Topic: Growth of Religious Fundamentalism: Christian Response
INTRODUCATION:
The abstract noun, fundamentalism, ultimately derived from the root fundo-are (latin)
meaning (1) to lay the foundation of, to found; (2) to make firm, to strengthen. Webster
Dictionary define fundamentalism as, “The belief that the basic truths of the Bible are
fundamental to Christianity, that the miracles described in the Bible are inerrant, and
especially that the virgin birth and Christ’s resurrection and substitution atonement must not
be doubted.”1 Scaria Kuthirakkattel defined it as “The strict maintenance of traditional
orthodox religious beliefs or doctrines; especially the creeds as fundamentals of Protestant
Christianity.”2 Isaac Padinjakekuttu defined it as, “A proclamation of reclaimed authority
over a sacred tradition which is to reinstated as an antidote for a society that has strayed from
its structural mooring.”3
M.T. Cherian said, “Fundamentalism is neither a ‘new religious movement’ (in the technical
sense of the term) nor ‘traditional’, ‘conservative’ or ‘orthodox’ expression of religious faith
and practice. Rather fundamentalism is a category by itself.” 4 According to Ravi Tiwari,
“Fundamentalism, in its positive aspect, is always an acceptable term, if it refers to ‘going
back to the fundamentals of one’s religion and its religiosity. The negative aspect, however,
does not bring cheers in the minds and lives of most of its own adherents, certainly not in the
life of the minority religious communities. It tends to see the world from its own limited
worldview of religio-cultural contest, rejecting all the others, and imposes it upon others as
well, whether they agree to it or not.” 5 Fundamentalism is characterized by six
elements.6Today Fundamentalism is one of the most detested terms. It is often felt to be a
1
Noah Webster, Webster’s New Twentieth Century Dictionary (Cleveland and New York: The Word
Publishing Company), 1951.
2
Scaria Kuthirakkattel, “Fundamentalism: Biblical Prespective” jnanadeepa Vol 6/2 (July 2003), 25.
3
Isaac Padinjakekuttu, “Fundamentalism: Historical Perspectives” jnanadeepa Vol 6/2 (July 2003), 5.
4
M.T. Cherian, Hindutva Agenda and Minority Rights A Christian Response (Bangalore: Centre for
Contemporary Christianity, 2007), 28.
5
Ravi Tiwari, “Religious Fundamentalism and Nationalism: Reflections on Hindu perspective,”
National Council of Churches Review Vol. CXX/10 (November 2000), 983.
6
(1) The religious text(s) becomes central and is interpreted in a literal factual way. (2) The ancient
leader of a religion, or mythical leaders or gods, are transformed into historical figures and all the stories, which
surround them, are seen as literally true. Myth becomes history. (3) A geographic area, usually a nation or
civilization, is seen as sacred and must be purified and defended. (4) The world is divided into believers and
infidels. Opponents of the fundamental religion are demonized and Satanized. The good shall be saved and the
evil will be damned. (5) These movement strenuously, and often violently, oppose what they call modern
secularism with its tolerance, scepticism, irony, and the emphasis of scientific reason. (6) Fundamentalism has a
special appeal for newly and/or poorly educated persons. The initial process of education, especially the gaining
of literacy, encourages, rather than discourages fundamentalism. Charles A. Ryerson, “Faith and
Fundamentalism: Recipe for Violence,” Religion and Society Vol. 47/4 (December 2000), 9-10.
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hostile and opprobrious opprobrious term, suggesting narrowness, bigotry, obscurantism and
sectarianism.
Though there are various fundamentalisms in each religion and sects, this paper will be
dealing mainly about Growth of Hindu Fundamentalism and Christian response.
