed on trays.

 The material to be dried is evenly spread on perforated trays.

 These trays are stacked inside a drying chamber.
 Hot air is passed over the trays either naturally or by forced convection (using
blowers/fans).
 The hot air evaporates the moisture from the material.

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 Moisture-laden air exits through exhaust vents.

 Drying continues until the desired moisture content is reached.

2. Main Parts of a Tray Dryer:

 Drying Chamber: The insulated enclosure where drying takes place.

 Trays: Perforated or mesh trays to hold the material; allows air to pass through.
 Tray Racks/Shelves: Hold multiple trays inside the chamber.
 Heating System: Usually steam, electric heaters, or hot air generator to provide
heat.
 Air Circulation System: Fans or blowers to circulate hot air evenly.
Exhaust Vent: For moist air to escape.
Control Panel: To control temperature, time, and air circulation. Door:
For loading and unloading trays.
Insulation: To reduce heat loss and maintain temperature inside.

3. Advantages:

 Simple and easy to operate.

 Suitable for heat-sensitive materials due to controlled temperature.

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 Can dry a wide variety of materials (pharmaceuticals, food, chemicals).

 Easy to load and unload trays.
 Allows uniform drying if air circulation is good.
 Low maintenance cost.
 Batch process allows flexibility in drying different products.  Multiple trays
maximize space utilization.

4. Disadvantages:

 Batch process can be time-consuming and less efficient for large-scale

continuous drying.
 Requires manual handling of trays which can be labor-intensive.

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Uneven drying if trays are overloaded or air circulation is poor.

Heat loss through door opening causes energy inefficiency.
Not suitable for materials that require very fast drying or very high temperatures.
Possible contamination risk during loading/unloading.

5. Specifications (Typical values, may vary by manufacturer):

Parameter Typical Range/Value
Capacity Few kg to several hundred kg per batch
Drying Temperature 30°C to 150°C (adjustable)
Drying Time From 1 hour to 24 hours, depends on material and moisture
content
Number of Trays 4 to 20 or more
Tray Size Usually 450 mm x 600 mm or larger
Air Circulation Natural or forced convection (blower rating varies)
Material of Mild Steel, Stainless Steel (food/pharma grade)
Construction
Power Consumption Depends on heating method (electric, steam, gas)
Chamber Volume Depends on tray number and size, from 0.1 m³ to several m³

Vacuum Tray Dryer (VTD)

1. Working Principle:

A Vacuum Tray Dryer removes moisture from sensitive materials under vacuum
conditions. This reduces the boiling point of water and solvents, allowing drying at lower
temperatures, which is ideal for heat-sensitive or hygroscopic substances.

 Material is loaded onto trays inside a sealed chamber.

 A vacuum is applied, reducing the pressure.
 Heat is supplied (usually via steam or hot water) to the trays or jacketed chamber
walls.
 Under vacuum, moisture evaporates at a lower temperature.

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

 The vapors are condensed in a condenser and collected in a receiver.  Drying is

complete when desired moisture content is reached.

2. Main Parts of a Vacuum Tray Dryer:

 Drying Chamber: Airtight, insulated chamber to hold the trays.

 Trays: Flat trays holding material, often heated via conduction.
Vacuum Pump/System: Maintains vacuum in the chamber.
Heating System: Steam, hot water, or oil circulation system in trays/jacket.
Condenser: Condenses vapors into liquid.
Receiver: Collects condensed liquid (usually solvents or water).
 Control Panel: For monitoring and controlling temperature, vacuum level, and
drying time.
 Gaskets/Seals: Ensure leak-proof operation under vacuum.
 Doors with Locks: Airtight access for loading/unloading.
 Vacuum Gauges, Thermocouples, and Safety Valves: For monitoring and
safety.

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3. Advantages:

 Ideal for heat-sensitive materials (e.g., pharmaceuticals, enzymes, vitamins).

 Prevents oxidation and thermal degradation.
 Achieves low residual moisture efficiently.
 Solvent recovery is possible from condensed vapors.
 Prevents contamination since it is a closed system.
 Uniform drying across trays with good temperature control.
 Low temperature drying enhances product quality and stability.
4. Disadvantages:

 Higher capital cost compared to tray dryers.

 Batch process with lower throughput than continuous systems.
 Slower drying rate than high-temperature systems.
 Requires vacuum sealing, increasing maintenance needs.
 Trays must be manually loaded and cleaned.
 More complex operation and instrumentation.
 Not suitable for materials that require high air flow or turbulent mixing.

5. Specifications (Typical values):

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Parameter Typical Range/Value

Drying Temperature 30°C – 100°C (adjustable)
Vacuum Level 650 – 740 mm Hg (absolute pressure: ~20–100 mbar)
Number of Trays 12, 24, 48, 96, etc. (based on model size)
Tray Size ~ 800 mm × 400 mm × 30 mm
Heating Medium Steam (3–5 bar), hot water, or oil
Drying Time 2 to 24 hours (depends on material)
Construction Material SS 304 / SS 316 / MS with SS cladding
Chamber Volume From ~0.5 m³ to >10 m³
Capacity 6 kg to >1000 kg per batch
Power Supply 3-phase electrical for pump and controls
Vacuum Pump Capacity 5 to 100 m³/h (depends on chamber size)

Roto cone Vacuum Dryer (RCVD)

1. Working Principle:

A Roto cone Vacuum Dryer is a batch drying equipment that dries materials under
vacuum while simultaneously gently rotating the product. It is primarily used for
drying heat-sensitive, crystalline, and hygroscopic materials.

 The material is loaded into a rotating double-cone vessel.

 The system is sealed and vacuum is applied, reducing the boiling point of
moisture/solvent.
 Heat is supplied via a jacket surrounding the cone (steam, hot water, or oil).
 Gentle rotation ensures uniform drying and prevents lump formation or
degradation.
 The moisture evaporates under vacuum and is condensed externally.

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After drying, the dry powder is discharged from the bottom nozzle.

2. Main Parts of RCVD:

 Double-Conical Rotating Shell: Main drying chamber shaped like two cones joined at the
base; rotates slowly.
 Vacuum Pump: Maintains vacuum inside the chamber.
 Jacketed Body: For heat transfer, allows circulation of hot fluid (steam/oil/water).
 Drive System: Motor and gear for rotating the cone (typically 5–20 RPM).
 Condenser: Cools vapors into liquid.
 Receiver: Collects condensed liquid (solvent or water).
 Charging Port: For feeding wet solids.
 Discharge Valve: For unloading dried product.
 Control Panel: Monitors vacuum, temperature, speed, and drying time.  Filters & Sight
Glasses: Prevent product loss and allow inspection.

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3. Advantages:

 Ideal for heat- and oxygen-sensitive materials.

 Uniform drying with gentle mixing, no product attrition.
 Prevents lump formation or caking during drying.
 Efficient solvent recovery through condensation.
 Low final moisture content achievable.
 Closed system prevents contamination and exposure.
 Low energy consumption (due to vacuum operation).  Minimal manual handling and dust
generation.

4. Disadvantages:

 Higher capital cost than conventional dryers.

 Not suitable for materials needing high shear or fast agitation.
 Batch process – not suitable for large-scale continuous drying.
 Cleaning may be difficult without proper CIP system.
 Heavy structure, requires robust foundation and installation.
 Product loading and unloading can be time-consuming without automation.

5. Specifications (Typical Values):

Parameter Typical Range/Value
Capacity (batch size) 5 L to >5000 L
Operating Vacuum 50 – 100 mmHg (absolute pressure: 20–100 mbar)
Operating Temp. Up to 120°C (depends on heat transfer fluid)
Rotation Speed 4 – 20 RPM
Material of Construction SS 304 / SS 316 / Hastelloy (for corrosives)
Heating Medium Steam, hot water, or thermic fluid
Drying Time 2 – 12 hours (varies with material)
Drive Motor 1 to 10 HP (based on size)
Vacuum Pump 5 to 100 m³/h
Moisture Content Final As low as 0.1–0.5% achievable

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Fluidized Bed Dryer (FBD)

1. Working Principle:

A Fluidized Bed Dryer works on the principle of fluidization, where hot air is passed through a
perforated bed of moist solid particles, causing them to behave like a fluid. This improves contact
between air and particles, enhancing heat and mass transfer, which accelerates drying.

 Moist wet material is placed in the drying chamber.

 Hot air is forced upward through the perforated bottom.
 The solid particles become suspended and "fluidized" by the airflow.
 Moisture from the particles evaporates quickly due to intense mixing and heat transfer.  The
air exits through a filter bag, leaving behind dry solid.

2. Main Parts of a Fluidized Bed Dryer:

 Drying Chamber (Product Bowl): Contains the material to be dried.

 Air Handling Unit (AHU): Includes blower/fan for air circulation.
 Heater: Heats the air (steam, electric, or gas heater).
 Air Distributor Plate: Perforated plate for uniform air distribution.
 Filter Bags: Retain fine particles and allow moist air to escape.
 Exhaust Duct: For outlet of moist air.
 Control Panel: Controls temperature, airflow, timer, etc.
 Explosion Relief Panel: For safety in case of volatile substances.
 Spray Nozzle (Optional): For granulation (in fluid bed processors).

3. Advantages:

 Rapid drying due to excellent heat and mass transfer.

 Uniform drying with minimal product degradation.
 Suitable for thermosensitive and granulated materials.
 Short drying time (minutes instead of hours).
 Easy to operate and clean.
 Can be integrated with granulation systems.
 Scale-up is easier due to standardized equipment.

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4. Disadvantages:

 Not suitable for sticky or heavy wet materials (they can agglomerate or block airflow). 
Requires controlled particle size (too fine can blow away, too coarse won't fluidize).
 High energy consumption due to constant air heating.
 Can cause electrostatic charge or dust explosions with powders (safety hazard).
 Requires filter cleaning/replacement.
 Higher initial cost than conventional dryers.

