Eur Rev Aging Phys Act (2008) 5:79–87

DOI 10.1007/s11556-008-0035-4

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

A bio-psycho-social model of successful aging as shown

through the variable “physical activity”
Martina Kanning & Wolfgang Schlicht

Received: 25 May 2007 / Accepted: 22 July 2008 / Published online: 6 August 2008
# EGREPA 2008

Abstract In this article, we present and explain a bio- Introduction

psycho-social model of successful aging with subjective
well-being as a criterion of a successful aging process. We Developed nations face a major challenge in the growing
focus on physical activity because it is a crucial behavior. number of aging people. In 2002 Oeppen and Vaupel [41]
Physical activity can support successful aging in two predicted life expectancy to be continuously increasing.
different ways: first, due to its physiological and cognitive Life expectancy has steadily risen by 3 months per year for
effects, and Second, an older person can enhance subjective the last 160 years. The demographic progression in the
well-being (SWB) while being physically active. The developed nations requires a discussion about the growing
model points out that an older person can regulate SWB. number of aging people.
To do this, an older person should set and pursue personally From a biological point of view, one may expect age-
and culturally valued goals. The strength of the association related diseases, biological decline, and a loss of autonomy
between setting a goal and goal pursuance, respectively, for most of the older people. Contrary to this worst-case
and SWB depends on the extent a person is able to satisfy scenario, elderly people report well-being and life satisfaction.
psychological needs (autonomy, competence, relatedness). Furthermore, they disagree with a negative perception of their
But, the decision as to which goal will be set and pursued does aging process (in the corresponding literature, this phenom-
not belong to the older person exclusively. The bio-psycho- enon is known as the age invariance paradox) [61].
social model explains that the chance to enhance SWB is It seems to be insufficient to describe the aging process
restricted by personal dispositions (e.g., physiological consti- solely as a degree of physiological functioning. This
tution, psychological factors) and social–structural constraints perspective does not fit the age invariance paradox and over
(e.g., predominant stereotype of aging, facilities especially for and above it would eliminate disabled people from a
target groups). successful aging process. Conforming to this notion is a
discussion about the predominant model of disease, which
Keywords Aging . Model . Psychological . one can find in the corresponding scientific literature. Most
Physical activity . Psychosocial aspects often, disease is entailed by biological indices, only. This
biomedical model leaves no room for social and psycholog-
ical dimensions of illness. Those traditional biomedical view
leads to the paradox effect that people with negative
laboratory findings are feeling sick, while others are feeling
well despite of diagnosed clinical symptoms (for details to
Funding credit: Landesstiftung Baden Württemberg gGmbH multidimensional models of health and disease see [39, 52]).
[Landesstiftung Foundation]
Already in 1977, Engel [21] presented a bio-psycho-
M. Kanning (*) : W. Schlicht social model to provide a basis for understanding the
Institut für Sport- und Bewegungswissenschaft,
determinants of disease. He claimed that “... a medical
Department of Sport and Exercise Science, Universität Stuttgart,
Allmandring 28 70569 Stuttgart, Germany model must also take into account the patient, the social
e-mail: martina.kanning@sport.uni-stuttgart.de context in which he lives, and the complementary system
80 Eur Rev Aging Phys Act (2008) 5:79–87

