CONSTITUTION OF INDIA

I. Making of Indian Constitution- Constituent Assembly

The Constitution of India was not prepared in a single day but the process of the
evolution of the Indian Constitution started many decades before India became
independent in 1947. The process continued unabated since it originated in the
freedom struggle till a new Constitution was drafted after series of debates and
discussion in the Constituent Assembly. The day 26th of January, 1950 was a red-
letter day in the history of modern India. On that particular day, the written
Constitution of India came in to force.

A Constituent Assembly is a body of representatives responsible for drafting or adopting a

new constitution for a country. It is typically formed during major political changes such as
independence, revolution, or a transition from one form of government to another.

Why is a Constituent Assembly Required?

A Constituent Assembly is needed for the following reasons:

1. Drafting a New Constitution – It lays down the fundamental principles, rights, and
structure of governance.
2. Ensuring Democracy – It provides a framework for democratic governance and the
rule of law.
3. Addressing Social and Political Issues – It resolves existing conflicts, ensures
representation, and balances power among different groups.
4. Legal and Political Stability – A well-drafted constitution provides stability and
legitimacy to the new government.
5. Public Participation – It ensures that the constitution reflects the will of the people by
involving elected representatives.

Demand for a constituent Assembly

 In 1934, The idea of a Constituent Assembly for India was put forward for
the first by M.N.Roy, a pioneer of the communist moment in the India.
 In 1935, The Indian National Congress (INC), for the first time, officially
demanded a Constitution Assembly to frame the Constitution of India.
  In 1938, Jawaharlal Nehru, on behalf of the INC declared that “the
Constitution of free India must be framed, without outside interference, by
a constituent assembly elected on the basis of adult franchise.
 The demand was finally accepted in principle by the British Government in
what is known as the ‘August Offer’ of 1940. In 1942, Sir Stafford Cripps,
a member of British Cabinet, came to India with a draft proposal of British
Government on the framing of an Independent Constitution to be adopted
after World War II. The Cripps proposal was rejected by the Muslim League,
which wanted India to be divided into two autonomous states with two
separate constituent assemblies.
 The Cabinet Mission Plan: A Cabinet Mission consisting of three
members (Lord Pethick Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps, and A.V. Alexender
) was sent to India. It rejected the Muslim League Proposal and published
its plan, i.e. The Constituent Assembly was constituted in November 1946
under the scheme formulated by the Cabinet Mission Plan.
 The Constituent Assembly met for the first time on 9 December 1946. Dr.
Sachchidananda Sinha was the temporary chairman of the Constituent
Assembly of India. He was elected on December 9, 1946, and was the oldest
member of the Assembly. H.C.Mookerjee and V.T. Krishnamachari were
both elected as Vice-Presidents of the Constituent Assembly of India.
 The Constituent Assembly was initially composed of 389 members. 292
members were elected through the Provincial Legislative Assemblies, 93
represented the Indian Princely States, and 4 represented the Chief
Commissioners' Provinces. Members were chosen by indirect election as
per the Cabinet Mission's recommendations. After the partition of India, the
Constituent Assembly of India had 299 members. This included 229
members from provinces and 70 from princely states.
The Constituent Assembly of India first met on December 9, 1946 and its last session was held
on January 24, 1950.
 December 9, 1946

The Constituent Assembly met for the first time in the Constitution Hall, which
is now the Central Hall of Parliament House.
 August 29, 1947

The Constituent Assembly set up a Drafting Committee under the chairmanship

of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and other 6 members. The Father of Indian
Constitution holds a significant place in the history of India. This distinguished
figure is none other than Independent India’s first Law minister Dr. Bhimrao
Ramji Ambedkar, who is widely recognized as the architect of the Indian
Constitution. His tireless efforts and visionary leadership played a pivotal role
in shaping the constitutional framework of independent India. Dr. B.R.
 Ambedkar's contribution to the development of the Indian Constitution is
unparalleled and his work continues to inspire generations.

o Dr. Ambedkar was the Chairman and also one of the seven founding fathers of the
Drafting Committee, 1947 appointed by the Constituent Assembly for preparing a draft
of the Constitution of India.

o Ambedkar was also a significant figure in social movements fighting for Dalit rights.
In 1924, he established the 'Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha' for the social upliftment of the
‘marginalised sections,' with the motto "Educate, Agitate, Organise."

o In this article, we will delve into the life, works, and notable contributions of Dr. B.R.
Ambedkar, who is known as the Father of the Indian Constitution.