5. Specifications (Typical Values):

Parameter Typical Range/Value
Batch Capacity 1 kg to 500 kg or more
Drying Temperature 30°C – 120°C (adjustable)
Inlet Air Velocity 0.5 – 5 m/s (for fluidization)
Drying Time 10 – 40 minutes (material dependent)
Blower Power 1 – 20 HP (depends on capacity)
Airflow Rate 100 – 3000 m³/h
Material of Construction SS 304 / SS 316 (GMP grade for pharma)
Final Moisture Content As low as 0.1–1% achievable
Heating Source Steam, electricity, or thermic fluid
Control System PLC/SCADA (in modern systems)

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Size Reduction Equipments

Multi Mill
1. Working Principle:

A Multi Mill works on the principle of impact, shearing, cutting, and mixing. It is used for wet
and dry granulation, pulverization, size reduction, and milling of a wide variety of materials.

 Material is fed into a hopper.

 A high-speed rotating impeller pushes the material through a screen using knives or blades.
 The size of the final particles is controlled by the screen size and rotor speed.  Processed
material is collected at the bottom via the discharge chute.

It is widely used in pharmaceutical, chemical, food, and cosmetic industries for breaking down
or preparing granules and powders.

2. Main Parts of a Multi Mill:

 Hopper: Feeds raw material into the milling chamber.

 Impeller/Blade Assembly: Rotates at high speed to break and reduce material size.
 Screen: Perforated sieve that defines particle size; interchangeable for different grades.
 Chamber Housing: Encloses the milling process.
 Discharge Chute: Outlet for the milled material.
 Motor & Gearbox: Provides power to rotate the impeller (typically via belt or direct
coupling).
 Castor Wheels (optional): For mobility in floor models.
 Control Panel: Controls speed (in some models), on/off functions, and safety interlocks.
 Frame/Body: Supports the entire setup; usually made of stainless steel in GMP models.

3. Advantages:

 Versatile – suitable for granulation, pulverizing, and blending.

 Can be used for both wet and dry milling.
 Easy to operate and clean – suitable for frequent product changeover.
 Screen and blade easily interchangeable for different sizes and consistencies.
 Generates less heat and dust compared to other mills.
 Compact and can be movable (on wheels).  Cost-effective for batch production.

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4. Disadvantages:

 Not suitable for very hard materials.

 Screen may clog if material is sticky or too wet.
 Batch operation – not ideal for continuous processing.
 Blade wear and tear needs periodic maintenance.
 Particle size distribution may not be very narrow.
 Speed control may not be available in basic models.

5. Specifications (Typical Values):

Parameter Typical Value / Range

Output Capacity 25 kg/hr to 300 kg/hr
(based on product and
screen)
Rotor Speed 750 to 3000 RPM (fixed or
variable)
Hopper Capacity 10 to 50 liters
Screen Size Range 0.5 mm to 12 mm
Motor Power 2 HP to 10 HP
Material of Construction SS 304 / SS 316 (GMP
models)
Number of Blades 2 to 12 (typical)
Dimensions (L×W×H) ~600 × 700 × 1400 mm
(varies)
Weight 150 to 500 kg
Operation Type Batch type
Mounting Floor-mounted with castors

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Micronizer (Jet Mill)

1. Working Principle

A Micronizer, also called a Jet Mill, works on the principle of fluid energy milling. It uses
compressed air or gas to create a high-velocity jet stream that accelerates particles within a
grinding chamber. The collisions between particles and the impact with chamber walls reduce
particle size to the micron or submicron level — without using mechanical moving parts for
grinding.

 Feed particles enter the milling chamber via a venturi injector.

 High-pressure air/gas streams are injected tangentially.
 Particles are accelerated and collide at high speed (impact and attrition).
 Fines are carried toward the center and exit with the air through a classifier.  Coarser
particles remain in the chamber for further milling.

2. Main Parts of a Micronizer:

 Grinding (Milling) Chamber: Circular or toroidal chamber where milling occurs.

 Air/Gas Nozzles: Inject high-velocity air/gas to create turbulence.
 Feed Inlet (Venturi Injector): Introduces powder into the chamber using suction.
 Classifier or Separator Wheel: Allows only particles below a desired size to exit.
 Product Outlet: Discharges the fine milled powder.
 Compressed Air/Gas Source: Provides energy for grinding (usually dry air or nitrogen).
 Filter & Dust Collector: Separates fine powder from air before exhaust.
 Control Panel: Monitors pressure, feed rate, product flow, etc.

3. Advantages:

 No moving mechanical parts in the grinding zone (low contamination).

 Produces ultra-fine powders (as fine as 1–10 µm).
 Ideal for heat-sensitive materials — minimal heat generation.
 Closed system — suitable for toxic, explosive, or sterile products.
 Can operate under inert atmosphere (e.g., nitrogen) for oxygen-sensitive products.
 Easy particle size control by adjusting classifier speed or pressure.

4. Disadvantages:

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 High energy consumption due to compressed air requirements.

 Not efficient for large or coarse particles — requires pre-milling.
 Limited throughput — best suited for small- to medium-scale operations.
 High capital and operating cost (especially for air compressors and filters).
 Not suitable for sticky or hygroscopic materials (may clog).
 Noise generation can be significant without proper insulation.

5. Specifications (Typical Values):

Parameter Typical Range / Value
Particle Size Range 1 – 20 µm (D90)
Feed Size < 100 µm (requires pre-milling)
Capacity 0.1 – 500 kg/hr (depending on model)
Grinding Pressure 2 – 8 bar (30–120 psi)
Air/Gas Flow Rate 50 – 5000 m³/h
Material of Construction SS 316, Hastelloy, or ceramic-lined
Operating Temperature Ambient to 50°C (low heat generation)
Power Supply For controls and classifier motor
Size Reduction Method Particle–particle and particle–wall impact
Classification Type Dynamic air classifier (optional)

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Mixing/Blending Equipment’s
Rotary Drum Blender
1. Working Principle:

A Rotary Drum Blender (also called a Drum Mixer or Rotary Blender) works on the principle
of tumbling and gentle rolling of materials inside a rotating drum to achieve uniform blending.

 The drum is partially filled with solid materials (usually powders or granules).
 As the drum rotates slowly, the material inside is lifted and cascaded due to gravity. 
Continuous tumbling and intermixing results in a homogeneous mixture over time.
 No internal agitators are present, so mixing is gentle and ideal for friable or delicate
materials.

2. Main Parts of a Rotary Drum Blender:

 Rotating Drum (Cylinder): Main mixing chamber; made of stainless steel.

 Motor and Drive System: Rotates the drum at a controlled speed.
 Support Frame: Holds and balances the rotating drum securely.
 Inlet (Charging Port): For loading the raw materials.
 Outlet (Discharge Port): For unloading the blended material.
 Baffles (optional): Internally fitted to improve mixing efficiency.  Control Panel:
Controls rotation speed, direction, and time.

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3. Advantages:

 Gentle mixing – ideal for fragile, heat-sensitive, or friable powders.

 No shear forces – avoids degradation of particles.
 Simple design – easy to operate, clean, and maintain.
 Minimal dust generation or segregation.
 Suitable for large batch sizes.
 Can handle a wide range of materials and densities.

4. Disadvantages:

 Longer mixing time compared to high-shear mixers.

 Not suitable for very cohesive or sticky materials.
 No intense deagglomeration – not good for breaking lumps.
 Requires larger space for installation due to rotating drum.
 Segregation risk if materials have vastly different densities or particle sizes.

5. Specifications (Typical Values):

Parameter Typical Range / Value
Capacity 5 L to >5000 L (customized)
Rotation Speed 5 – 25 RPM
Mixing Time 10 – 60 minutes (product dependent)
Fill Volume 50 – 70% of total drum volume
Material of Construction SS 304 / SS 316 (for GMP)
Motor Power 0.5 – 10 HP (based on capacity)
Mounting Type Floor-mounted or skid-based
Optional Features Baffles, spray nozzle (for wet mixing), vacuum seal

PUMPS
Centrifugal Pump 1. Working
Principle:

A centrifugal pump operates on the principle of centrifugal force. When the impeller (a rotating
disk with vanes) spins, it imparts kinetic energy to the fluid, forcing it outward from the center
toward the casing. As the fluid moves outward, its velocity increases and pressure builds up. This
pressurized fluid is then discharged through the outlet. The conversion of mechanical energy (from

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a motor) into hydraulic energy (fluid pressure) is what enables the pump to move liquids
effectively.

2. Parts of a Centrifugal Pump:

 Impeller – The main rotating component that imparts velocity to the fluid.
 Casing (Volute) – Surrounds the impeller and helps convert velocity into pressure.
 Suction Pipe – Brings the fluid from the source into the pump.
 Delivery Pipe – Directs the pressurized fluid to the desired location.
 Pump Shaft – Connects the impeller to the motor and transfers rotational energy.
 Mechanical Seal or Gland Packing – Prevents leakage around the shaft.
 Bearings – Support the shaft and reduce friction during rotation.
 Motor – Provides power to drive the impeller.
 Base Frame – Supports and aligns the pump and motor assembly.

3. Advantages:

 Simple construction, easy to install and maintain.

 Capable of handling large volumes of liquid efficiently.
 Continuous and quiet operation with minimal pulsation.

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4. Disadvantages:

 Cannot self-prime unless specially designed.

 Not suitable for highly viscous or slurry-type fluids.
 Prone to cavitation and reduced efficiency if operated at low flow or high suction lift.