1. Origin of Fundamentalism:
Fundamentalism originated in western Christianity because of some people seeing religion as
the ultimate source and anything outside religion was to be scrutinised with the religious
norms to scale its validity. It is understood that the term ‘fundamentalism’ originated in the
Protestant theological controversies at the beginning of the 20th century in United States and it
implies the foundational authority of the Bible. Its birth could be traced back to the
publication of a series of twelve books entitled The Fundamentals, defending the
fundamentals of Faith.7 Lancy Lobo wrote: “Fundamentalism is a term drawn from Protestant
Christianity. It is an American coinage (Coins collectively or the act of inventing a word)
that refers to a group of early twentieth-century Protestant activists who organised against
Darwinian evolution (Of or relating to Charles Darwin's theory of organic evolution) and
who championed the literal reading of the Bible.”8
Though the word fundamentalism was used for an interdenominational movement that
flourished in American Protestantism during the first half of the twentieth century, the name
fundamentalism was not coined till 1920. The term fundamentalism is made synonymous to
patriotism (as it is today in India,) after the experience of World War I.” 9 Thence violence
becomes the tool of religious fundamentalism, and terrorism the strong weapon of
fundamentalist politics. Thus, violence as a tool of the rightist fundamentalist and that of the
reactionary (An extreme conservative; an opponent of progress or liberalism) fanatic has
become a global phenomenon (Process) in recent years.10
2. Cause for the emergence of Fundamentalism:
7
Fundamentals of Faith Such as (1) The verbal and inerrant inspiration of the Bible, (2) the virgin birth
of Jesus Christ, (3) the substitutionary atonement of Jesus, (4) the physical or bodily resurrection of Jesus Christ,
and (5) the imminent second coming of Jesus Christ. Other doctrines which supplemented these were: (1) the
deity of Jesus Christ, (2) the depravity of sinful nature of man, (3) salvation and justification by faith through
grace of God, and (4) promise of the physical or bodily resurrection of believing or regenerate Christian.
Cherian, Hindutva Agenda and Minority Rights..., 18.
8
Lancy Lobo, “Religious Fundamentalism – A Challenge to Democracy in India.” Social Action Vol.
59 (April – June 2009), 147. (www.isidelhi.org.in/saissue/articles/artapr09.pdf)
9
Cherian, Hindutva Agenda and Minority Rights..., 19.
10
Sri Veerabhadra Channamalla Swamiji, “The Rise of Fundamentalism in India.” Religion and
Society Vol. 49/1 (March 2004), 11.
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Many individuals and families in the United States lost their faith and had an insecurity
feeling in them due to the erosion (A gradual decline of something) of age-old values
system, beliefs and rituals because of the incoming of secularism, modern science and
technology. In such a juncture, (critical) the new fundamentalist organisations were
successful in providing people with albeit facile identities and security drawing them back to
the fundamentalist fold.11 Another reason for the emergence of fundamentalism was due to
the upcoming of the liberal aspect of theology as well as the influence of scientific
inventions, for, the importance of religion was deducting from the mind of the people.12
3. Christian Fundamentalism in India:
Scaria Kuthirakkattel writes: “Fundamentalism is closely linked with Pentecostal and
charismatic Christianity which centers on the emotional, non-rational, mystical, and
supernatural: miracles, signs, wonders, and the gifts of the Spirit (charismata), especially
speaking in tongues (glossalia), faith healing, and casting out of demons (exorcism). Supreme
importance is attached to the subjective religious experience of being filled with or possessed
by the Holy Spirit.”13
Pentecostalism that began in the 1920s in India has been experiencing extraordinary growth
since 1980. Apart from mention above, it is fundamentalist in the sense that it is based on the
implicit politics of eventual Christian domination. The agenda includes conversion, an
aggressive stance towards non-Christians and the use of the media to extend their sphere of
influence. Christian fundamentalists, like their Islamic counterparts, belong to a global umma
and harbour real and perhaps imagined, even delusional (Suffering from or characterized
by delusions), longings directed towards making all of God’s people Christian. These
Christian groups may not use real physical violence, though they are well-versed in using the
media and non-media means to propagate symbolic violence that is often backed up by
economic enticements to persuade individuals and communities to become Christian. 14
4. Hindu Fundamentalism
The Hindu fundamentalist is based on three Hs, “Hindi, Hindu, Hindustan,” and its members
had to share a common language, common religion and a common origin. It is a combination
11
Cherian, Hindutva Agenda and Minority Rights..., 21.