 November 26, 1949

The Constituent Assembly adopted the Constitution of India.

 January 26, 1950

The Constitution of India came into force. The Constituent Assembly served as
the provisional Parliament until the first general elections in 1951-52.

About the Constituent Assembly

The Constituent Assembly was formed in November 1946 under the Cabinet
Mission Plan. It was a partly elected and partly nominated body. The
Constituent Assembly was created to draft and formulate the Constitution of
India.

Objectives Resolution:
The Objective Resolution was a significant declaration presented by Jawaharlal Nehru on
December 13, 1946, in the Constituent Assembly of India. It laid down the fundamental
principles and ideals that would shape the Constitution of independent India. The resolution
emphasized the country's commitment to sovereignty, democracy, justice, equality, and
fundamental rights. It also aimed to ensure the well-being of all citizens, regardless of caste,
creed, or gender, while guaranteeing social, economic, and political justice. The resolution
envisioned India as a sovereign republic, striving for international peace and cooperation.

The Objective Resolution served as the foundation for the Preamble of the Indian
Constitution and guided the drafting of its provisions. It outlined that power and authority
would rest with the people and that the Constitution would secure liberty, fraternity, and justice
for all. The resolution was unanimously adopted on January 22, 1947, marking a crucial step
in India's journey toward constitutional democracy. It reinforced the vision of a secular,
inclusive, and progressive nation, reflecting the aspirations of an independent India.
Committees of the Constituent Assembly:
The Constituent Assembly appointed a number of committees to deal with different tasks of
constitution making. Out of these, eight were major committees and the others were minor
committees. The names of these committees and their chairmen are given below:

Major Committees:

1. Drafting Committee: D.R.B.R. Ambedkar

2. Union Powers Committee: Jawaharlal Nehru
3. Union Constitution Committee: Jawaharlal Nehru
4. States Committee (Committee for negotiating with states) : Jawaharlal Nehru
5. Rules of Procedure Committee: Dr.Rajendra Prasad
6. Steering Committee: Rajendra Prasad.
7. Provincial Constitution Committee: Sardar Patel
8. Advisory Committee on Fundamental Rights, Minorities and Tribal and excluded
Areas- Sardar Patel.
Sub Committees:
a. Fundamental Rights Sub Committee: J.B.Kripalani
b. Minorities Sub Committee: H.C.Mukherji
c. North East Frontier Tribal areas and Assam excluded and partially excluded
areas subcommittee: Gopinath Bardoloi.
d. Excluded and partially excluded areas: A.V.Thakkar

The Constituent Assembly of India first met on December 9, 1946 and its last session was held
on January 24, 1950.

 December 9, 1946

The Constituent Assembly met for the first time in the Constitution Hall, which
is now the Central Hall of Parliament House.

 August 29, 1947

The Constituent Assembly set up a Drafting Committee under the chairmanship

of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.

 November 26, 1949

The Constituent Assembly adopted the Constitution of India.

 January 26, 1950

The Constitution of India came into force. The Constituent Assembly served as
the provisional Parliament until the first general elections in 1951-52.

About the Constituent Assembly

 The Constituent Assembly was formed in November 1946 under the Cabinet
Mission Plan. It was a partly elected and partly nominated body. The
Constituent Assembly was created to draft and formulate the Constitution of
India.

Historical Perspectives of the Constitution of India

The Constitution of India is a result of centuries of legal, political, and social evolution. Its
development is influenced by ancient Indian traditions, colonial rule, and global constitutional
practices. Below is a historical perspective on its formation:

1. Ancient Indian Influence

India had well-established governance systems long before colonial rule. Some key influences
include:

 Vedic Era (1500 BCE - 500 BCE): Early democratic elements were seen in sabhas and
samitis (assemblies).