5. Specifications (Typical):

 Flow Rate: 1 – 25,000 liters per minute (LPM), depending on size and design.
 Head (Delivery Height): 5 – 100+ meters.
 Motor Power: 0.5 – 100+ HP (varies with application).
 Speed: 1450 – 2900 RPM.
 Efficiency: 50% to 90%, depending on operating conditions.
 Material of Construction: Cast iron, stainless steel (SS 304, SS 316), bronze, plastic.
 Operating Temperature: Up to 100°C (higher for special designs).
 Applications: Water supply, chemical processing, pharmaceutical liquids, irrigation, cooling
water circulation, and general utility services.

Air-Operated Double Diaphragm Pump (AODD Pump)

1. Working Principle

An AODD pump operates using compressed air as the power source. The pump has two flexible
diaphragms connected by a shaft. As compressed air is directed into one of the air chambers, it
pushes one diaphragm inward, which displaces liquid from the corresponding fluid chamber and
out through the discharge. Simultaneously, the other diaphragm is pulled by the shaft, creating
suction in the opposite fluid chamber and drawing in more liquid. When the air valve shifts, the
process reverses. This alternating back-and-forth motion creates a continuous pumping action
without any motor or mechanical seals.

2. Parts of an AODD Pump:

 Two Diaphragms – Flexible membranes that move back and forth to pump fluid.
 Air Valve – Controls the direction of compressed air to alternate the diaphragm motion.
 Air Chambers – Where compressed air enters and acts on diaphragms.
 Fluid Chambers – Hold the liquid during suction and discharge phases.
 Suction & Discharge Check Valves – Ensure one-way flow of fluid.
 Inlet & Outlet Ports – For fluid entry and exit.
 Connecting Shaft/Rod – Links the two diaphragms to coordinate motion.  Pump Housing
– Encloses and supports the internal components.

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3. Advantages:

 Self-priming and capable of running dry without damage.

 No electrical power needed – suitable for explosive or hazardous environments.
 Handles abrasive, viscous, shear-sensitive, and corrosive fluids effectively.

4. Disadvantages:

 Requires clean, dry compressed air for proper operation.

Lower flow rates and pressure compared to centrifugal or gear pumps.  Noisy operation and
potential for pulsating flow. 5. Specifications (Typical):

 Flow Rate: 10 – 1000+ LPM (varies by size and design).

 Max Discharge Pressure: Up to 7 bar (100 psi); higher for specialty models.
 Air Supply Pressure: 3 – 7 bar (45 – 100 psi).
 Suction Lift: Dry lift up to 5 meters; wet lift up to 8–9 meters.
 Particle Size Handling: Up to 10 mm (depends on pump size).
 Material of Construction: Polypropylene, PVDF, SS 316, aluminum, PTFE.
 Diaphragm Materials: Nitrile, Neoprene, PTFE, EPDM, Viton (based on chemical
compatibility).
 Viscosity Range: Can handle fluids with viscosity up to 50,000 cP or more.
 Operating Temperature: Typically, up to 100°C (varies with materials).
 Applications: Chemical transfer, slurry handling, food-grade fluid pumping, paint and ink
transfer, fuel and solvent handling, pharmaceutical and cosmetic liquids.

Piston / Plunger Pump

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1. Working Principle:

A piston (or plunger) pump is a type of positive displacement pump that uses a reciprocating
piston or plunger inside a cylinder to move fluid. During the suction stroke, the piston moves
backward, creating a vacuum that draws fluid into the cylinder through a suction valve. On the
forward stroke, the piston pushes the fluid out through a discharge valve at high pressure. This
reciprocating action creates a steady and precise flow, regardless of discharge pressure, making it
suitable for high-pressure applications.

2. Parts of a Piston / Plunger Pump:

• Piston / Plunger – The reciprocating element that moves fluid by displacement.

• Cylinder / Barrel – The chamber where the piston moves.
• Suction Valve – One-way valve allowing fluid into the cylinder during suction.
• Discharge Valve – One-way valve allowing fluid out of the cylinder during discharge.
• Crosshead / Connecting Rod – Connects piston to crankshaft and guides motion.
• Crankshaft / Camshaft – Converts rotary motion of the motor into reciprocating
motion of the piston.
• Packing / Seal – Prevents leakage around the piston or plunger.
• Pump Body / Frame – Supports and houses all components.
• Drive Mechanism – Usually an electric motor or diesel engine driving the crankshaft.

3. Advantages:

1. Capable of producing very high pressures (up to 1000 bar or more).

2. Provides accurate and consistent flow, independent of discharge pressure.
3. Suitable for pumping viscous fluids and slurries, and can handle aggressive
chemicals with correct materials.

4. Disadvantages:

1. Complex design and requires regular maintenance due to many moving parts.
2. Pulsating flow output, which may require pulsation dampeners.
3. Generally larger and heavier compared to centrifugal pumps of similar capacity.
5. Specifications (Typical):

• Flow Rate: From a few liters per minute up to several hundred LPM.
• Pressure Range: Up to 1000 bar (15,000 psi), depending on design.
• Speed: Usually 200 – 1000 RPM (reciprocating speed).
• Power: Varies widely based on pressure and flow (0.5 HP to hundreds of HP).
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• Material of Construction: Cast iron, stainless steel, alloy steels, ceramics (for wear
resistance).
• Fluid Temperature: Typically, up to 150°C, special versions can handle higher
temps.
• Viscosity Range: Can handle highly viscous fluids (up to several thousand cP).
• Applications: High-pressure cleaning, hydraulic systems, oil and gas injection,
chemical dosing, food processing, and slurry pumping.

Liquid Ring Water Type Vacuum Pump

1. Working Principle:

A liquid ring water type vacuum pump works by rotating an impeller inside a cylindrical casing
partially filled with water. Due to the eccentric mounting of the impeller, centrifugal force pushes
the water to form a liquid ring inside the casing. This ring creates sealed chambers between the

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impeller blades and the casing. As the impeller rotates, the volume of these chambers changes,
causing suction that draws in gas through the inlet. The gas is then compressed as the chamber
volume decreases and discharged through the outlet, thus creating a vacuum. Water acts as both the
sealing and cooling medium.

2. Parts of Liquid Ring Water Vacuum Pump:

 Impeller – Rotates eccentrically inside the casing to create volume changes.

 Cylindrical casing – Houses the impeller and contains the water ring.
 Water ring (seal liquid) – Forms the sealing ring inside the casing.
 Suction port – Allows gas/vapor to enter the pump.
 Discharge port – Outlet for compressed gas/vapor.
 Shaft and bearings – Support and rotate the impeller.
 Mechanical seals or gland packing – Prevent leakage from shaft area.

3. Advantages:

 Can handle wet, saturated gases and vapors without damage.

 Simple, robust design with few moving parts leads to reliable operation.
 Operates with low noise and vibration, suitable for many industrial applications.

4. Disadvantages:

 Requires a continuous supply of clean water; water quality affects performance.  Water
contamination can cause corrosion or deposits requiring maintenance.
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 Lower efficiency compared to dry vacuum pumps, leading to higher energy consumption.

5. Specifications (Typical):

 Vacuum range: 20 – 30 kPa absolute pressure (approx. 200 – 300 mbar)

 Flow rate: From small units with a few m³/hr to large pumps handling thousands of m³/h
 Operating temperature: Up to about 100°C (depends on water and materials)
 Materials of construction: Cast iron, stainless steel for wetted parts
 Power rating: Typically, from 1 HP and up depending on pump size
 Applications: Vacuum distillation, filtration, drying, degassing in chemical, pharmaceutical,
and food industries

Centrifugal Blower 1. Working

Principle:

A centrifugal blower uses a rotating impeller

to increase the velocity of air or gas. Air enters
the blower through the center (inlet) of the
impeller and is accelerated outward by
centrifugal force as the impeller spins. The
high-velocity air is then slowed down in a
diffuser or volute casing, converting velocity
into pressure. This generates a continuous
flow of air or gas at increased pressure
suitable for ventilation, combustion air supply,
or material conveying.
2. Parts of Centrifugal Blower:

 Impeller – Rotating component with blades that accelerate the air outward.
 Inlet (Eye of impeller) – The central opening where air enters.
 Volute or Scroll casing – Collects and directs airflow from the impeller to the discharge.
 Diffuser – Converts velocity of air into pressure (may be part of casing).
 Shaft – Connects impeller to the motor and transmits power.
 Bearings – Support the rotating shaft.
 Motor – Drives the impeller.
 Inlet and discharge flanges – Connect blower to ducting or piping.

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3. Advantages:

 Capable of high airflow rates at moderate pressures.

 Simple design with relatively low maintenance requirements.
 Suitable for a wide range of gases and air handling applications.

4. Disadvantages:

 Efficiency drops when operating far from design point (part-load conditions).
 Not suitable for very high-pressure applications (limited pressure rise).  Requires
proper inlet conditions to avoid noise and vibration.

5. Specifications (Typical):

 Flow rate: From a few hundred to several thousand cubic meters per hour (m³/hr).
 Pressure range: Typically, up to 1 bar (100 kPa) gauge pressure increase.
 Speed: 1000 – 18,000 RPM depending on design.
 Power rating: From fractional HP to several hundred HP.
 Materials: Cast iron, steel, aluminum, or stainless steel.
 Applications: HVAC systems, combustion air supply, pneumatic conveying, drying, and
cooling.
Industrial Acid Scrubber
1. Working Principle:

An industrial acid scrubber is a type of wet scrubber designed specifically to remove acidic gases
(such as SO₂, HCl, HF) from industrial exhaust streams. The contaminated gas is brought into
contact with a scrubbing liquid—usually a neutralizing alkaline solution (e.g., water with limestone
slurry, sodium hydroxide)—which reacts chemically with the acid gases to neutralize them. The gas
and scrubbing liquid mix in the scrubber vessel, allowing acid gases to dissolve and react in the
liquid phase. Clean gas exits with significantly reduced acid content.

