Madurai Mission of the Jesuits: Missionary strategies with special emphasis on Gospel and
Culture
Introduction
1. Beginning of Jesuits Mission in India
2. Madurai Mission
2.1 Old Madurai Mission
2.2 New Madurai Mission
3. Mission Strategies and Methods
3.1 Enculturation
3.1. 1 Language
3.1.2 Dress Code
3.1.3 Lifestyle
3.1.4 Christianity as the Fifth Veda
3.1.5 Kudumi and Sacred Thread
3.1.6 Caste System
3.2 Evangelism
3.2.1 Preaching among High Caste
3.3 Education
3.3.1 Literature
3.3.2 School and College
1
4. Evaluation and Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
The Society of Jesus (SJ), also known as Jesuits, is a religious congregation or order of the
Catholic Church which was founded by Ignatius Loyola. In 1539 Ignatius and his six friends
drafted the first outline of order’s organization, which Pope Paul III approved on 27 th
September 1540. The society grew rapidly, and it quickly assumed a prominent role in the
counter-reformation defence and revival of the Catholicism. Soon the society entered into the
foreign mission field within months of its founding as Ignatius sent his four friends to the
other parts of the world.1 Thus, Jesuits came into contact with the Indians by 1541.
Madurai Mission is an ancient Jesuit missions in India under the Portuguese which consisted
of two provinces: Goa Province and Malabar province.2 Jesuit presence in the land of Tamils
began since the times of Francis Xavier, but it was Robert de Nobili who founded a mission
at Madura in 1606, which came to be known as Madura/Madurai Mission. The term
“Madurai Mission” refers to that Jesuit missionary movement which had its starting point
at Madura and extended thence over the eastern half of the peninsula. 3 Jesuits Madurai
Mission grew from Madura and soon spread to other neighbouring villages, towns and other
provinces in India. Madurai Mission of the Jesuits has divided into Old and New Madurai
mission.
A brief history of both the Old and New Madurai mission will be highlighted in this paper.
But the main focus of this research paper is on the Old Madurai Mission (1606-1773): history
and its mission strategies and methods.
1. Beginning of Jesuits Mission in India
The Madura Mission owes its origin to Robert de Nobili, who commenced at Madura, in
1606, that peculiar method of incorporating the local custom and traditions in evangelizing.
Shortly afterwards Antony de Vico, and Manoel Martins began imitating his mode of life and
1
https://www.britannica.com (5th August 2017).
2
Goa province comprising of the west coast down to Calicut and the centre districts of the
Deccan and Mysore, while the Malabar province occupied the south of the peninsula, that is the
Malabar coast on the west, and the Coromandel coast on the east as far north as the River Vellar,
including Cochin, Travancore, Madura, Tanjore, San Thome, and other contiguous districts.
http://www.maduraijesuits.org/whoweare.htm (3rd August 2017).
3
http://www.wikipedia.org (4th August 2o17).
2
working on the same lines with considerable success. Vico was succeeded by Sebastian de
Maya, who in 1640 was imprisoned at Madura in company with de Nobili, while Martins
remained at Trichy. After Robert de Nobili, 122 Jesuits worked in the Madurai Mission till
1759. Among them are courageous, holy men like John de Britto (1647–1693), martyred in
Oriyur, Ramnad district and the renowned Tamil scholar, Constantine Joseph Beschi, who is
known by the Tamil name he adopted - Veeramamunivar (1680-1747). Among these the most
successful were Balthasar da Costa and Manoel Martins already mentioned, Andrew
Freyre, John de Britto, Francis Laynes, Venance Bouchet, Peter Martin, and Beschi.4
2. Madurai Mission
Francis Xavier was the first Jesuits missionary who came and worked in India from 1542-
1549. There were various mission and evangelisation activities carried out by Jesuits
missionaries who were in India before the arrival of Robert de Nobili, but there were no
mission such as Madurai mission. The mission started at Madurai by Robert de Nobili, a
Jesuits missionary, came to be called as Madurai Mission. Madurai Mission was divided into
Old and New Madurai Mission. The two Madura Missions - the “Old Madura Mission”
(1606–1759–1773) run by the Portuguese Jesuits (before the suppression) and the “New
Madura Mission” (1937 – 1952) by the French Jesuits of the Society (after its revival) –
became eventually the Madurai Province.5 Since its foundation in 1606, all the European
Jesuits, both of the Old and New Madurai missions, continued to call their mission Madurai
Mission.