devised by society to deal with the disruptive effects of vitality and mobility, allowing an older person to live
illness...” (p. 196). proactive and to set and pursue a larger variety of personal
As for illness and disease, we need a more comprehensive— valued goals. Second, an older person can satisfy psycho-
what we call a bio-psychological—view, to explain what is logical needs directly while being active (e.g., self-respect).
meant by the term “successful aging.” Up to now, successful Whether an older person will actually be active depends on
aging has not been adequately explained because previous a variety of determinants and life conditions. To predict
models fail to account for the concept of subjective perspec- advanced activities of daily living, Schlicht [53] suggested
tives of the elderly. combining individual life circumstances, typical mindsets,
In developmental psychology, subjective well-being and environmental conditions (see [37] as a meaningful study
(SWB) defines one out of several significant criteria of that combines individual, social, and physical/environmental
successful aging. Therefore, successful aging is not only the influences to explain and predict PA).
effort to reduce age-related diseases; it is the effort to As SWB is a key component or criterion for successful
enhance SWB, to feel good, and to be satisfied with life aging, we present a heuristic model to explain how to
despite physiological declines. enhance SWB in order to age successfully (see Fig. 1). We
Among others, Diener et al. [17] stated that setting point out that older people have the chance to influence
individually valued goals and having means to cope with their SWB by setting and pursuing personally and culturally
stressful stimuli are both important for positive SWB. Ryan valued goals satisfying their psychological needs. The main
and Deci [48] pointed out that goals affect SWB if and only point of our model is the combination of physiological,
if someone is able to satisfy psychological needs while psychological, and sociological factors as relevant influences
pursuing these goals. Psychological needs are basic needs on setting and pursuing personal valued goals. From this, it
like physiological ones. They refer to the motivational follows that the chance to enhance SWB is restricted by
processes by which a person strives for autonomy and self- personal dispositions and social–structural constraints.
expression within social contexts. Psychological needs are By explaining the structure of the bio-psycho-social
“an energizing state that, if satisfied, conduce [...] toward model, we focus on PA. As mentioned above, PA is a
health and well-being but, if not satisfied, contribute [...] to crucial behavior for successful aging influencing the
pathology and ill-being” ([48], p. 74). Taken together, (successful) aging process in two different ways.
achieving SWB in older age is facilitated by setting and
pursuing goals conducive to meeting personal psychological
needs. Successful aging
We assume that physical activity (PA) can support
psychological need satisfaction in two different ways. First, Different disciplines have been keeping busy assessing and
several studies have shown that PA is followed by a variety describing the “success” of an aging process in great detail (for
of physiological and cognitive consequences (e.g., [36]). a review, see [32, 35]). However, an explicit definition of
The physiological and psychological effects result in what is successful aging has not yet been readily accepted [5].
Fig. 1 Bio-psycho-social model
personal social-structural
of successful aging with
subjective well-being as a disposition constraints
criterion of a successful aging
subjective
process physiological
constitution/genotyp well-being stereotypes
of aging/ "behavior
correctness"
psychological
personality need satisfaction
(i.e. neuroticism)
behavior
setting
setting & pursuing
socialization/ personal valued goals
sports-
biography offers/facilities
cognitive & especially
emotional processes for target groups
socio-economic
status (active ) lifestyle (inactive )

dynamic processes
stable stable
structure structure
Eur Rev Aging Phys Act (2008) 5:79–87 81