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2. Parts of Industrial Acid Scrubber:

 Scrubber tower or vessel – Main chamber where gas-liquid contact occurs.

 Spray nozzles or distributors – Spray alkaline solution to maximize contact with acid
gases.
 Packing or trays – Enhance gas-liquid contact surface area (optional).
 Liquid recirculation system – Pumps and piping for scrubbing liquid circulation.
 Mist eliminator – Removes liquid droplets from cleaned gas.
 Gas inlet and outlet ducts – For contaminated gas entry and cleaned gas exit.
 Drain and blowdown system – Removes spent scrubbing liquid and sludge.
 pH monitoring and control equipment – Ensures scrubbing solution effectiveness.

3. Advantages:

 Highly effective at removing acid gases and reducing corrosion downstream.

 Allows for neutralization of harmful emissions, protecting environment and equipment.

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 Can be designed for continuous operation with automated control of scrubbing liquid
chemistry.

4. Disadvantages:

 Requires handling, treatment, and disposal of acidic or contaminated waste liquid.

 Corrosion risks require special materials or linings, increasing capital costs.
 Operating costs are higher due to chemical consumption and maintenance.

5. Specifications (Typical):

 Gas flow rate: Ranges from several thousand to over 100,000 m³/hr depending on plant size.
 Acid gas removal efficiency: Typically, 95-99%.
 Pressure drop: Usually between 500 to 2500 Pa (0.005 to 0.025 bar).
 Liquid-to-gas ratio: Generally, 3-15 liters per cubic meter of gas.
 Operating temperature: Ambient to about 60-80°C.
 Materials: Stainless steel, lined carbon steel, fiberglass-reinforced plastic (FRP).
 Applications: Flue gas desulfurization, chemical plants, acid gas emission control.

SOLVENT RECOVERY SYSTEM

Purpose of the System

In pharmaceutical manufacturing, solvents like methanol, ethanol, acetone, ethyl acetate, and
isopropanol are extensively used in reactions, crystallizations, and cleaning processes. Due to
high costs and strict environmental regulations, recovering and reusing solvents is a standard
practice to:

• Reduce raw material costs

• Minimize environmental impact
• Comply with GMP and environmental norms (CPCB, US FDA, EHS, etc.)

System Components
Unit Description
1. Stainless Steel Acts as the feed vessel and vaporization unit. Made of SS 316L
Reactor (SSR) or SS 304. Steam/oil jacketed. Often agitated. GMP compliant.

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2. Packed Distillation Contains random/structured packing for vapor-liquid contact.

Column Provides separation of volatile solvents from impurities or
multiple solvents.
3. Primary Water-cooled. Recovers major portion of solvent vapor.
Condenser Typically, a shell-and-tube heat exchanger.
4. Secondary Chilled water/glycol or brine-cooled. Captures light ends or
Condenser (Cold traces of solvent vapors.
Trap)
5. Receivers (2) SS tanks to collect condensed solvents. Often placed under
nitrogen blanketing.
6. Vacuum Pump Used when recovering high-boiling or heat-sensitive solvents.
(optional) Lowers boiling point for energy-efficient distillation.
7. Control Temperature indicators, pressure gauges, level indicators,
Instruments safety interlocks, and automated control system.
Integrated Process Flow

1. Spent solvent or reaction mixture is charged into the stainless-steel reactor.

2. The reactor is heated via steam or hot oil jacket. If needed, vacuum is applied.
3. Solvent vapors rise into the packed column, where partial separation/refinement
occurs.
4. The vapors enter the primary condenser, where the main solvent is condensed and
flows into Receiver-1.
5. Remaining vapors go to the secondary condenser, where residual or low-boiling
solvents are condensed and collected in Receiver-2.
6. Non-condensable (e.g., air, traces) are vented or pulled through a vacuum system.
7. Residues (non-volatile organics or salts) remain in the reactor and are drained at the
end of the batch.

Benefits in Pharmaceutical Industry

Benefit Description
GMP compliant Closed system, SS316L contact parts, CIP/SIP
compatibility
High solvent recovery >95% recovery efficiency
Energy efficient Uses batch operation, vacuum distillation when needed
Flexible Can handle multiple solvents and mixtures

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Cost-effective Reduces solvent purchase and waste disposal costs

Environmentally friendly Complies with emission norms and sustainability goals

Example Use Case

Recovering Acetone after API crystallization:

• Batch: Crystallization residue containing 80% acetone + 20% water/impurities.

• Charged into SSR → Heated to ~60–70°C.
• Vapors rise, pass through packed column (removing heavier volatiles).
• Acetone condensed in primary condenser, collected in Receiver-1.
• Trace water/acetone caught in secondary condenser with chilled water.
• Final residues drained and treated/disposed.

Mellapak Bed Distillation Column

Function

Provides efficient separation of solvent mixtures through structured packing using vapor-liquid
equilibrium principles.
1. Working Principle:

• Feed enters and is partially vaporized by heat from the reactor.

• Vapor rises through structured Mellapak packing.
• Liquid flows down, creating counter-current flow.
• Volatile components rise and condense at the top.
• Heavier components return to reactor or are collected at the base.

2. Main Parts:

1. Column Shell – SS316L cylindrical shell

2. Structured Packing (Mellapak) – Corrugated, crimped metal sheets
3. Packing Support Plate – Holds the packing bed
4. Packing Retainer Grid – Prevents movement during operation
5. Liquid Distributor – Ensures uniform distribution of liquid
6. Vapor Distributor – Optional, for uniform vapor entry
7. Feed Entry Nozzle – For solvent feed input
8. Top Nozzle to Condensers – Connects to primary condenser
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9. Base Connection to Reactor/SSR – Source of vapor generation 10. Instrumentation

Ports – For temperature/pressure/level sensors

3. Advantages:

• High mass transfer efficiency

• Lower pressure drop — ideal for vacuum
• GMP-compliant and CIP/SIP friendly
• Compact and modular design
• Low liquid hold-up (minimizes contamination)
• Reusable and easy to replace packing

4. Disadvantages:

• Higher capital cost than trays or random packing

• Sensitive to maldistribution (poor liquid/vapor feed affects performance)
• Not suitable for foaming or fouling mixtures
• Requires skilled installation and alignment

5. Specifications:
Parameter Value
Type Packed column with Mellapak structured packing
Packing Type Mellapak 250Y / 350Y / 500Y (SS 316L)
Packing Material SS 316L (GMP-compliant)
Surface Area 250–500 m²/m³
Column Diameter 150–1000 mm
Column Height 2–10 meters
Packing Height 1–5 meters (modular)
Operating Pressure Vacuum to 3 kg/cm²g
Operating Temperature Up to 200°C
Insulation Mineral wool + SS cladding
Manhole Provided for inspection & maintenance

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MELLAPAK BED

PACKED BED COLUMN

Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger as Condenser
1. Working Principle:

• Hot vapor enters the shell side of the exchanger.

• Cooling fluid flows through the tube bundle inside the shell.
• Heat transfers from vapor to coolant through tube walls.
• Vapor condenses to liquid on the cold tube surfaces.
• Condensate collects at the shell bottom and is drained out.

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2. Main Parts:

1. Shell – outer cylindrical vessel holding vapor and tubes

2. Tube Bundle – multiple tubes carrying coolant fluid
3. Tube Sheets – plates securing tubes at each end
4. Baffles – direct vapor flow for efficient heat transfer
5. Nozzles/Inlets & Outlets – vapor inlet/outlet & coolant inlet/outlet
6. Drain & Vent Connections – remove condensate and air pockets

3. Advantages:

• High heat transfer efficiency

• Robust, reliable, and widely used design
• Can handle high pressures and large vapor loads
• Easy to maintain and clean (CIP compatible if designed properly)
• Suitable for many solvents and operating conditions
4. Disadvantages:

• Large footprint compared to some condenser types

• Possible fouling on tube side if coolant not maintained
• Higher fabrication cost for pharma-grade SS construction • Requires careful
welding to maintain cleanliness and integrity

5. Specifications (Typical):
Parameter Value/Range
Material of Construction SS 316L
Shell Diameter 200–800 mm
Tube Diameter (OD) 16–25 mm
Tube Length 2–6 meters
Number of Tube Passes 1–4
Cooling Medium Cooling water or chilled water
Operating Pressure Up to 5 kg/cm²g
Heat Transfer Area 2–10 m² (depends on duty)

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UTILITIES
Utilities in Pharmaceutical Manufacturing
Utilities play a critical role in ensuring the efficient and reliable operation of pharmaceutical
manufacturing processes. These utilities must be qualified, monitored, and maintained within
specified limits to ensure product quality and compliance with regulatory requirements.
Types of Utilities
1. Purified Water: Used in various stages of pharmaceutical production, including
formulation, cleaning, and testing.
2. DM Water (Demineralized Water): Used in processes where mineral-free water is
required, such as in the preparation of solutions and cleaning of equipment.
3. Compressed Air: Used for various applications, including pneumatic systems,
instrumentation, and cleaning.
4. Instrument Air: A type of compressed air that is further purified and dried to meet the
requirements of sensitive instruments and control systems.
5. Nitrogen: Used as an inert gas for various applications, including blanketing, purging, and
drying.
6. Super Saturated Steam: Used for sterilization, heating, and other process applications.
7. Hot Water: Used for various applications, including cleaning, sanitization, and heating.
8. Room Temperature Water (30°C to 40°C): Used for cooling, heating, or other process
requirements.
9. Chilled Water (5°C to 10°C): Used for cooling applications, such as in temperature control
systems.
10. Brine Solution (-20°C to 30°C): Used for low-temperature applications, such as in cooling
systems or freeze-drying processes.
Importance of Utilities
Utilities are essential for maintaining the quality, safety, and efficacy of pharmaceutical products.
Proper management and maintenance of utilities ensure:

• Consistent product quality

• Efficient operations
• Compliance with regulatory requirements
• Reduced risk of contamination or product defects
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• Best Practices
To ensure the reliability and quality of utilities, pharmaceutical companies should:

• Qualify and validate utility systems

• Monitor and maintain utilities within specified limits
• Implement regular maintenance and testing programs
• Train personnel on utility management and maintenance
By following these best practices, pharmaceutical companies can ensure the efficient and reliable
operation of their manufacturing processes, while maintaining product quality and compliance with
regulatory requirements.