12
Saji Varghese, “A Critique Of Post-Independent Christian Mission Methods In The Context Of
Hindu Fundamentalism In Andhra Pradesh,” (Thesis Of Master Of Theology In Missiology, COTRS, 2009), 60.
13
Kuthirakkattel, “Fundamentalism: ..., 26.
14
Lancy Lobo, Religious Fundamentalism..., 149.
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of religious, cultural and political fundamentalism, incorporated in one particular pattern of
framework to cater to the needs of the dominant group of the country. Religiously, it has
come to the extent of alienating other religions from the mainstream by oppressing,
demonising the other and denying the right of existence through the tactics of stigmatising,
demolition and destruction of the worship place and many other unprecedented
demonstrations. Politically, it has come to the level of capturing power in the central
government; and culturally, it is isolating the minorities as outsiders who do not share the
Hindu culture and hence, they are considered as aliens and they have no right to live in
India.15
Ravi Tiwari states that, Hindu fundamentalism is rather a new phenomenon (process). It is
sustained through four dogmatic assertions: first and foremost is the religious dogmatism that
project the Hinduism as the only custodian of true spirituality; the second is scriptural
dogmatism that accepts nothing but the Vedas as the depository of all the truth; third is the
territorial dogmatism, asserting India as the land of God-realization; and the fourth is the
communal dogmatism that asserts the theory of India for Hindus alone.16
The Hindu fundamentalists function under various names in India and throughout the
diaspora. There are, however, three main right-wing Hindu organisations: the Rashtriya
Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), the Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP) and the Bharatiya Janta
Party (BJP). The RSS was formed in the mid-1920s, the VHP in 1964, and the BJP emerged
in the late 1970s as successor to an earlier party, the Janasangh. The BJP in the past had been
in power as part of a coalition government for two consecutive terms of the national
parliament, (and single Majority party at present). In the last two decades, the VHP has
actively worked to help the BJP gain electoral gains by creating a ‘Hindu’ electorate, which
would back the BJP under all circumstances.
The RSS, the BJP and the VHP have separate constitutions, organisational structures and
work patterns. It cannot be denied, however, that in terms of membership, ideology and
agendas of action, there is an overlap between the three, and that the RSS has played a
parenting role. In the politics of the RSS and its Parivar (family) there is a division of work
between the ‘cultural’ RSS, the ‘political’ BJP and the ‘religious’ VHP.17
15
Tiwari, Religious Fundamentalism and Nationalism..., 998.
16
Tiwari, Religious Fundamentalism and Nationalism..., 995-996.
17
Chayanika Shah, Hindu fundamentalism in India: Ideology, strategies, and the experience of
Gujarat, www.wluml.org/sites/wluml.org/files/import/english/pubs/pdf/wsf/07.pdf, 62
Page | 4
4.1 Hinduism: The word Hindu originated in Persia and referred to the inhabitants on the
other side of the River Sindu. It was only after some European scholars of the late eighteenth
and early nineteenth centuries, who were accustomed to group the people as Christians, Jews,
Muslims and heathen, viewed the non-Christian, non-Jewish and non-Muslim population of
India as the Hindus. Slowly, religious, political and constitutional attempts have been made to
extend the meaning of this term to identify all the people of India.18
In reality, there is no religion called Hinduism, wrote Sri Veerabhadra Channamalla Swamiji.