In a recent narrative review integrating 28 studies, Depp with my life the majority of time.” Therefore, the older
and Jeste [16] discovered 29 different definitions of people maintain that physiological and functional aspects
successful aging. On average, one definition includes 2.6 are important key components. Nevertheless, sociological
different components (range = 1–6). “Disability and/or and psychological needs must be satisfied too, if an older
physical functioning” are the components most frequently person experiences the aging process as to be successful.
named (90%). In 45% of the definitions, the amount of Gatz and Zarit [26] pointed out that subjective perspec-
“cognitive functioning” is integrated, followed by “life tives of older persons are as important as objective
satisfaction and SWB” (31%), as well as by “social measures concerning health or cognitive functioning.
engagement” (28%). The review emphasizes that it seems Subjective perspectives include SWB, life satisfaction, and
to be popular to describe successful aging mainly by evaluations of health or judgments about loneliness. From
physiological factors as well as cognitive and physical/ this point of view, subjective perspectives give the idea of
functional factors (see also [43]). “good old age” a psychological dimension. Defining
Rowe and Kahn [47] chose an analogical approach. successful aging without subjective perspectives will be
Their definition of successful aging includes three key an erroneous proceeding provoking incomplete results and
behaviors or characteristics which should be perpetuated as disabling several groups in successfully aging (e.g.,
long as possible: (1) low risk of disease and disease-related physically handicapped persons).
disabilities, (2) high mental and physical functioning, and Due to Staudinger`s argumentation [56], self-assessment
(3) active engagement with life. The authors described that and peer evaluation are not inevitably convergent. Against
although each factor is important in and of itself, they are great odds (e.g., restrictions due to disease) most people
also independent of each other. It is the combination of all feel happy (paradox of happiness) as one can see in the
three components that most extensively represents successful research of invulnerability or happiness (e.g., [61]).
aging. Therefore, it is important to analyze whether and to which
In our consideration, there is a close relationship extent older persons are satisfied with their actual lives.
between the possibility to engage actively in life and the We agree with Bowling and Dieppe [7] or other authors
other two characteristics. An older person in good shape is that successful aging should be described multidimensionally.
more likely to be able to be active in life. As is supported These authors state that successful aging should be assessed
by abundant scientific evidence, PA lowers the risk of continuously instead of dichotomously with the poles success
disease and contributes significantly to mental and physical or failure.
functioning [36]. As mentioned above, in developmental psychology, SWB
In addition to their attempts to define successful aging, and life satisfaction are defined as one out of several important
Depp and Jeste [16] also designated determinants that criteria for successful aging [24]. Life satisfaction is a
influence successful aging. These determinants are as category or dimension of SWB and refers to the evaluation
follows: young age, good health, and a healthy lifestyle of one’s own life and life circumstances. It figures a balance
(no smoking, exercise moderately and regularly). between the “ought life” and the “real life.” A high amount
Phelan et al. [42] explored how older persons define of life satisfaction will be reached if a person does not feel a
successful aging themselves. One thousand eight hundred significant difference between these two assessments.
ninety older American men and women (Mage =79 years) Life satisfaction corresponds to the cognitive dimension
were contacted. The sample was primarily Caucasian and of SWB, whereas positive and negative affects correspond
well educated. They mostly reported good self-rated health. to an affective dimension [6].
Eighty percent to 90% of the sample felt independent in all Moreover, SWB can be conceptualized as a “trait” and
their daily activities. The authors generated statements for as an actual state oscillating around an individual set point
the questionnaire of what successful aging might be. These [19]. So, the actual mood or affect (e.g., pleasure) has to be
were based on scientific conceptions and definitions of distinguished from general or habitual feelings (e.g., depressive
successful aging existing at present (e.g., [2, 26, 43, 49]). or anxious mind). SWB as a “trait” shows more consistency in
The sample rates the importance of these meanings on a different types of situations (e.g., during work and during
three-point Likert scale with the anchors “important” and leisure time) and more stability across time.
“not relevant.” The sample’s rating matches Rowe and To recapitulate what we have considered up until now,
Kahn’s definition most closely [47]. According to this, SWB is a significant criterion of successful aging. That
successful aging should be described multidimensionally means that older people age successfully if they feel well
rather than unidimensionally (see also [8]). In addition to and if they are satisfied with their lives. By this and as to be
the three key factors, 75% of the older people also assess a seen in Fig. 1, we define SWB (including life satisfaction as
psychological dimension to be important. This fourth well as positive and negative affects) as the criterion of
dimension was surveyed with items like “feeling satisfied successful aging.
82 Eur Rev Aging Phys Act (2008) 5:79–87