Purified Water Treatment Plant

Step 1: Pre-Treatment (Multi Grade Filter)
• Removes suspended solids, particulate matter, and contaminants from the feed water.
• Protects downstream equipment from fouling and damage.
Step 2: Softening (Softners)
• Removes calcium and magnesium ions, which cause water hardness.
• Uses ion exchange resins to replace these ions with sodium or potassium ions.
• Helps prevent scaling and fouling in downstream equipment.
Step 3: Filtration (Ultra Filters)
• Removes remaining suspended solids, bacteria, and viruses.
• Produces a high-quality filtrate with low particulate matter.
• Helps protect downstream equipment and improve overall water quality.

Step 4: Reverse Osmosis (RO Membranes)

• Removes dissolved solids, ions, and other impurities.
• Uses semi-permeable membranes to separate impurities from water.
• Produces a high-purity water with low conductivity.
Step 5: Deionization (Electro-De-Ioniser)
• Further removes ions and impurities.
• Uses electrical current to remove ions and produce highly purified water.

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• Produces water with extremely low conductivity.

Step 6: Final Purification (UV Purifier)
• Destroys bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms.
• Uses ultraviolet light to inactivate microorganisms.
• Ensures the water is microbiologically safe.

Multi Grade Filter (MGF)

A Multi Grade Filter (MGF) is a type of pressure filter widely

used in water and wastewater treatment to remove suspended
solids, turbidity, and particulate matter. It consists of multiple
layers of filtration media with varying particle sizes and specific
gravities, arranged in a graded manner from coarse at the bottom
to fine at the top. Typically, the media layers include gravel for
support, followed by coarse sand, fine sand, and sometimes
anthracite coal or activated carbon for additional removal of odor,
taste, and color. Water enters the filter from the top and flows
downward through the media, where suspended particles are
trapped at different layers based on their size. The filtered water
is collected at the bottom and directed for
further treatment or use. MGFs offer several advantages,
including high filtration efficiency, longer filter cycles, compact
design, and ease of operation. Over time, as the media becomes clogged with solids, the filter is
cleaned through a process called backwashing, where water or air is used to flush out the
accumulated impurities.

Water Softener

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A water softener is a treatment system designed to

remove hardness-causing minerals, primarily
calcium and magnesium, from water. It operates on the
principle of ion exchange, where hard water passes
through a resin bed containing sodium or potassium ions.
As the water flows through the resin, the calcium and
magnesium ions are exchanged with the sodium or
potassium ions, effectively softening the water. The
softened water then exits the system for use in
various applications. Over time, the resin becomes
saturated with calcium and magnesium and loses its
effectiveness. To restore its capacity, the system
undergoes a regeneration process using a
concentrated salt solution (brine), which flushes out the
accumulated hardness ions and recharges the resin with sodium or potassium ions. Water softeners
are widely used in domestic, commercial, and industrial settings to prevent scaling in pipelines,
boilers, and appliances, improve soap efficiency, and enhance the longevity of plumbing systems.
They are particularly important in regions with hard water sources, ensuring better water quality
and system performance.

Ultra Filter (UF)

An Ultra Filter (UF), also known

as an ultrafiltration system, is a type of
membranebased water
purification technology that
removes suspended solids,
bacteria, viruses, and high-
molecularweight substances from
water. It works using a semi-
permeable membrane with pore sizes
typically ranging from 0.01 to 0.1
microns. When water is passed through
the membrane under pressure,
contaminants larger than the
membrane pores are retained, while
clean water and dissolved salts pass through. UF systems operate at relatively low pressures and do

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not require chemical treatment for filtration, making them energy-efficient and environmentally
friendly. The ultrafiltration process is often used as a pre-treatment for reverse osmosis (RO)
systems, in drinking water purification, and in wastewater recycling. Over time, the membrane can
become fouled with impurities and requires periodic cleaning through a process called backflushing
or chemical cleaning to restore performance. Ultra Filters are valued for their ability to consistently
provide high-quality water, their compact design, and their effectiveness in removing microbial
contaminants without altering the taste or chemical composition of the water.

RO (Reverse Osmosis) membranes

RO (Reverse Osmosis)
membranes are semi-permeable
membranes used in reverse
osmosis systems to purify water by
removing dissolved salts,
minerals, heavy metals, bacteria, and
other impurities. The process works
by applying high pressure to feed water,
forcing it through the membrane. The
membrane allows only water
molecules to pass while rejecting
contaminants based on size, charge,
and concentration. Typically, RO membranes have pore sizes around 0.0001 microns, making them
highly effective at removing even the smallest dissolved substances. The purified water that passes
through is called permeate, while the concentrated contaminants left behind are known as reject or
brine. RO membranes are widely used in applications such as drinking water purification, industrial
water treatment, wastewater recycling, and desalination of seawater. Over time, membranes can
become fouled by scale, organic matter, or biological growth, so regular cleaning and maintenance
are necessary to maintain efficiency and extend membrane life. RO systems
are often paired with pre-treatment units like multi-grade filters, softeners, or ultrafiltration units to
protect the membrane and ensure optimal performance.

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Electro-Deionizer (EDI)

An Electro-Deionizer (EDI) is an advanced water

purification device that removes ionized and charged
species—such as salts, acids, and bases—from water
using a combination of ion exchange resins and
electricity. It is typically used after reverse
osmosis (RO) as a polishing step to produce ultra-
pure water, especially in industries like
pharmaceuticals, power generation, and
microelectronics. The EDI unit consists of
alternating compartments filled with ion
exchange resins and bounded by ionselective
membranes. As partially purified water flows through
the resin beds, remaining cations and anions are
exchanged and then pulled out of the resin by a direct
current (DC) electric field, migrating through the
membranes into concentrate channels, which are flushed away. This continuous removal of ions
allows the resins to regenerate electrically, eliminating the need for chemical regeneration as
required in conventional mixed-bed deionizers. EDI systems are highly efficient, environmentally
friendly, and provide consistent, high-purity water without the use of acids or alkalis, making them
ideal for sustainable and safe water treatment processes. UV Purifier

A UV Purifier is a water
disinfection device that uses
ultraviolet (UV) light to kill or
inactivate harmful
microorganisms such as bacteria,
viruses, and protozoa. It works by
exposing water to UV radiation,
typically at a wavelength of 254
nanometers, which penetrates the
cells of microorganisms and damages their DNA, rendering them unable to reproduce or cause
infection. Unlike chemical disinfectants such as chlorine, UV purification does not add any
chemicals to the water, alter its taste, or leave behind harmful by-products. It is a physical
process and is highly effective when used with clear water, which is why UV purifiers are
usually placed after filtration systems like RO or ultrafiltration units. UV systems require

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minimal maintenance, primarily involving periodic replacement of the UV lamp and cleaning of
the quartz sleeve that protects it. These purifiers are widely used in residential, commercial, and
industrial settings to ensure microbiologically safe drinking water. However, since UV does not
remove dissolved impurities or particulates, it is often used in combination with other
purification technologies for comprehensive water treatment.

Compressed and Instrument Air

Compressed air is air taken from the atmosphere and compressed using an air compressor, which
raises its pressure along with temperature and moisture content. After compression, the hot air is
cooled down in an aftercooler, causing moisture to condense. This moisture is then removed by a
separator. The air is stored in a tank to keep pressure steady, then passed through a dryer to remove
remaining moisture.

To clean the air further, it goes through several filters. First, a particulate filter removes dust and
dirt. Then, a coalescing filter removes tiny oil and water droplets by combining them into larger
drops. Finally, an activated carbon filter removes oil vapors, odors, and other hydrocarbons,
especially important for sensitive equipment.

Instrument air is basically compressed air that is processed to a higher purity because it is used to
operate sensitive instruments like valves and sensors. It follows the same steps as compressed air
but with stricter drying—usually using a desiccant dryer to get very low moisture levels—and extra
filtration to ensure the air is very dry, clean, and oil-free. This prevents damage or malfunction of
instruments.

Reciprocating Compressor

A Reciprocating Compressor is a type of positive displacement compressor that uses a piston

moving back and forth inside a cylinder to compress air or gas. When the piston moves down, it
creates a vacuum that draws air into the cylinder through an intake valve. As the piston moves up, it
compresses the air, increasing its pressure, and then pushes it out through a discharge valve.
Reciprocating compressors are widely used in industries because they can achieve high pressures
and are suitable for a variety of gases. They come in single-stage or multi-stage designs depending
on the pressure requirements.
These compressors are commonly used for applications such as pneumatic tools, refrigeration, and
gas pipelines. Although they are efficient at high pressures, they typically require more maintenance
due to moving parts like pistons, valves, and rings.

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Refrigerated Air Dryer

A Refrigerated Air Dryer is a device used to remove moisture from compressed air by cooling the
air to condense the water vapor into liquid, which can then be separated and drained out. When
compressed air enters the refrigerated dryer, it is cooled down to around 3–5°C (37–41°F), causing
the water vapor in the air to condense into droplets. These droplets are then collected and removed
by a moisture separator or drain. The dried, cool air is then reheated to near ambient temperature
before being sent to the system. Refrigerated air dryers are commonly used in industrial compressed
air systems because they are simple, reliable, and efficient at removing moisture, preventing
corrosion, freezing, and damage to pneumatic equipment. They are ideal for applications requiring
compressed air with moderate dryness, typically achieving dew points of about 3°C.