 Maurya & Gupta Empires: Introduced a structured administrative and judicial

system.

 Medieval Period: Sultanate and Mughal rule saw a mix of centralized and
decentralized governance.

2. British Colonial Influence

India’s modern legal and constitutional framework was significantly shaped during British rule.
Key milestones include:

Regulating Acts & Charter Acts

 Regulating Act of 1773: First attempt to bring British governance under regulation.

 Pitt’s India Act, 1784: Established dual control between the British Crown and the East
India Company.

 Charter Acts (1813, 1833, 1853): Gradually introduced legal reforms and centralized
administration.

Government of India Acts:

 Government of India Act, 1858: After the Revolt of 1857, British rule was transferred
directly to the Crown.
  Indian Councils Acts (1861, 1892, 1909): Allowed limited Indian participation in
governance.

 Government of India Act, 1919 (Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms): Introduced dyarchy

in provinces.

 Government of India Act, 1935: Introduced provincial autonomy and federal

structure, heavily influencing India’s Constitution.

3. Nationalist Movements and Demand for Constitution

As the Indian freedom struggle intensified, leaders demanded constitutional

reforms:

 Swaraj Movement (1890s-1919): Indian leaders sought self-governance.

 Nehru Report (1928): First attempt by Indians to draft a constitution.

 Government of India Act, 1935: Served as a blueprint for many provisions in the
Indian Constitution.

 Cripps Mission (1942) & Cabinet Mission (1946): Discussed India's constitutional
framework.

4. Formation of the Constituent Assembly

 Established in 1946 under the Cabinet Mission Plan.

 Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was appointed Chairman of the Drafting Committee.

 Constitution adopted on 26th November 1949 and came into effect on 26th January
1950.

5. Influence of Other Constitutions

The Indian Constitution borrowed key principles from various sources:

 British Constitution – Parliamentary system, rule of law.

 U.S. Constitution – Fundamental rights, judicial review.

 Irish Constitution – Directive Principles of State Policy.

 Canadian Constitution – Federal structure with a strong centre.

 Weimar Constitution (Germany) – Emergency provisions.

 Soviet Constitution – Social and economic principles.

The Indian Constitution is a blend of indigenous traditions, colonial laws, and global
democratic principles. It ensures a sovereign, socialist, secular, and democratic republic,
making it one of the world’s most comprehensive and dynamic constitutions.

Salient features of Indian Constitution:

1. Lengthiest Written Constitution:

 It is a very comprehensive, elaborate and detailed document. Originally ( 1949)

, the constitution contained a Preamble, 395 Articles ( divided into 22 parts),
and 8 Schedules.
 Presently, it consists of a Preamble, about 470 articles ( 395+ 75 sub articles) ,
12 schedules and 25 parts.
 The Constitution contains not only the fundamental principles of governance,
but also detailed administrative provisions. Further, those matters which in other
modern democratic countries have been left to the ordinary legislation or
established political conventions have also been included in the constitutional
document itself in India.

2. Drawn from various sources:

The Indian Constitution is unique in that it draws inspiration from various global
sources while tailoring them to India's diverse socio-political needs. It incorporates
elements from the

 British Constitution, such as the parliamentary system of government, rule

of law, and single citizenship.
 From the U.S. Constitution, it adopts the fundamental rights (Promoting
Political Democracy), judicial review, and independence of the judiciary.
 The Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP) are inspired by the Irish
Constitution, promoting socio-economic justice.
 The federal structure with a strong central government is influenced by the
Canadian Constitution.
 The Weimar Constitution of Germany contributed to the concept of
Emergency Provisions,
 while the Soviet Constitution influenced the idea of Fundamental Duties.
  The French Constitution inspired the ideals of liberty, equality, and
fraternity, which are enshrined in the Preamble.
 By integrating these features, the Indian Constitution balances democracy,
federalism, and social justice, making it one of the most comprehensive
governing documents in the world.