2.1 Old Madurai Mission: When Robert de Nobili, a saintly scholar, visited the
southern city of Madurai in 1606, he found it an ideal place to learn the ancient Dravidian
language of the area - Tamil - and to start his work. Madurai was the capital of Pandya kings
who ruled the area and it was a renowned cultural and literary centre. This is why when De
Nobili founded a mission, he called it the “Madurai Mission” (1606). The Old Madura
Mission had Madurai as its headquarters. For men and material the Madurai Mission
depended on Goa Province.
Jesuits’ service all over the world was painfully interrupted by an unfortunate development.
As Jesuits went about educating, inspiring and concientizing the people everywhere,
4
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madura_Mission (4th August 2017).
5
http://www.maduraijesuits.org/whoweare.htm (3rd August 2017).
3
powerful men with strong vested interests began to fear and loathe the Jesuits. Due to clash in
interest which resulted in disagreement between Roman Catholic and Jesuits the King of
Portugal ordered the suppression of the Society in Portugal and its overseas territories in
1759. Likewise France did in 1764 and Spain in 1767. 6 Yielding to the pressure exerted by
such men with political power, Pope Clement XIV suppressed the Society of Jesus on 21 July
1773.7 Thus, Jesuits ceased to exist openly and officially in Madura Mission and everywhere
else.
The expulsion of the Jesuit Order from Portuguese territory in the year 1759 put an
immediate check on the supply of missionaries, but the missionaries already in the mission,
being outside the Portuguese dominions, were able to continue their work though with
diminishing numbers. The entire suppression of the Order in 1773, however, brought the
Jesuit regime to an end. Three years later (1776) a new mission of the Karnatic was
established by the Holy See, under the Paris Society for Foreign Missions, which, taking
Pondicherry as its center, gradually extended its labours inwards as far as Mysore, and to the
old Madura Mission.8 Under the Foreign Mission Society the remaining Jesuit missionaries
continued to work till they gradually died out.
2.2 New Madurai Mission: As said in the introduction, the researcher will only give
a brief account of New Madurai Mission. We have read and seen from the previous point the
Society of Jesus had ceased to exist in Madurai and all over the world. But the suppression
order given to the Jesuits in 1773 was repeal after forty-one years. The Society of Jesus
was re-started their mission on 7th August 1814 by Pope Pius VII.9 With the re-began of
the Society of Jesus the New Madurai Mission begin again on the foundation laid by Nobili.
The headquarters of the new Mission was Tiruchirapalli (Trichy). Based in Trichy, the
French Jesuits of the Toulouse Province developed and consolidated the mission with
remarkable vision and zeal. Madurai Mission was raised to the status of a Vice–Province in
1929, dependent on the Toulouse Province. In the year 1952, when the Toulouse Province
celebrated its centenary, the Madurai Vice-Province was raised to the status of an
6
Firth, An Introduction to Indian Church History (Delhi: ISPCK, 2013), 126.
7
http://www.maduraijesuits.org/www.jesuitschennaimission.org (10th August 2017).
8
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madura_Mission (4th August 2017).
9
Ibid.
4
independent Province.10 All the well-known Jesuit institutions11 in Tamil Nadu are the fruits
of the vision, tireless efforts and heroic sacrifice of the French Jesuits.
3. Mission Strategies and Methods
India has witnessed several mission agencies coming in and work in the country. Various
Christian denomination mission societies followed their own mission strategies and methods.
Though Jesuits who worked in Madurai were from Roman Catholic denomination, their
mission strategies and methods followed by Jesuits were different from Roman Catholic. Due
to the mission strategies and methods adopted and followed by Nobili and his fellow Jesuits
missionaries several times controversies and conflicts arose among Jesuits and Roman
Catholic. The mission strategies of Madurai Mission of Jesuits will be discussed below.
3.1 Enculturation: Pedro Arrupe says that “a principle that animates, directs, and
unifies the culture, transforming it and making it so as to bring about a new creation is the
concern of enculturation.”12 Robert de Nobili was the man who adopted the principle of
enculturation (or accommodation method) in the mission, and was credited with introduction
of the enculturation process among the Indian Christians in the seventeenth century. Some
people even called as the father of enculturation.13 Unfortunately, this principle of
enculturation was ignored by the many Christian priests who succeeded De Nobili.
3.1. 1 Language: After settling in Madurai, De Nobili started studying Tamil, the
local language, and began to learn Sanskrit, too. While learning the local languages, De
Nobili also started studying the Vedas in order to understand the basic tenets of Hinduism. 14
Nobili was considered as the first person from the western world to study Indian classics after
learning Sanskrit. De Nobili insisted that, in India, Sanskrit should be used in Christian
liturgy and prayers. He also started learning more about the local customs, traditions and
10
http://www.maduraijesuits.org/www.jcsaonline.org (11th August 2017).