Separating nitrogen (N₂) from air using adsorption is a common industrial process, especially
when oxygen enrichment or nitrogen generation is desired. One of the most widely used
techniques is Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA).

Process Overview: Nitrogen Separation by PSA

Feed: Air (typically filtered and compressed)

Goal: Produce high-purity N₂ by adsorbing O₂, CO₂, H₂O, and other impurities Adsorbents:
Commonly used materials include:

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• Carbon Molecular Sieves (CMS) – selectively adsorb O₂, CO₂, and moisture
• Activated alumina or zeolite – sometimes used for moisture removal or extra O₂ adsorption

Step-by-Step Process:

1. Air Compression & Pre-Treatment:

• Air is compressed (typically to 5–8 bar)

• Moisture, oil, and dust are removed using pre-filters and dryers (activated alumina or silica
gel)

2. Adsorption:

• Compressed, clean air is fed into a bed of carbon molecular sieves (CMS)
• CMS selectively adsorbs O₂, CO₂, and H₂O, allowing N₂ to pass through as the main product
3. Desorption (Regeneration):

• When the adsorbent is saturated, pressure is reduced

• The adsorbed gases (O₂, CO₂) are desorbed and vented
• The bed is now ready for the next cycle

4. Cycle Repetition:
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• Two or more adsorber vessels operate alternately to ensure continuous N₂ production

Typical N₂ Purity and Applications:

• Purity: 95–99.999% (depending on cycle and CMS quality)

• Applications: Food packaging, inert blanketing, electronics, pharmaceuticals, metallurgy

1. Carbon (Carbon Molecular Sieves - CMS)

Main role: Selective adsorption of O₂, CO₂, H₂O

• Material: Carbon molecular sieves are

specially engineered carbon-based materials. •
Use: These are the primary adsorbents in
Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) systems for
nitrogen generation.
• Function: CMS has small, uniform pores
that allow O₂ molecules (which are slightly
smaller and faster) to enter and get adsorbed, while
N₂ passes through the bed.

Why carbon?

• High selectivity for oxygen over nitrogen.

• Good mechanical strength and chemical stability.
• Long lifetime in PSA systems.

2. Aluminium (Activated Alumina or Structural Role)

Two main uses:

A. Activated Alumina (Al₂O₃ as adsorbent)

• Function: Acts as a drying agent in the pre-treatment stage.

• Use: Removes moisture (H₂O) from compressed air before it enters the carbon
molecular sieve.
• Why important? Water can reduce the efficiency and life of CMS.

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Material Form/Type Role in Process

Carbon Carbon Molecular Sieve (CMS) Adsorbs O₂, CO₂; lets N₂ pass through
Aluminum Activated Alumina Removes moisture (H₂O) from air

Coal-Fired Steam Boiler

1. Working Principle:

Coal is burned in a furnace to produce heat. This heat converts water into steam, which is then used
for power generation, heating, or industrial use. Hot gases heat water inside tubes (water tube
boiler) or around tubes (fire tube boiler).

2. Main Parts:

• Furnace: Burns coal to create heat

• Grate: Supports burning coal
• Boiler Drum: Holds water and steam
• Tubes: Carry water or hot gases
• Superheater: Heats steam further (optional)
• Economizer & Air Preheater: Improve efficiency
• Chimney: Releases exhaust gases
• Feed Pump: Sends water to the boiler
• Ash System: Removes burnt ash

3. Advantages:

• High steam output

• Low fuel cost
• Can use low-grade coal
• Long-lasting if maintained
4. Disadvantages:

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• Pollution (smoke, ash, CO₂)

• Needs more space
• Requires ash handling
• Slower to start or stop

Feature Value
Capacity 1–100+ tons steam/hour
Pressure 10–100 bar
Temp. Up to 540°C
Fuel Coal (any grade)
Efficiency Around 75–85%
Type Water tube or fire tube
5. Typical Specs:

Chilled Water:

• Chilled water is water that has been cooled (usually to 6–12°C) using a chiller.
• It is used in air conditioning and industrial cooling systems to absorb heat from a
space or process.
• It circulates in a closed loop, carrying heat away and returning to be cooled again.

Example: Used in building HVAC systems to cool rooms or equipment.

Brine (Chilled Brine):

• Brine is a mixture of water and salt (or other chemicals like calcium chloride or
glycol).
• It is used instead of water when lower temperatures (below 0°C) are needed.
• Salt lowers the freezing point, so brine can stay liquid at -10°C to -40°C, depending
on the concentration.
• Used in freezers, cold storage, and some chemical or food industries.

Example: Used in ice plants or to chill products without freezing the fluid.

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Key Difference:
Feature Chilled Water Brine
Composition Pure or treated water Water + salt/chemical
Temp Range ~6–12°C 0°C to -40°C
Used For Normal cooling Low-temperature cooling
Freezing Risk Freezes below 0°C Doesn’t freeze easily

Process for Chilled Water Plant & Brine System

1. Compression

• The refrigeration cycle begins with the compressor, which compresses the
lowpressure refrigerant gas into a high-pressure, high-temperature gas.
• This increases the energy level of the refrigerant, preparing it for heat rejection.
• Common compressor types include centrifugal, screw, and reciprocating.
• Refrigerants vary:
o For chilled water systems: R-134a, R-410A, R-1234ze (environmentfriendly options). o For brine
chillers requiring lower temperatures: R-404A, R-507, ammonia (NH₃).

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2. Condensation

• The hot, pressurized refrigerant gas moves to the condenser, typically a shelland-
tube heat exchanger in water-cooled systems.
• Here, the refrigerant releases its heat to the condenser water circulating through the
tubes, condensing into a high-pressure liquid.
• Heat absorbed by the condenser water needs to be rejected outside the system.

3. Cooling Tower

• The warm condenser water is pumped to a cooling tower for heat rejection.
• Cooling towers are usually forced-draft or induced-draft counterflow types.
• In the cooling tower, water flows downward while air flows upward, removing heat
by evaporation.
• The cooled water (around 28–32°C) returns to the condenser to absorb more heat.

4. Expansion Valve

• The high-pressure liquid refrigerant passes through the expansion valve, where
pressure drops significantly.
• This pressure drop causes the refrigerant temperature to fall, producing a cold
refrigerant mixture (liquid and vapor).

5. Evaporator & Secondary Fluid Cooling

• The cold refrigerant enters the evaporator, which is in thermal contact with the
secondary fluid (water or brine).
• In the evaporator, the refrigerant evaporates by absorbing heat from the fluid:
o Chilled water plants cool water down to 6–12°C, suitable for air conditioning and moderate
process cooling. o Brine systems chill a salt or glycol solution to sub-zero temperatures (from about
-10°C to -40°C), enabling freezing or very low-temperature processes.
• The evaporated refrigerant returns to the compressor to repeat the cycle.

6. Secondary Fluid Circulation

• The cooled fluid is circulated by pumps:

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o Chilled water flows through insulated pipes to air handling units (AHUs), fan coil units (FCUs),
or process equipment to absorb heat. o Brine circulates to specialized equipment such as freezers,
ice plants, cold storage rooms, or chemical reactors requiring very low temperatures.

7. Heat Absorption & Return

• The chilled water or brine absorbs heat from the conditioned space or process.
• After absorbing heat, the now warmer fluid returns to the evaporator to be recooled.
• This closed loop continues to provide consistent cooling.

Additional Notes: • Both systems rely on insulation of pipes and tanks to minimize heat

gain.

• Control systems regulate flow rates, temperatures, and pressures for efficient operation.
• Choice of system depends on cooling requirements:
o Chilled water systems are energy-efficient and used for standard cooling needs. o Brine
systems are necessary where temperatures below freezing are required without freezing the
coolant.

Summary Table:
Step Chilled Water Plant Brine System
Cooling Medium Water (~6–12°C) Water + Salt/Glycol (down to
40°C)
Refrigerant Used R-134a, R-410A, R-1234ze R-404A, R-507, Ammonia
Compressor Type Centrifugal, screw, Centrifugal, screw, reciprocating
reciprocating
Condenser Type Shell-and-tube (water-cooled) Shell-and-tube or air-cooled
Cooling Tower Forced/induced draft Forced/induced draft counterflow
counterflow
Application HVAC, pharma, general Ice plants, frozen food storage,
Examples industrial cooling chemical plants

Forced Draft Counterflow Cooling Tower

Parts of Forced Draft Counterflow Cooling Tower:

• Fan (Forced Draft Fan): Located at the air inlet side; it forces ambient air into the tower.
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• Water Distribution System: Sprays warm water evenly over the fill media.
• Fill Media (Packing): Provides a large surface area for water and air contact, enhancing heat
transfer and evaporation.
• Cooling Tower Basin: Collects cooled water at the bottom after heat exchange.
• Drift Eliminators: Prevent water droplets from escaping with the exhaust air.
• Casing/Structure: Houses all components and directs air and water flow.
• Inlet and Outlet Louvers: Guide air into and out of the cooling tower.

Working Principle:

• Warm water flows downward through the fill.

• Air is forced upward by the fan at the inlet side (forced draft).
• Heat is transferred from water to air by direct contact; evaporation cools the water.
• Cooled water collects at the basin and recirculates.
• Warm, moist air exhausts at the top.

Advantages:

• Compact design: Fan at the inlet allows smaller footprint.

• Good control over airflow: Fan speed controls air volume, optimizing cooling.
• Energy efficient: Forced draft fans can be more energy-efficient for certain capacities.
• Less drift loss: Drift eliminators reduce water loss.
• Suitable for variable loads: Airflow and water flow can be adjusted easily.