Successful aging and need satisfaction second study, a more complex model is analyzed. In addition
to the measurements of the first study, the second sample had
Following the explanation above, the regulation of SWB is to specify six personal goals (e.g., avoid conflicts with
critical for successful aging. To enhance habitual SWB, an others, keep myself in good physical condition) that they
older person needs the opportunity to experience often wanted to pursue during the following semester. Further-
positive affects and life satisfaction in daily life. more, they rated how far they attained their personal goal
Diener et al. [17] gave a review including the last eight times during the current semester. A structural equation
30 years of research on SWB asking what the main model shows that goal attainment influences SWB. This
influences on SWB are. Demographic variables like sex, effect is mediated by experiences of need satisfaction. In
age, marital status, and so on account for only 15% of the turn, this experience is influenced by the extent to which the
variance of SWB. Personality factors like neuroticism, goal meets the wishes, wants, and ideals of the person (self-
hostility, or extraversion as well as tangible resources (like concordance). The analysis is conducted with a small
socioeconomic status) are further factors influencing SWB. sample size; however, it reaches an acceptable fit (χ2 =20.3
Beyond the direct effects of both personal dispositions and [9], goodness of fit index=0.93, comparative fit index
tangible resources, a person is able to regulate SWB by [CFI]=0.93).
setting and pursuing personally and culturally valued goals Reis et al. [44] investigated the hypothesis that SWB is a
perseveringly [13, 17]. Those goals are specified by direct outcome of the satisfaction of the three fundamental
particular sociocultural contexts and/or by personal dispo- psychological needs. In their study, 76 students provided
sitions. Due to specific sociocultural backgrounds, valued daily reports for 14 days. The authors used hierarchical
goals change across a lifespan [23]. linear modeling for their analyses with a data of measure-
As Cantor et al. [13] stated, a person should select the ment level (within persons) and a person level (between
“right” task at the “right” time. If a person lives the life he persons). Their findings support the relevance of the three
or she wants to live, SWB and life satisfaction will benefit fundamental psychological needs for SWB. For overall
the most (see also the construct of personal striving, e.g., SWB, the between-person effect of feeling competent was
[20]). Therefore, the strength of the association between significant (B=0.108, t=2.0, p<0.05), whereas relatedness
participation in life and positive SWB depends on how far (B=3.29, t=2.2, p<0.05) was associated significantly with
the chosen activity meets the wishes, wants, and ideals of the positive affects.
person (self-concordance). This level of self-concordance Baltes et al. stated that everybody, even older people,
expresses to what extent a person decides in a self- have possibilities to reach personally and culturally valued
determined manner and acts autonomously. The more a goals. But, older people who suffer from diverse health
person has an “internal perceived locus of causality” ([49], problems (multimorbidity) usually reduce their daily activities
p. 13) toward a goal and the more he or she is able to and therefore miss the opportunities to reach those goals. For
pursue that goal in a way that is valued intrinsically, the them, it might be very difficult to set and pursue a personal
more her SWB will benefit. On the other hand, pursuing valued goal autonomously. In accordance to Baltes and Smith
tasks that are intended to fulfill other people’s desires and [3], they need a “strategy of managing the journey of aging
expectations (i.e., introjected regulation) do not have into the oldest old.” Baltes et al. have articulated and tested a
positive effects on SWB [55]. model called Selective Optimization with Compensation
Ryan and Deci [48] described someone’s desire to act (e.g., [2]). This model characterizes an effective life
autonomously and in a self-determined manner as one of management strategy illustrating how to strive for specific
three fundamental psychological needs. Feeling competent goals: First, older people should select tasks which are
and related to others are the other two fundamental needs. individually important and fit their psycho-physical potenti-
Sheldon and Elliot [54] analyzed the association between alities. For example, for an older person, it may not
satisfied psychological needs and SWB in two longitudinal beneficial to set exercising goals similar to those of younger
studies with 152 (first study) and 73 (second study) people. If an older person has only become acquainted with
American students of psychology. At the beginning and at competitive sports and is no longer able to reach the required
the end of the current semester, all students in the first study performance, the person should change these goals toward
had to rate their SWB during the previous few days. exercising for companionship and for the joy of the activity
Additionally, they rated their experiences of autonomy, itself (see also primary and secondary control [28]). In
competence, and relatedness in their daily lives during the addition to the selection of a specific task, a person should
past 24 h at the beginning of the current semester, as well as optimize his or her skills (i.e., make an effort) or should
three times during it. According to the results of the first compensate favored behaviors (i.e., make a claim on
study, need satisfaction (autonomy, competence, relatedness) someone). With growing age, compensation becomes more
has significant and positive effects on positive SWB. In the and more important [51]. Baltes [2] emphasized that a
Eur Rev Aging Phys Act (2008) 5:79–87 83