3. Blend of Rigidity and Flexibility

The Indian Constitution is a unique blend of rigidity and flexibility, allowing it to

adapt to changing times while maintaining stability. Some provisions of the
Constitution can be amended through a simple majority, similar to ordinary
legislation, making it flexible. For example, changes to Schedules and certain Articles
can be made by a simple majority in Parliament. However, more significant
amendments, such as those affecting the federal structure, fundamental rights, and
the judiciary, require a special majority (two-thirds majority of members present and
voting) and, in some cases, ratification by at least half of the state legislatures, making
it rigid. This dual nature ensures that the Constitution remains dynamic and
progressive while preserving its core principles and values.

4. Federal System with Unitary Bias

The Indian Constitution establishes a federal system with a unitary bias, meaning
it combines elements of both federalism and strong central authority. India follows a
dual polity system, dividing powers between the central government and state
governments through three lists in the Seventh Schedule: The Union List (central
subjects), the State List (state subjects), and the Concurrent List (shared subjects).
However, unlike a purely federal structure, India exhibits a strong unitary tendency,
especially during emergencies (Articles 352, 356, and 360), where the central
government can assume greater control over states. Additionally, the Governor,
appointed by the President, holds significant influence over state affairs. The ability of
Parliament to change state boundaries (Article 3) and the presence of a single
constitution, single citizenship, and a unified judiciary further emphasize this
unitary tilt. This unique blend ensures a strong central authority while maintaining
state autonomy, making India a quasi-federal nation.

5. Parliamentary form of Government

 the Lok Sabha (House of the People-), Rajya Sabha (Council of States), and the
President of India together constitute the Indian Parliament, as defined in Article
79 of the Indian Constitution.

Lok Sabha (House of the People) – 545 Members (Currently 543): Elected
Members: 543 members elected by the people of India through general elections.
Nominated Members: 2 members can be nominated by the President from the Anglo-
Indian community (this provision was abolished by the 104th Constitutional
Amendment Act, 2019). Term: 5 years (unless dissolved earlier).

Rajya Sabha (Council of States) – 250 Members (Currently 245): Elected

Members: 233 members elected by the State Legislative Assemblies and Union
Territories. Nominated Members: 12 members nominated by the President of India
from fields like literature, science, arts, and social service. Term: Permanent house,
but one-third of members retire every two years.

President of India: The President is not a member of either house but is an integral
part of Parliament, playing a key role in legislation, summoning, and dissolving the
Parliament. Thus, the total strength of the Indian Parliament is 789 members (543
+ 245 + President).

The Parliamentary System is based on the principle of cooperation and coordination

between the legislative and executive organs while the presidential system is based on
the doctrine of separation of powers between the two organs.

6. Synthesis of Parliamentary Sovereignty and Judicial Supremacy

The synthesis of parliamentary sovereignty and judicial supremacy ensures a

balanced constitutional framework where legislative power is exercised within
constitutional limits, and the judiciary safeguards fundamental rights through judicial
review. While Parliament holds the authority to make and amend laws, the judiciary
ensures their conformity with constitutional principles, as seen in India’s Basic
Structure Doctrine (Kesavananda Bharati Case, 1973). Articles 13, 32, 226, and 368
establish this balance, preventing legislative overreach while upholding constitutional
 supremacy. This synthesis fosters democratic governance, rule of law, and
institutional harmony, ensuring neither branch becomes absolute in power.

7. Integrated and Independent Judiciary

An integrated judiciary refers to a unified judicial system where all courts, from lower
courts to the highest court, function under a single hierarchy with a common set of laws
and procedures. In such a system, lower courts are bound by the decisions of higher
courts, ensuring consistency and uniformity in judicial interpretation. India follows an
integrated judiciary system, with the Supreme Court at the apex, followed by High
Courts and subordinate courts. This structure helps in maintaining the supremacy of
constitutional principles and allows for streamlined judicial review, ensuring that laws
and policies adhere to the Constitution.