Disadvantages:

• Fan maintenance: Fan at inlet may accumulate dust, requiring regular cleaning.
• Noise: Fan operation generates noise; may require silencing in sensitive areas.
• Airflow resistance: Air is pushed against water flow, which can limit maximum capacity.
• Higher initial cost compared to natural draft towers.
Typical Specifications:
Parameter Typical Value/Range
Airflow Type Forced draft
Air-Water Flow Counterflow (air up, water down)
Fan Location At air inlet side
Cooling Capacity Medium to large industrial loads

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Water Flow Rate Depends on system size (m³/hr)

Fan Power Rating 5 kW to 100+ kW (varies by size)
Operating Temperature Cooling water outlet: 28–32°C
Drift Loss <0.002% of circulating water
Noise Level Typically, 70–80 dB(A) at 1m

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INSTRUMENTATION EQUIPMENTS AND VALVES

Digital Pressure Indicator

A Digital Pressure Indicator is an electronic device used to

measure and display pressure readings digitally. It typically consists
of a pressure sensor or transducer that converts the physical pressure
into an electrical signal. This signal is then processed and shown
on a digital screen, usually in units like psi, bar, or pascal.

Digital pressure indicators offer high accuracy, easy

readability, and fast response compared to analog gauges. They
often include features like tare function, peak hold, data logging,
and alarm outputs. These devices are widely used in
industries such as oil and gas, manufacturing, HVAC, and
laboratory applications for monitoring gas or liquid pressure
safely and precisely.
Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge
A Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge is a mechanical device that measures pressure using a curved
tube that changes shape in response to pressure changes. The tube is connected to a pointer and
dial, which indicates the pressure reading.
Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauges are
simple, rugged, and relatively low-cost,
making them suitable for a wide range of
industrial applications, including oil and gas,
power generation, and chemical
processing. They offer high accuracy and
reliability, with an accuracy range of ±0.1%
to ±1.0% of full scale, and can withstand high
pressures up to 15,000 psi and
temperatures up to 200°C. However, they also
have some disadvantages, including
limited precision, potential for mechanical
failure, and sensitivity to vibration and shock.

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Vacuum Pressure Gauge

A Vacuum Pressure Gauge is an instrument used to

measure pressure below atmospheric pressure, i.e., vacuum levels.
It indicates how much the pressure in a system is reduced
compared to the surrounding atmosphere.

There are different types of vacuum gauges, such as

mechanical gauges (like Bourdon tube or diaphragm gauges)
and electronic gauges (like Pirani or capacitance
manometers). They are used in applications like vacuum pumps,
refrigeration systems, and scientific research to monitor and
control vacuum conditions accurately.

Flow Meter

A flow meter is a device used to measure the flow rate or quantity of a gas or liquid moving
through a pipe. Flow measurement applications are very diverse, and each situation has its own
constraints and engineering requirements. Flow meters are referred to by many names, such as
flow gauge, flow indicator, liquid meter, etc. depending on the industry; however, the function, to
measure flow, remains the same.

Rotameter

A rotameter is a simple, mechanical device used to

measure the flow rate of liquids or gases in a
pipeline. It consists of a vertically mounted, tapered
transparent tube with a float inside. As the fluid flows
upward through the tube, it pushes the float upward. The
float rises until the upward force from the fluid flow
balances its weight, and its position in the tube
indicates the flow rate, which can be read directly from a
scale printed on the tube. Rotameters operate
without external power and are widely used due to their
simplicity, low cost, and reliability. However, they are
best suited for clean, non-viscous fluids and must be
installed vertically for accurate operation.
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Digital Flow Meter

A digital flow meter is an electronic device used to

accurately measure the flow rate of liquids or gases and
display the result on a digital screen. It uses advanced
sensors and technology like ultrasonic, electromagnetic, or
thermal principles to detect the flow without any moving parts.
These meters offer high precision, fast response, and often
include features like totalizer functions, alarms, data
logging, and connectivity to control systems. Digital flow meters
are widely used in industries such as water treatment,
pharmaceuticals, oil and gas, and chemical processing for real-
time monitoring and efficient process control.
Thermowell

A thermowell is a protective tube or enclosure that

houses temperature sensors such as thermocouples,
RTDs, or thermistors in industrial processes. It is
installed into piping or vessels and allows the sensor to
measure temperature indirectly, without being exposed
to the actual process fluid. Made from materials like
stainless steel, Inconel, or brass, thermowells protect
sensors from high pressure, corrosion, and mechanical
damage. They also enable safe sensor removal or
replacement without interrupting the process.
Thermowells come in different types—like threaded,
flanged, or welded—depending on the application and installation needs.

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Ultrasonic Level Transmitter:

An Ultrasonic Level Transmitter is a non-invasive device that uses high-frequency sound waves to
measure the level of liquids, solids, or slurries in a tank or
vessel. The transmitter emits ultrasonic waves, which
bounce off the surface of the material being
measured and return to the transmitter, providing a precise
measurement of the level. Ultrasonic Level
Transmitters offer high accuracy, reliability, and ease of
use, with features such as non-contact
measurement, low maintenance, and resistance to
corrosion. They are suitable for a wide range of
applications, including chemical processing, oil and gas, and
water
treatment. However, they also have some disadvantages, including potential interference from
foam, steam, or other obstacles, and limited range and accuracy in certain applications.

Valves

Ball Valve
A valve regulated by the piston of a free-floating ball that
moves in response to the fluid or mechanical
pressure. It has the same movement rotated 90deg to
mention only difference is that cock body is a sphere, a
circular through hole or channel through its axis. The
sphere and the ratio of the opening should be in
90deg.in ball valves the area of contact between the set
and the moving element is large so this valve can be used
for throttling and the pressure drop is less.

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Gate Valve
In a gate valve the diameter of the
opening through which the fluid
passes in nearly the same as that of
the pipe, and the direction of flow
does not change. As a result, a
wide-open gate valve introduces
only small pressure drop. The disk
is tapered and fits into a tapered
seat; when the valve is opened, the
disk rises in to the bonnet,
completely out of the path of the fluid. Gate valves are not recommended for flow
controlling and are usually lift fully open are closed.

Globe Valve
Globe valves are widely used for controlling flow. The
opening increases almost linearly with stem position and
wear is evenly distributed around the disk the fluid pass
through a restricted opening and changes direction several
times. As a result, the pressure drop in this kind of valve
is large. This valve can be used for throttling service.

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Control Valve

Control valves are valves used to control

conditions such as flow, pressure,
temperature, and liquid level by fully or
partially opening or closing in response to signals
received from controllers that compare a "set
point" to a "process variable" whose value is
provided by sensors that monitor changes in such
conditions. The opening or closing of control
valves is usually done automatically by
electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic
actuators. Positioners are used to control the
opening or closing of the actuator based on
electric or pneumatic signals. These control
signals, traditionally based on 3-15psi (0.2-
1.0bar), more common now are 4-20mA signals for industry, 0-10V for HVAC systems, and the
introduction of "Smart" systems, HART, Fieldbus Foundation, and Profibus being the more common
protocols.

Butterfly Valve
Butterfly valves consists of a disc attached
to a shaft with bearings used to facilitate
rotation. These are considered high recovery
valves, since only the disc obstructs the
valve flow path. The flow capacity is
relatively high and the pressure drop across
the valve is relatively low. The butterfly
valves are used for limited throttling where
a tight shut off is not required. When fully
open, the butterfly creates little turbulence or resistance to flow.

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Swing Type Check

A swing type check valve is a type of valve that
allows fluid to flow in one direction while
preventing reverse flow. The valve features a
swinging disc that is hinged at one end and free to
swing in response to fluid flow. When fluid flows
in the forward direction, the disc swings open,
allowing flow to occur. When fluid
attempts to flow in the reverse direction, the disc
swings shut, preventing reverse flow. This type of
valve offers low pressure drop, high flow rates,
and silent operation, making it suitable for various
applications, including water supply systems, industrial processes, and HVAC systems, and is
commonly used in industries such as power generation, oil and gas, and chemical processing,
where backflow prevention is critical.

Solenoid Valve
A solenoid valve is an electrically
operated valve that controls the flow of
fluids, such as air, water, or oil. The
valve features a solenoid coil that, when
energized, moves a piston or armature to
open or close the valve. When the coil is
de-energized, the valve returns to its
original position. Solenoid valves are
widely used in various applications,
including industrial automation, medical
devices, and HVAC systems, and are
commonly used in industries such as manufacturing, oil and gas, and chemical
processing, where precise control of fluid flow is required.

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Pressure Safety Valve (PSV)

A pressure safety valve (PSV) is a
protective device designed to
automatically release excess pressure from a
system, vessel, or pipeline to prevent
catastrophic failure or damage. The valve
features a spring-loaded disc that is held in
place by a set pressure, and when the
pressure exceeds this set point, the disc lifts,
allowing the excess pressure to be
released.
PSVs are widely used in various
industries, including oil and gas,
chemical processing, power generation, and aerospace, where they play a critical role in ensuring
the safety of people, equipment, and the environment.

Diaphragm Valve

A diaphragm valve is a type of valve that uses a flexible diaphragm to control the flow of liquids,
gases, or slurries. The diaphragm is pressed down onto a seat by a stem to stop flow, and lifted to
allow flow. It provides a tight seal, even for corrosive or dirty fluids, because the working parts are
isolated from the fluid.

Diaphragm valves are ideal for hygienic applications (like pharmaceuticals and food processing),
as well as chemical processing, due to their leak-proof and easy-to-clean design. They can be
operated manually or automatically using pneumatic or electric actuators.

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SAFETY
Hazard: is a situation that possesses a level of threat to life, health, property, or environment.