person will be able to age successfully if he or she arranges of the cross-sectional study included 10,063 women
all three strategies in a clever and efficient manner. By this between the age of 70 and 75. Higher levels of PA were
means, even the “oldest old” have the chance to age associated with increased SWB even after the data had been
successfully [45]. adjusted for different confounders (marital status, body
Which goals a person prefers and strives for (selecting mass index, recent life events). A follow-up was made
and optimizing) and which deficit will be compensated 3 years later. Now, data from 6,472 women were used in the
differ interindividually. As our model in Fig. 1 premises, it longitudinal study. Comparing with women who remained
is crucial for SWB that the behaviors, which an older inactive, women who started with PA (exercise adoption) or
person wants to optimize, are self-concordant. who maintained PA (maintenance group) showed an
All in all, older people are able to manage their positive increase in SWB, whereas women canceling being physi-
and negative affects and their life satisfaction—in short, cally active (cessation group) showed a significantly greater
their SWB. As Baltes showed, special competencies and decrease in SWB (e.g., for the subscale social functioning:
coping strategies seem to be crucial in keeping the SWB Mchange adoption 1.25, p<0.001, N=654; Mchange mainte-
positive [10]. nance 0.87, p<0.001, N=3,832; Mchange cessation −8.51, p<
0.01, N=1,103; means were adjusted for values of the first
measurement, marital status, body mass index, and recent
Exercise and its impact on successful aging life events).
Results of two German studies ILSE (Interdisciplinary
Being in good shape is a relevant physiological factor and Longitudinal Study of Adulthood [46]) and Bonn
influencing the setting and pursuing personally and culturally Aging Study [15] emphasize that older people exercise in
valued goals. PA can effect the constitution in a positive way. order to increase their fitness and their SWB.
This has been demonstrated in a lot of studies. For example, American women up to 65 years intend nearly the same.
moderate PA induces physiological and psychological effects They want to be fit, and they presume that a fit person can
(for physiological effects, see [38, 57]; for psychological, manage health problems more efficiently [34]. Again, 95%
especially cognitive, effects, see [36, 60]). of a sample (n=409) of older Scottish people (65 to
PA increases SWB, and PA supports older people in 84 years old) supposes that exercise supports health [14],
living without assistance as long as possible. An older and 79% of this sample believes devoutly that they do
person in good shape (physiological and cognitive) is able enough exercise to benefit from the anticipated health-
to participate in several leisure activities (e.g., visit a enhancing effects of PA.
concert), and he or she can be involved with friends or But, the matter of fact is that more than half of the
family, for instance. In doing so, the opportunity increases people exercise less than 2 h per week with moderate
to set and pursue personally and culturally valued goals intensity. For the remaining time, they prefer playing cards
with more variety (e.g., visiting a zoo with grandchild or or meeting friends, or they volunteer for church activities.
inviting friends to play cards). For this, PA in our judgment The abovementioned studies demonstrate the positive
is seen as a key behavior and as a precondition for impact of PA, and they clarify that older people do not
successful aging [18]. PA fosters functional abilities expect to feel well and happy exclusively while being
referring to activities of daily living (e.g., dressing, eating, active. There are interindividual differences among older
bathing), instrumental activities of daily living (e.g., shop- people as to which behaviors make them feel well. PA can
ping, housework, cooking), advanced activities of daily produce good feelings like acceptance, competence, and
living (e.g., recreational activity, volunteer work), and mo- relatedness (cf. fundamental psychological needs). But, a
bility (e.g., walking, stair climbing). person must believe devoutly in PA as a supporting
Likewise, PA impacts SWB directly. A meta-analysis practice. So, it depends on internal and external influences,
examined the effects of organized PA on SWB of older whether an older person prefers an active or sedentary
adults (Mage =66.4, SD=7.5) [40]. The analysis included 36 lifestyle.
studies, and the authors calculated effect sizes representing
the magnitude of the difference between pretest and posttest
for treatment and for control groups, respectively. Physically Psychological and social–structural influences on older
c
active persons (dtreatment ¼ 0:24) show a greater increase in people’s decision as to which goal will be set
c
SWB then inactive persons (dcontrol ¼ 0:09). and pursued
Lee and Russell [31] analyzed the relationship between
PA and SWB cross-sectionally and longitudinally. SWB In a cross-sectional study, Salman et al. [50] analyzed
was measured with the four mental health subscales of the several factors possibly influencing the decision as to what
Medical Outcomes Study Short Form (SF36). The sample kind of activities someone prefers during leisure time. The
84 Eur Rev Aging Phys Act (2008) 5:79–87