On the other hand, an independent judiciary signifies a judicial system that operates
free from external influences, particularly from the executive and legislative branches
of government. Judicial independence ensures that courts can make impartial decisions
without political or administrative pressure. This concept is essential in upholding the
rule of law, protecting fundamental rights, and preventing misuse of power. In
democratic nations like the United States and India, mechanisms such as security of
tenure, fixed salaries for judges, and the separation of powers doctrine reinforce judicial
independence. While an integrated judiciary ensures consistency across various courts,
an independent judiciary safeguards justice by preventing interference in judicial
processes.

8. Fundamental Rights

Part III of the Indian Constitution guarantees six fundamental rights to all the citizens.
Fundamental Rights are meant for promoting the idea of political democracy. The
fundamental rights can also be suspended during the operation of a National Emergency
except the rights guaranteed by Article 20 and 21.

These were borrowed from USA constitution. These are Judiciable (Enforceable by the
Law), the aggrieved person can directly go to the Supreme court which can issue writs
Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Certiorari, Quo warranto as per article 32.
9. Directive Principles of State Policy

Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSPs) are guidelines enshrined in Part IV

(Articles 36-51) of the Indian Constitution, aimed at directing the government to
establish social and economic justice in the country. These principles, inspired by the
Irish Constitution, are non-justiciable, meaning they cannot be legally enforced by the
courts. However, they serve as a guiding framework for the state in making laws and
policies that promote the welfare of the people. DPSPs include provisions for securing
equitable distribution of wealth, ensuring equal pay for equal work, promoting
education and public health, protecting the environment, and supporting vulnerable
sections of society such as women, children, and workers.
The DPSPs are categorized into three types: Socialist, Gandhian, and Liberal-
Intellectual principles. Socialist principles focus on reducing income inequality,
securing living wages, and promoting social security. Gandhian principles emphasize
the development of rural self-governance, cottage industries, and prohibition of
intoxicating substances. Liberal-Intellectual principles include the promotion of
international peace, protection of monuments, and the separation of the judiciary from
the executive. Though they are not legally enforceable, DPSPs hold significant
importance as they guide policymakers in creating laws that aim to achieve a just and
equitable society. Over time, various amendments and judicial interpretations have
helped in harmonizing Fundamental Rights with DPSPs, ensuring a balanced approach
to governance.

10. Fundamental Duties.

Fundamental Duties are enshrined in Part IV-A (Article 51A) of the Indian Constitution
and were added by the 42nd Amendment Act of 1976 based on the recommendations
of the Swaran Singh Committee. These duties serve as moral obligations for Indian
citizens to uphold the ideals and integrity of the nation. Unlike Fundamental Rights,
Fundamental Duties are non-justiciable, meaning they cannot be legally enforced by
the courts. However, they play a crucial role in promoting a sense of responsibility
among citizens toward national unity, patriotism, and social harmony. These duties
include respecting the Constitution, safeguarding public property, protecting India's
sovereignty, promoting scientific temper, and striving for excellence in individual and
collective endeavours.
 The inclusion of Fundamental Duties aligns with the principle that rights and duties go
hand in hand. While the Constitution grants citizens numerous rights, it also expects
them to contribute positively to society and the nation. For instance, duties such as
preserving the rich heritage of India, protecting the environment, and promoting
harmony among different communities emphasize the role of citizens in nation-
building. Though not legally enforceable, courts have often referred to Fundamental
Duties while interpreting laws and in matters concerning public interest. By fostering a
sense of civic responsibility, Fundamental Duties help strengthen democratic values
and ensure that citizens actively participate in the progress and development of the
country.

11. A Secular State

A secular state is a political entity that maintains a clear separation between religion
and government, ensuring that no particular religion is given preference in governance,
law, or public policy. In a secular state, individuals have the freedom to practice any
religion or none at all, and the government does not interfere in religious matters. This
principle promotes religious neutrality, where the state does not endorse, fund, or
impose any religious beliefs. It safeguards the rights of all citizens, preventing
discrimination based on faith and fostering a society where diverse religious and
cultural identities can coexist peacefully. Countries like India, the United States, and
France have embraced secularism to varying degrees, enshrining the principle in their
constitutions to uphold religious freedom and equality.