It find its form and shape in the Western sense of a religion with a rigid system. It would be
right to call it a Vedic or a Brahminic religion, since the conceptual idea of Hinduism does
not have either its own scripture or a systematic theology as it basis. For example, while the
Saivas have the Agamas, Buddhist have Tripitikas; Shaktas have Tantras; and Lingayats the
Vachanas. Thus Hindus do not have a religious holy book as Sikhs (as they have the Granth
Sahib), Christian or Muslims. However, Hindus as a mass of religious people with strands of
believes and tenets have Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads, Smruthis,
Brahmasutras, Bhagavad Gita, Puranas and also Ramayana and Mahabharata as their holy
scripture.”19
It was the Hindu fundamentalists who propagated that Hinduism is the religion of a majority
of Indians and that their culture is Hindu and their land is Hindusthan. But Hinduism cannot
be the religion of Indians. It’s just one among the other religions. Nowhere in India in the
present or past Hinduism has been a religion of all Indians. It has been just the religion of
Brahmins. If it were to be everybody’s religion, Saiva, Buddhist, Jain, Sikh, Lingayath
religions would not have been born in this land. In fact these religions came about as a
reaction to Brahminism and against the evils of Hinduism.20
4.2 Cause of the emergence of Hindu Fundamentalism: Hindus for a long while were
living in a context of fear of subjection and defeat in all areas. Mogul empire became a super
power in Northern part of India along with some part of Deccan Platue in the south from the
dawn of the 13th century. By the beginning of 16th century, India came under the sovereignty
of the Mogul empire and it stayed until the coming of the British colonials in India. The
advent of the British colonialist marked the emergence of another foreign rule. Since the
Hindus were facing subjugation for long time, they were in the lowest ebb. Moreover, they
18
Daniel Jeyaraj, “Christian Missions in the context of Hindutva – Personal Reflection” Dharma
Deepika Vol 8/2 (July – December 2004), 39.
19
Swamiji, The Rise of Fundamentalism in India..., 14.
20
Swamiji, The Rise of Fundamentalism in India..., 14.
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were facing a threat from the conversion activities. Second reason for the emergence of
Hindu fundamentalism was the separate electorates, introduced with the expansion of
democratic institutions in 1909, assuring representation to members of all religions. Third,
the attitude of government towards different communities. 21 And the missionary movement
officially allowed by the charter of 1813, the introduction of English education and the
missionaries’s (who had been influenced by evangelicalism) negative attitude towards
Hinduism serves as another reason.22
4.3 Rashtriya Swayam-Sevak Sangha: The founder of RSS Dr. Keshav B. Hedgewar
(1889-1940) was born when fascism ruled Italy, and Hitler was about to capture power in
Germany. He was a great admirer of Mussolini and Hitler. The organization, from the dress,
to the greeting mode to the basic philosophy of hate was modelled on fascists of Italy and
Nazis of Germany.23
RSS was founded with the expressed mission to organize the Hindus on nationalist lines and
to radicalize them to hasten the end of British rule in India. Although its objective was
national regeneration, the broad means, methods, membership and strategy it employed to
attain its objectives was, and is, to be the solidarity of the Hindu community. It also seeks to
instill among its members a militant awareness of their common heritage and destiny. The
ideology of Hindutva as practiced by the RSS is often associated with communalism,
violence against and hatred for Muslim and Christian communities. Under the stewardship of
M.S. Golwalkar (1906-73), RSS identified the Indian nation with the Hindus whom it
regarded as indigenous sons of the Indian soil. He regarded Hinduism as the heart of the
Indian nation and the philosophical principles of the Vedas as the soul of it.
Although RSS claims that it is a non-political social and cultural organization, and has
overtly kept itself away from party politics of the Indian democratic system; many doubt
about the claim. In the past, as it is now, it has its own satellites, assuming the role of political
fronts. Bharatiya Jan Sangha, a rightist Hindu party, founded by Shyama Prasad Mukherjee
(1901-52) had links with the RSS; Nehru called it ‘an illegitimate child of RSS’. Today it is
Bharatiya Janta Party (BJP). Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP) is another associate of RSS,
21
Varghese, A Critique Of Post-Independent Christian Mission..., 67-68.
22
Isaac Padinjakekuttu, “Fundamentalism: Historical Perspectives” jnanadeepa Vol 6/2 (July 2003),
17.17-18.