authors use the behavioral choice theory sensu Epstein [22] These models presume that the decision to be active
including explicitly both individual and environmental depends on internal factors like attitudes, motives, and
influences to explain and predict behavioral choices. They interests (for the area of sports biography, see the review
performed multiple linear regression analyses to determine [25]). However, the decisions for being active are not only
the overall variance in PA explained by the following three an expression of willingness (cognitive effort). They are
barriers: (1) psychological (e.g., feeling tired) and environ- determined by social constraints and environmental causes,
mental barriers (e.g., cost), (2) fun and enjoyment while and by this, they are somewhat unconscious or not
being active or inactive, and (3) the individual preference to reflected. Thus, sociological and cultural living conditions,
choose an active or an inactive spare-time job. Data from as well as adequate opportunities and offers, influence the
1,332 men and women (Mage =45 years) were analyzed. All psychological entities (see Fig. 1).
three factors are associated significantly with being active McNeill et al. [37] tested different pathways by which
during leisure time (fit of the model: χ2 (8)=10.8, p=0.212; social cognitive and ecological factors influence PA. They
feeling tired: odds ratio [OR]=0.5, 95% confidence interval analyzed social environmental variables like informational
[CI]=0.4, 0.8, p<0.001; cost: OR=1.5, 95% CI=1.1, 2.1, and emotional social support, physical environmental
p=0.009; enjoy PA: OR=1.8, 95% CI=1.4, 2.5, p<0.001; variables like quality and availability of PA facilities, and
prefer moderate PA: OR=1.9, 95% CI=1.4, 2.6, p<0.001). individual variables like motivation and self-efficacy. Nine
Therefore, the kind of activity a person prefers does not hundred ten adults (Mage =33, SD=13.1) completed a self-
depend on perceived psychological and environmental administered survey. Structural equation modeling was used
barriers only. Individual preferences and perceived fun and for analyzing, and the results show that both the social and
enjoyment during exercise are also important for the decision the physical environments had indirect effects on PA. The
to be physically active or inactive during leisure time. effect was mediated through motivation and self-efficacy
As our model in Fig. 1 describes, the decision whether (for moderate PA: χ2 =1,969.5 [677]; CFI=0.93; root mean
an older person chooses and pursues a physically active square error of approximation [RMSEA]=0.046).
lifestyle depends on cognitive (like self-efficacy or atti- Nowadays a 60-year-old person shows more readiness to
tudes) and emotional processes concerning those activities. exercise than some decades before. Furthermore, older
The results of leastwise one prospective cohort study people, especially female, are in fact more active today than
with 1,725 persons older than 50 years (Mage =60.9; SD= older women 20 years before [12]. Breuer [11] explained
8.2) show that positive attitudes about exercising have an this alteration with higher motivation of older people to
important influence. First, positive attitudes influence the keep healthy. A second reason may be a modified view of
intention to participate in an exercise program, and second, what is prototypic for an older person today and what older
they have an impact on the actual rate of participation [58]. persons are expected to do. Those normative beliefs and
The authors asked subjects at baseline and 6 months later. culturally learned ideas form special stereotypes of aging
The subjects took part in one of ten different activity influencing behavior of older people [9]. A few years ago,
programs designed especially for older persons (e.g., older people lived in accordance with the predominant
calisthenics, fitness, walking). The stepwise logistic regres- stereotype of aging when they exercised only due to
sion analysis identified proactive attitudes (OR=1.9; 75% therapeutic or rehabilitative reasons. Today, higher age is
CI=1.2, 3.0) and the intention to participate (OR=3.9; CI= no longer connected inevitably with inactivity. Older people
2.0, 7.6) as significant predictors for regular participation. who are active are not only accepted; they even form
Proactive attitudes (OR=3.30; CI=1.73, 6.31) were a today’s ideal. Thus, the social environment forms a special
predictor for intention, too. The determinants for taking structure of thoughts and expectancies which we will call
part in an exercise program were based on two behavioral “behavior correctness” (cf. Fig. 1).
models, the theory of planned behavior [1] and social In addition to the impact of normative beliefs, typical
learning theory [4]. behavior settings also influence an individual’s action. In
Social–cognitive models mention certain predictors with the concept of behavior setting, Barker emphasized
a specific conjunction among them. Each model allows interindividually equal behavior in specific situations (for
describing, explaining, and predicting the behavior change a review, see [30]). Kaminsky ([30], p. 13) gave colorful
process. The main purpose of these models is to explain examples: People in a bread shop behave like someone
behavior, especially behavior change from risk behavior, needing bread, and most people are convinced that a
like smoking or inactivity, to health-enhancing behavior dancing school is not the right place for worship, and so
(quitting smoking, being active). The predictors are on ([30], p. 34). So, in a behavior setting, the behavior of
cognitive processes. In addition to intention and attitude, different people shows no significant interindividual
they include self-efficacy and outcome expectancies, for difference. The concept of behavior setting describes an
instance. existing close fit between typical behavior patterns and
Eur Rev Aging Phys Act (2008) 5:79–87 85