The importance of a secular state lies in its role in ensuring harmony and equal
treatment of all religious groups. By keeping religion separate from governance, a
secular state prevents the dominance of any one faith over others, reducing the
likelihood of religious conflicts and bias in policymaking. It also allows for a legal
framework based on reason, equality, and universal human rights rather than religious
doctrines. In democratic societies, secularism strengthens pluralism, democracy, and
individual freedoms, making it a crucial pillar for modern, inclusive governance.
However, challenges such as religious extremism, political misuse of religion, and
societal divisions sometimes test the effectiveness of secularism in practice.

12. Universal Adult Franchise

 Universal Adult Franchise is the principle that grants every adult citizen the right to
vote, regardless of caste, gender, religion, education, or economic status. It is a
fundamental aspect of democracy, ensuring political equality by allowing all eligible
citizens to participate in the electoral process. This principle empowers people to
choose their representatives and influence governance through free and fair elections.
By eliminating discriminatory voting restrictions, universal adult franchise strengthens
democratic institutions and fosters a sense of responsibility among citizens to shape the
policies that govern them.

The adoption of universal adult franchise has played a crucial role in promoting social
justice and inclusivity. In India, it was established by the Constitution in 1950, making
the country one of the few at that time to grant voting rights to all adults without any
literacy or property qualifications. This decision was instrumental in giving
marginalized communities a voice in governance, thus strengthening the democratic
fabric of the nation. Over the years, universal adult franchise has been a driving force
behind political awareness, participation, and empowerment, ensuring that governance
remains representative of the diverse aspirations of the people.

13. Single Citizenship

Single citizenship is a principle wherein a person is recognized as a citizen of only one

country, regardless of the region or state they belong to within that nation. This concept
is prominently followed in countries like India and the United Kingdom, ensuring that
all citizens share the same rights and responsibilities under a unified legal framework.
In contrast to dual or multiple citizenship systems, single citizenship prevents
individuals from holding allegiance to more than one country, thereby promoting
national unity and integrity. For instance, in India, every citizen is recognized as an
Indian citizen, regardless of their state of residence, ensuring equal rights and duties
across the country.

The idea of single citizenship helps in fostering a sense of national identity and prevents
legal complexities associated with multiple allegiances. It ensures that all individuals
are subject to the same set of laws, voting rights, and government policies, reducing
discrimination based on regional affiliations. Furthermore, it simplifies governance and
administration, as citizens are governed under a single legal and political system.
However, some critics argue that single citizenship may limit opportunities for
individuals who migrate or seek economic and personal benefits in other nations.
 Despite this, the system remains a strong tool for maintaining national sovereignty and
uniformity in rights and duties.

14. Independent Bodies

Independent bodies are organizations or institutions that function autonomously from direct
government control to ensure impartiality, fairness, and transparency in their operations.
These bodies are typically established by constitutional provisions, legislative acts, or
executive decisions to oversee specific areas such as elections, audits, human rights, and
regulatory affairs. Examples of independent bodies include the Election Commission,
which ensures free and fair elections; the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG),
responsible for auditing government expenditures; and the judiciary, which upholds justice
without political interference. Their independence helps prevent misuse of power and
ensures accountability in governance.

The significance of independent bodies lies in their ability to function without political or
bureaucratic influence, thereby safeguarding democratic principles and public trust. They
serve as watchdogs, ensuring that government policies and actions align with legal and
ethical standards. For instance, regulatory bodies like the Reserve Bank of India (RBI)
maintain financial stability, while human rights commissions protect individual freedoms.
Despite their autonomy, these bodies may sometimes face challenges such as political
pressure or lack of enforcement powers. Nonetheless, their role is crucial in maintaining a
balanced system of governance, ensuring transparency, and protecting citizens' rights.