Industrial accident: may be defined as any condition produced by industries that may cause injury
or death to personnel or loss of product or property.

Safety: in simple terms means freedom from the occurrence of risk or injury or loss.

Industrial safety: refers to the protection of workers from the danger of industrial
accidents. Industrial Hazards

Definition:
Industrial hazards are potential sources of danger that arise in industrial environments and can
cause injury, illness, or damage to property, equipment, and the environment.

Types of Industrial Hazards:

1. Physical Hazards – Noise, radiation, vibrations, extreme temperatures.

2. Mechanical Hazards – Moving machinery, sharp tools, and equipment failures.
3. Electrical Hazards – Electric shocks, short circuits, arc flashes.
4. Biological Hazards – Exposure to bacteria, viruses, or other microorganisms.
5. Ergonomic Hazards – Poor workstation design, repetitive motions, or improper
posture.
6. Chemical Hazards – Exposure to harmful chemicals (explained below). Chemical

Hazards

Definition:
Chemical hazards refer to dangers posed by chemicals that can cause health issues or accidents
when they are improperly handled, stored, or used.

Sources of Chemical Hazards:

• Toxic substances (e.g., formaldehyde, benzene)

• Flammable or explosive chemicals (e.g., acetone, hydrogen)
• Corrosive materials (e.g., acids and alkalis)

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• Reactive chemicals (e.g., sodium, chlorine)

Health Effects:

• Short-term: Burns, respiratory distress, dizziness, skin irritation.

• Long-term: Cancer, organ damage, neurological disorders.

Prevention Measures:

• Proper labeling and storage.

• Use of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE).
• Adequate ventilation and spill control systems.
• Training in Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS/SDS). PPE – Personal Protective

Equipment

Definition:
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) refers to specialized clothing or equipment worn by
workers to protect themselves from hazards in the workplace that can cause injuries or illnesses.

Importance of PPE:

• Prevents workplace injuries and illnesses.

• Ensures compliance with occupational safety regulations (e.g., OSHA).
• Minimizes exposure to hazardous substances.
• Boosts worker confidence and safety culture.

PPE Usage Guidelines:

• Always select PPE based on the specific hazard.

• Ensure proper fit and comfort.
• Regularly inspect and maintain PPE.
• Train workers on correct usage and disposal.

Types of PPE and Their Uses:

PPE Type Purpose / Protection From Examples
Head Protection Falling objects, head injuries Hard hats, helmets

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Eye and Face Chemical splashes, flying particles, Safety goggles, face
Protection intense light shields, welding masks
Hearing Protection Loud noise that may cause hearing Earplugs, earmuffs
loss
Respiratory Inhalation of harmful dust, gases, Masks, respirators (N95,
Protection vapors half/full face)
Hand Protection Cuts, burns, chemical exposure Gloves (rubber, leather, cut-
resistant)
Body Protection Chemical spills, heat, cold, Lab coats, aprons, chemical
biohazards suits
Foot Protection Falling objects, slips, electrical Safety shoes, steel-toe
hazards boots
Fall Protection Falling from height Safety harnesses, lanyards,
lifelines

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SAFETY SHOES SAFETY HELMET

SAFETY GO GGLES

VAPOR MASK
HAND GLOVES BODY PROTECTOR

Causes of Fire

Fires typically start due to one or more elements of the fire triangle: Heat, Fuel, and Oxygen. If
any of these are present in excess or uncontrolled, a fire can ignite.

Common Causes of Fire:

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1. Electrical faults – Short circuits, overloaded circuits, faulty wiring.

2. Flammable liquids and gases – Improper storage or leakage (e.g., petrol, LPG).
3. Open flames – Unattended stoves, candles, welding operations.
4. Smoking materials – Cigarettes, matchsticks discarded carelessly.
5. Hot surfaces – Contact with combustible materials.
6. Static electricity – Can ignite vapors or dust in sensitive areas.
7. Friction or mechanical sparks – From machinery or tools.
8. Chemical reactions – Spontaneous combustion or improper mixing.
9. Human negligence – Carelessness, lack of training or awareness
Classification of Fires (Based on Fuel Type)

Fires are classified into different classes to help choose the correct fire extinguishing method:
Class Type of Fire Examples Recommended
Extinguishers
Class A Fires involving Wood, paper, cloth, Water, foam, dry
ordinary rubber, plastics chemical
combustibles
Class B Fires involving Petrol, diesel, alcohol, Foam, dry chemical, CO₂
flammable paint, LPG
liquids/gases
Class C Fires involving Transformers, motors, CO₂, dry chemical
electrical equipment appliances, wiring (nonconductive)
Class D Fires involving Magnesium, sodium, Special dry powder
combustible metals potassium, titanium extinguishers
Class K Fires involving Commercial kitchens Wet chemical
(or F) cooking oils and fats (deep fryers, oils) extinguishers (Class K
rated)

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Types of Fire Extinguishers

Extinguisher Type Contents Suitable for Used On
Fire Class
Water (APW) Air-pressurized water Class A Wood, paper, cloth,
trash
Foam (AFFF) Aqueous Film- Class A & B Combustible solids and
Forming Foam flammable liquids
Dry Chemical Monoammonium Class A, B & General purpose: solids,
(ABC) phosphate C liquids, and electrical
fires
CO₂ (Carbon Compressed carbon Class B & C Flammable liquids and
Dioxide) dioxide gas electrical fires
Dry Powder (D- Special powders (e.g., Class D Combustible metals
Class) sodium chloride) (magnesium, titanium,
sodium)
Wet Chemical Potassium Class K (or F Cooking oil/fat fires
acetatebased solution in some (deep fryers,
regions) commercial kitchens)

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Clean Agent Non-conductive, clean Class A, B & Sensitive equipment,

(Halotron, FE-36) chemicals C electronics, computer
rooms
Water Mist Fine water spray Class A & C Paper, wood, and safe
around electrical
equipment
CartridgeOperated Powder stored Class A, B & Industrial
Dry Chemical separately C (varies) environments, faster
from discharge and refill
propellant
A Fire Fighting System is an essential safety setup designed to detect, control, and extinguish
fires, ensuring protection of life, property, and equipment in homes, buildings, and industries.

Types of Fire Fighting Systems:

1. Hydrant System o Manual system using hoses and

nozzles. o Connected to a pressurized water supply. o Used in
buildings, factories, and large facilities.
2. Sprinkler System o Automatically activates when heat is
detected. o Common in malls, offices, and hotels.
o Types: wet, dry, deluge, pre-action.
3. Fire Extinguishers o Portable units for small fires. o Different types for
different fire classes (e.g., water, CO₂, foam, dry chemical).
4. Fire Alarm and Detection System o Includes smoke detectors, heat
detectors, alarms, and control panels.
o Alerts occupants for quick evacuation.
5. Gas Suppression System o Releases gases like FM-200 or CO₂.
o Used in server rooms, control panels, and data centers.
6. Foam System o Sprays foam to smother fires involving flammable liquids.
o Used in fuel stations, airports, and chemical plants.
7. Dry Powder System
o Releases powder to extinguish fires, especially in refineries or electrical rooms.
8. Water Mist System o Produces fine water droplets for cooling and oxygen
displacement. o Safe around electrical equipment.

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FIRE HYDRANT SYSTEM FIRE SPRINKLER SYSTEM

FIRE EXTINGUISHER FIRE ALARM SYSTEM

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GAS SUPPRESSION SYSTEM FOAM SYSTEM

DRY POWDER SYSTEM WATER MIST SYSTEM GHS – Globally Harmonized

System What is GHS?

The Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) is a

system developed by the United Nations to standardize chemical hazard classification and
communication across the world. Key Components of GHS

1. Hazard Classification – Physical, health, and environmental hazards.

2. Labels – With hazard pictograms, signal words, and statements.
3. Safety Data Sheets (SDS) – 16 standardized sections.
4. Pictograms – Visual symbols showing hazard types.

GHS Hazard Pictograms

Symbol Hazard Type
Exploding Bomb Explosives, self-reactive substances
Flame Flammable gases/liquids/solids, self-heating
Flame over circle Oxidizers
Gas cylinder Gases under pressure
Corrosion Skin burns, eye damage, corrosive to metals
Skull Acute toxicity (fatal or toxic)
Exclamation Skin/eye irritation, respiratory issues
Chest symbol Carcinogen, mutagen, reproductive toxicity
Dead tree/fish Environmental hazard (aquatic toxicity)

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MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheet)

Now called SDS (Safety Data Sheet) under the GHS (Globally Harmonized System)

SDS: An SDS is a document that provides essential safety information about a

chemical, including its hazards, handling, storage, and emergency procedures. It is
mandatory in workplaces where chemicals are used.

Purpose:

• Inform workers and responders about chemical safety

• Ensure proper handling, storage, and disposal
• Help in emergency situations (spills, fire, exposure)
• Ensure legal compliance with global regulations 16 Standard Sections of an SDS:

1. Identification – Product name, supplier details

2. Hazard Identification – Risks, symbols, warnings
3. Composition – Ingredients and their %
4. First-Aid Measures – How to treat exposure
5. Fire-Fighting Measures – How to fight fire caused by the chemical
6. Accidental Release Measures – Spill control steps
7. Handling and Storage – Safe use and storage practices
8. Exposure Controls/PPE – Limits and protection needed
9. Physical & Chemical Properties – Appearance, odor, boiling point, etc.
10. Stability & Reactivity – Reactivity with other substances
11. Toxicological Info – Health effects
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12. Ecological Info – Environmental hazards

13. Disposal Considerations – Safe disposal methods
14. Transport Info – UN number, hazard class
15. Regulatory Info – Safety and legal data
16. Other Information – SDS date and version Where to Find SDS?


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