corresponding environmental situations (synomorphe con- The model in Fig. 1 suggests that an individual’s
nection). In these (typical) situations, people usually do not socialization and experiences with exercise (sports biography)
behave like they want; they behave like the situation influence cognitive and emotional factors concerning exer-
“forces” them to. Behavior settings are some kind of a cise. Again, these social–structural and psychological factors
socio-physiological environment dictating the individual’s have an impact on older people’s decision whether exercise is
behavior. worthwhile to be chosen as a component of their lifestyle. A
As a concrete example, the impact of given facilities for physically active person can influence his or her constitution
exercising on the rate of activity is analyzed by Li et al. so that personally and culturally valued goals can be set and
[33] in their longitudinal study. During 1 year, they inter- pursued with more variety (physiological factor). Therewith,
viewed 303 American women and men every third month. On social–structural, psychological, and physiological factors
the average, the sample was 74 years old (SDage =6.24) and have an influence on SWB and with it on the chance to age
lived in 28 different municipalities. The authors used successfully.
multilevel modeling to investigate between-neighborhood
and within-neighborhood variability in walking activity. The
model yielded a reasonably good fit to the data (χ2 =51.71 Concluding remarks
[27], p=0.003; RMSEA=0.05). Due to the results of the
between-neighborhood analysis, social cohesion of the We introduce a heuristic model explaining successful aging
neighborhood was significantly related to the amount of as a process (see Fig. 1). In doing this, we focus on PA. PA
walking activities at baseline (β=0.62) showing that neigh- proves to be a crucial behavior because of its two different
borhoods with high levels of social cohesion were associated roles in the successful aging process. First, it causes
with greater levels of walking activity at baseline. The physiological and cognitive effects: An older person in
presumed safety of relevant paths for walking (β=0.44) and good shape has the opportunity to set and pursue a greater
easy access to other facilities for exercising (β=0.61) are variety of personal goals. Second, an older person can
significant predictors of a lower decline of walking activity satisfy psychological needs directly while being physically
during the survey period. active.
Breuer [11] compared the self-reported activity rate of We conclude that everybody has the chance to age
people who are living in a rural area with the activity rate of successfully when he or she manages to do something on
people who are living in an urban area. According to his his or her own initiative. To enhance SWB, it seems to be
results, people, living in the rural area, are more active than highly important that a (older) person considers which tasks
people, living in the city. But, above the 60th birthday, the or goals could satisfy psychological needs. To achieve this
proportion changed. With this age, people who are living in satisfaction, the person should know whether all of these
an urban area are most active now. Breuer [11] stated that needs are being continually satisfied or, for example,
especially older people may find adequate activities more whether one is being neglected. For instance, after a person
often in an urban than in a rural area. As an alternative has gone into retirement, he or she may feel unhappy,
interpretation, we guess that the anonymity of the city somewhat depressed, and superfluously. It seems likely that
makes it easier for older people to be active. this person misses the feeling of competence and therefore
An interesting result is the proportion of active men to should look for tasks or goals satisfying the psychological
active women above the 70th birthday. In the rural area, men need for competence. Maybe, the person will learn a new
were more active than women (men=42% vs. women= language or study history at the university.
33%), whereas in the urban area, women show a more active Second, we point out that the decision as to which goal
lifestyle (women=41% vs. men=35%). Again, it may be that will be set and pursued is not made by the older person
the tradition-based behavior correctness concerning activity exclusively. The decision to be physically active, for
is stronger in the rural area than in the city. instance, depends on social–cognitive (e.g., self-efficacy,
All in all, it seems that the predominate stereotype of attitude) and emotional factors toward exercise. These
aging, special behavior settings, and given facilities form a factors, in turn, are influenced by social–structural con-
social and physical environment that hinder or facilitate an straints (e.g., facilities for exercise especially for older
active lifestyle of older people (see Fig. 1). persons) and personal dispositions (e.g., sports biography).
But, neither the physical nor the social environment The heuristic model presented in Fig. 1 is a holistic
influences someone’s activity rate in a unidirectional manner. approach in the sense that it includes physiological (e.g.,
Personal ideas and wishes (concerning exercise) depend on how constitution), psychological (e.g., social–cognitive determi-
a person examines his or her social and physical environment. nants), and sociological (e.g., stereotype of aging) aspects
Thus, the process of socialization toward an active lifestyle is an to explain successful aging. As such, the model agrees with
interactive process with an active human in focus. the recommendations of developmental psychology that an
86 Eur Rev Aging Phys Act (2008) 5:79–87

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