15. Emergency Provisions

Emergency provisions are special provisions in a constitution that empower the

government to take extraordinary measures during situations of crisis to protect the
nation's sovereignty, security, and stability. In India, these provisions are outlined in
Part XVIII of the Constitution (Articles 352-360) and enable the central government to
assume greater control over states and citizens during emergencies. The Indian
Constitution provides for three types of emergencies: National Emergency (Article
352), which can be declared due to war, external aggression, or armed rebellion; State
Emergency or President’s Rule (Article 356), which is imposed when a state
government fails to function according to constitutional provisions; and Financial
Emergency (Article 360), which can be declared if the country's financial stability is
threatened. These provisions aim to ensure national security and maintain governance
during crises.
While emergency provisions grant extensive powers to the central government, they
also come with checks and balances to prevent misuse. For instance, the proclamation
of a National Emergency must be approved by Parliament within one month and
reviewed periodically. Similarly, President’s Rule in a state cannot continue beyond
three years without parliamentary approval. However, these provisions have been
 criticized for being misused for political purposes, as seen during the 1975 Emergency
in India. Despite this, emergency provisions remain crucial in handling extreme
situations, ensuring that the nation can respond effectively to threats while maintaining
constitutional order.

16. Three Tier Government

The three-tier government system refers to a decentralized form of governance where
power is distributed among three levels: central government, state government, and
local government. This system is designed to ensure efficient administration, better
resource management, and participation of people at all levels in the decision-making
process. In India, the three-tier system is enshrined in the Constitution, with the central
government handling national affairs like defence, foreign policy, and finance; the
state government managing regional issues like law and order, education, and health;
and the local government, which includes Panchayati Raj institutions in rural areas and
municipal bodies in urban areas, taking care of grassroots governance like sanitation,
water supply, and local development projects.

The introduction of the three-tier system, particularly through the 73rd and 74th
Constitutional Amendments in 1992, aimed to strengthen local self-governance by
granting powers to Panchayats and Municipalities. This ensures that governance
reaches the lowest level, promoting people's participation in democracy. While this
system enhances efficiency and accountability, challenges like inadequate funds,
political interference, and lack of proper implementation sometimes hinder its
effectiveness. Despite these challenges, the three-tier government remains a vital
structure for fostering inclusive development and ensuring that government services
reach every citizen effectively.

17.Cooperative societies

Cooperative societies are voluntary associations of individuals who come together to

achieve common economic, social, or cultural goals through collective effort. These
societies operate on principles of mutual assistance, democratic control, and
equitable distribution of benefits. Unlike profit-driven businesses, cooperatives
prioritize the welfare of their members over maximizing profits. In India, cooperative
societies are governed by the Cooperative Societies Act, 1912, and further
strengthened by the 97th Constitutional Amendment (2011), which gave them
constitutional status. They exist in various sectors, including agriculture, banking,
housing, and consumer goods, playing a crucial role in rural development and financial
inclusion.
The significance of cooperative societies lies in their ability to empower economically
weaker sections by providing credit, resources, and market access. For instance,
agricultural cooperatives help farmers by supplying fertilizers, seeds, and irrigation
facilities, while credit cooperatives offer loans at lower interest rates, reducing
dependency on moneylenders. Dairy cooperatives like AMUL have transformed
India's dairy industry by ensuring fair prices for farmers. However, challenges such as
mismanagement, political interference, and lack of modernization sometimes hinder
their efficiency. Despite these issues, cooperative societies continue to be a powerful
tool for economic and social upliftment, fostering self-reliance and community-driven
growth.

In conclusion, the Constitution of India stands as a comprehensive and dynamic

document that embodies the principles of sovereignty, democracy, secularism, and
social justice. Its salient features, including a written and detailed structure,
federalism with a unitary bias, fundamental rights and duties, directive principles
of state policy, parliamentary system, independent judiciary, and emergency
provisions, ensure a balance between governance, individual freedoms, and national
integrity. The adaptability of the Constitution, facilitated through amendments, allows
it to evolve with changing societal needs while upholding its core values. As the guiding
framework of the world's largest democracy, the Indian Constitution continues to
uphold the ideals of justice, liberty, equality, and fraternity, ensuring unity in diversity
and fostering inclusive development.