23
Lancy Lobo, “Religious Fundamentalism – A Challenge to Democracy in India,” Social Action Vol.
59 (April – June 2009), 148. (www.isidelhi.org.in/saissue/articles/artapr09.pdf,).
Page | 6
which is known for its virulence towards the minority communities. Others are Bajrang Dal
(BD) an the Shiva Sena.24
4.4 Hindutva:
Hindutva has emerged as the main agenda of the Bharatiya Janata Party. It is evident in their
1996 Election Manifesto which reads, “Hindutva or cultural nationalism, shall be the rainbow
which will bridge our present to an glorious past and pave the way for an equally glorious
future; it will guide the transition from swarajya [self rule] to Surajya [good governance].25
4.4.1 Meaning: Kunjachan Koshy wrote, “According to the Supreme Court, Hindutva is a
way of life or a state of mind and cannot be equated with or understood as religious Hindu
fundamentalism. Hindutva is secularism in our Constitution. Tolerance, compassion and
rationality together constitute the core of Hindutva. Hindutva is also understood as a
synonym of Indianisation, namely, the development of a uniform culture by peaceful
adaptation and change. ‘Unity out of diversity’ and not ‘Unity in diversity’ is its goal.”26
Shahid Abbasi writes: “‘Hindutva’ literally means ‘Hinduism’, to be used to denote the
essence of true Hinduism as understood and documented by sages like Shri Aurobindo on the
basis of life long study of the Bhagvad Gita, the Vedas, and other scriptures. By using
‘Hindutva’ to describe the bigoted, militant, anarchic, and basically anti-national behaviour of
the likes of Bal Thackeray, we are unwittingly, disgracing what is in truth a venerable
term.”27
Ken Gnanakan writes: “The term “Hindutva” is derived from the two terms Hindu and
Tattva, which literally mean “Hindu Principles”…Two of these principles that symbolize the
thoughts, are - This world is one family (Vasudaiva Kutumbakam) and that the Universal
Reality is the same, but different people can call it by different names (Ekam Sat Viprah
Bahuda Vadanti). The proponents of this vision see a unification of everyone in India under a
Ram Rajya, the kingdom of Ram.”28
24
Tiwari, Religious Fundamentalism and Nationalism..., 993-994.
25
Kunjachan Koshy, Religious Fundamentalism, Hindutva and Christian Exclusivism,
www.academia.edu/2915759/Religious_Fundamentalism_Hindutva_and_Christian_Exclusivism, 3
26
Kunjachan Koshy, Religious Fundamentalism..., 3.
27
Shahid A Abbasi, “Hindutva? Jehad?,” The New Times of India, 14 November 2002, p.10, quoted in
Kunjachan Koshy, Religious Fundamentalism, Hindutva and Christian Exclusivism, 3.
28
Ken Gnanakan, Proclaiming Christ in a Pluralistic Context., op. cit., p.124, quoted in Kunjachan
Koshy, Religious Fundamentalism, Hindutva and Christian Exclusivism, 4.
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A counterfeit Hindutva is promoted by the Hindu fundamentalist groups such as Rashtriya
Swayamsevak Samaj (RSS), Viswa Hindu Parishad (VHP) Bajrang Dal, and Bharatiya Janata
Party (BJP), their political arm. 29 To them Hindutva means, Hinduness or conscious of being
a Hindu or Hindu as the dominant identity. It aims at a Hindu nation-state (Hindu rashtra). It
attempts to create a national identity by a process of inclusion and exclusion. It includes
people with little cultural differences and excludes those who have greater differences.
Through inclusion, it does away with internal differences and achieves a kind of
homogeneity.30
4.4.2 Why Hindutva came into being: Hindutva are nostalgic about their supposedly golden
civilization, which is now, lost. They defined their ancestral land as pure, holy, sacred land,
and consider those Indians who do not belong to their Hindutva ideology as aliens and even
as enemies.31 The contributing factors for its formation can be stated as: 1). The wounded
psyche: The feeling of insecurity that was created among the upper caste and upper class
Hindu under Muslim and British rule threaten them not only politically and economically but
also culturally and religiously... 2). Loosening Power on Unification and Domination: It is
also true that the Hindu society is divided into various castes, jatis and sects. So the Hindutva
forces came into being in this background to unite the Hindus in the face of Semitic religions
in India... 3). Globalization: Most recently, globalization has also been a threat to the
Hindutvavadis. Globalization intrudes on people’s culture, identity and rights, and the
Hindutva forces see this as a threat to the power of Brahminical culture and religion;
therefore, they began advocating a counter act and they also see Christians as symbolic
extensions of Globalization.32
4.4.3 Ideology: Daniel Jeyaraj writes, “The ideology of Hindutva (‘Hindu principles’) is of
recent origin. It represents an organized attempt to view the totality of Indian life - land,
people, history, civilization, culture, language, religion, philosophy, and customs – from the
particular viewpoints of the sanskritic religions.” 33 According to Hindutva, to be an Indian, is
defined by one’s religion. To be Indian is to be Hindu. The Hindutva forces are increasingly
seeking to homogenize the culture of India in terms of an upper caste, Sanskritic, Brahmanic
Hinduism. Anything outside this cultural orbit is denied legitimate existence in Indian
29
Kunjachan Koshy, Religious Fundamentalism..., 2.
30
Lancy Lobo, “Religious Fundamentalism..., 147
31
Daniel Jeyaraz, “Christian Missions in the context of Hindutva..., 39.
32
Malwin Stone Passah, “The Power of Politics of Hindutva and the Religious Minorities: An Ethical
Response” Master’s Journal of Theology Vol 4/2 (December 2014), 81.
33
Daniel Jeyaraz, “Christian Missions in the context of Hindutva..., 39.
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society. Proponents of Hindutva believe that “Hinduism is superior to any other faith, that
Hindus are the original and only creators of Indian culture and are, exclusively, the Indian
Nation”. Anti-Muslim and anti-Christian sentiments are consistently used to project a
political ideology of Hindu dominance.34
4.4.4 Activities: The activities of Hindutva organisations are varied. First one group of
activities targets the minorities, especially the Muslims and Christians. They have set up
competing institutions in the area of health and education, especially in backward tribal areas.
Relief and reconstruction during natural disasters is the second area which was mainly with
the Christian missionaries. Third, another group of activities are related to the media: printing
tons of literature against these minorities and the use of the electronic media to demonise the
minorities. Fourth, Political mobilization of the masses is another area of activities. A fifth
area of activities is celebration of Hindu festivals and religious events on a massive scale,
thus trying to Hinduising tribals and Sanskritise the lower castes. 35 Another group involve
themselves in Hindu religious (re)conversion, in the name of Ghar Wapsi .36
4.4.5 Rama-oriented Hindutva: The reason for giving pre-eminence to Rama by the
Hindutva fundamentalists is the threat to leadership – by recognising Krishna or Shiva one
would have to share leadership with the Sudras or the leadership would go to Sudras. In this
power struggle for leadership Rama is propagated as embodying the Kshatriya who alone can
control the minorities. While Krishna symbolized the Sudra, Shiva represents the tribal
people. Thus, Krishna’s peace initiative (symbolized by his flute) and Shiva’s damaruga
symbolise harmony. In contrast, Rama is symbolic of bow and arrow – a culture of violence
and aggression over against the peaceful overtures of the flute and the drum.37
CONCLUSION
Christianity in India faces a threat that has come from the religious fundamental and fanatic
organisations that have carried out their programs on the pretext of superiority and cultural
nationalism. Dalits and the marginalised seemed to be more affected by these programmes.
34
S.M. Michael, SVD, Fr. Thomas D’sa, ed., The Church in India in the Emerging Third Millennium;
(Bangalore: N.B.C.L.C, 2005), 229
35
Lancy Lobo, Religious Fundamentalism..., 148.
36
Etymotogically the word “Ghar” is of Sanskrit origin “Home” and “Wapsi” is of Persian Origin
“Coming” which put together means “Home Coming.” Imsenjungba, Paper Presentation on: Christian
Response to Ghar Wapsi, COTR, Vishakhapatna, (17 August 2015).
37
Swamiji, The Rise of Fundamentalism in India..., 14-15.
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Christian church and Christians in India have arrived at a cross road from where they have to
make a decision in favour of, or against, their continued witness of faith to their community
and nation. Lack of unity and denominational communalism in the Indian Churches are still
painful facts that need to be seriously considered. The Churches in India (eg. Evangelicals,
Roman Catholic, Church of South India, Church of North India and other denomination) has
to have a spirit of Unity-in-Diversity in order to face this religious fundamentalism of other
faith.
We the Christians also have to learn to stand in solidarity with the people of other faiths on
the issues that concern them and lend our support to them. The spirit of solidarity needs to be
preserved, maintained and strengthened in order to preserve the unity and secular character of
our nation. The ecumenicity of religions in India is the need of the time in order to preserve it
in from the clutches of bigot and fundamentalist forces.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS:
Cherian, M.T. Hindutva Agenda and Minority Rights A Christian Response. Bangalore:
Centre for Contemporary Christianity, 2007.
Snaitang, O.L. “Challenges from William Carey to the Mission of the Church of India”,
Mission in the Past and Present: Challenges and Perspectives, Edited by Samson
Prabhakar. Bangalore: BTESSC/SATHRI, 2006.
Michael, S.M. and Fr. Thomas D’sa eds. The Church in India in the Emerging Third
Millennium; Bangalore: N.B.C.L.C, 2005.
Varghese Saji. A Critique Of Post-Independent Christian Mission Methods In The Context Of
Hindu Fundamentalism In Andhra Pradesh. Thesis Of Master Of Theology In
Missiology COTRS, 2009.
Webster Noah. Webster’s New Twentieth Century Dictionary. Cleveland and New York: The
Word Publishing Company, 1951.
JOURNALS:
Jeyaraz, Daniel. “Christian Missions in the context of Hindutva – Personal Reflection.”
Dharma Deepika Vol 8/2 (July – December 2004), 39-50.
Kuthirakkattel, Scaria. “Fundamentalism: Biblical Prespective.” Jnanadeepa Vol 6/2 (July
2003), 24-47.
Padinjakekuttu, Isaac. “Fundamentalism: Historical Perspectives” Jnanadeepa Vol 6/2 (July
2003), 5-21.
Page | 10
Ryerson, Charles A. “Faith and Fundamentalism: Recipe for Violence.” Religion and Society
Vol 47/4 (December 2000), 5-10.
Passah ,Stone, Malvin. “The Power of Politics of Hindutva and the Religious Minorities: An
Ethical Response” Master’s Journal of Theology Vol 4/2 (December 2014), 76-93.
Swamiji, Sri Veerabhadra Channamalla. “The Rise of Fundamentalism in India.” Religion
and Society 49/1 (March 2004), 10-15.
Tiwari, Ravi. “Religious Fundamentalism and Nationalism: Reflections on Hindu
perspective,” National Council of Churches Review CXX/10 (November 2000).
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Lobo, Lancy. “Religious Fundamentalism – A Challenge to Democracy in India.” Social
Action 59 (April – June 2009). www.isidelhi.org.in/saissue/articles/artapr09.pdf. (10
Aug 2015).
Koshy, Kunjachan. Religious Fundamentalism, Hindutva and Christian Exclusivism.
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Shah, Chayanika. Hindu fundamentalism in India: Ideology, strategies, and the experience of
Gujarat. www.wluml.org/sites/wluml.org/files/import/english/pubs/pdf/wsf/07.pdf.
UNPUBLISHED PAPER
Imsejungba. Paper Presentation on Christian Response to Ghar Wapsi, COTR,
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