11
These are well-known Jesuits educational institution in Tamil Nadu: St. Joseph's School and
College, Tiruchy (1844), St. Mary's School, Dindigul (1850), St. Mary's School, Madurai (1855), St. Xavier's
School (1880) and College (1923), Playamkottai, St. Francis Xavier School, Tuticorin (1884), Loyola College,
Chennai (1925), De Britto School, Devakottai (1943) and St. Xavier's College of Education, Palayamkottai
(1950).
12
ITC, Faith and Inculturation, The Irish Theological Quarterly 55/2 (1989): 142-161. Cited by David
J. Bosch, Transforming Mission, Second Indian Edition (Bangalore: Centre For Contemporary Christianity,
2014), 571.
13
http://noteszaroka.blogspot.in/2010/01/jesuit-robert-de-nobili-missionary.html (11th August 2017).
14
Firth, An Introduction, 113.
5
beliefs. Soon, this priest realised that the local people used to refer all Europeans as
“parangis.”15
Soon Nobili became well versed in Tamil and Sanskrit. And this foreign seer was slowly
accepted by the locals as their “aiyar” or “guru”.16 Thus, the door was open for him to interact
with the Hindus and also share the Gospel to them.
3.1.2 Dress Code: As per the prevalent tradition among the Christian priests,
Robert De Nobili used to wear a black cassock at first. But soon after realizing that these
dress codes do not apt to the cultural context of the people he started using saffron coloured
clothes and wooden sandals like Hindu hermits. He tonsured his head and started applying
sandalwood paste on his forehead. He started moving about with a wooden staff in his right
hand and a small kamandalu (water bowl) in his left hand. In the Indian society, only hermits
used to wear such a costume. 17 It was for the first time in the 1,500 year old history of
Christianity that a missionary had accepted such type of costume. It was a revolutionary
change in the history of the Church.
3.1.3 Lifestyle: Instead of bringing about changes in the customs and
traditions of the locals, Nobili preferred changing his own lifestyle. The first thing he did was
to give up consumption of meat. He ceased to be a parangi in the eyes of the locals when he
adorned the costume of a hermit and gave up non-vegetarian food. He had adapted the
lifestyle of the Brahmins to win over them. He adapted himself to the lifestyle of a Tamil
Brahmin Sanyasi. This entailed a number of austerities including strict vegetarianism with
abstinence from fish, eggs and wine, fasting except for one daily meal prepared by a Brahmin
cook it meant giving up use of chairs and cots, of shoes and hat, the foregoing of
transportation by horse travel was by Padayatra (on foot) carrying a bamboo staff, and
acquiring ability in Sanskrit.18 Thus, he engaged a Brahmin cook and began living in Indian
style. He even asked permission of his superiors to adopt this mode of life.19
15
The word “paragis” is a derogatory word and use for people who eat meat, drink wine, loose-living,
arrogant, or whose manners were so far removed from Indian property that social intercourse with them was
unthinkable. C. B. Firth, An Introduction, 111.
16
The word “aiyar” or “guru” meaning the one who enlighten and this word are use to address a
religious teacher.
17
Vincent Cronin, A Pearl to India-The Life of Roberto de Nobili (London: Rupert Hart- Davis, 1959),
35.
18
Robin Boyd, An Introduction to Indian Christian Theology (Delhi: ISPCK, 2009), 13.
19
Firth, An Introduction, 112.
6
Nobili did not stop at changing his attire and life style alone. He was of the opinion that the
locals who embraced Christianity need not give up their social and cultural traditions even
after conversion. He conveyed his opinion even to the Holy See in Rome. Some years later,
even the Catholic Church allowed the neo-Christians in Madurai and neighbouring areas to
apply sandalwood paste on their forehead and wearing a sacred thread across the neck as per
old customs.
3.1.4 Christianity as the Fifth Veda: Hindu people believed that they had
lost the fifth Veda which was the spiritual law, which also ensured their salvation. He thought
that in India, if Christianity could be shown as the religion which crowned the Vedas, it
should have a claim on every Orthodox Hindu. With some such idea in mind, de Nobili began
to extract from approved commentaries of the Vedas, a collection of tests and allusions best
suited to serve as a basis for demonstrating the truth of Christianity. De Nobili called it the
fifth Veda. As far as Nobili was concerned this was the law which had been lost. What he
meant was, the primitive religion revealed to mankind but lost because of sin, embodied
again and perfected in Christian revelation.20
3.1.5 Kudumi and Sacred Thread: When Nobili wanted to baptize
Sivadarma his teacher, he faced two Problems: Kudumi (hair tuft) and Sacred thread (a triple
strand of white cotton hanging from the left shoulder across the breast and back and tied near
the right thigh). Nobili believed that the Kudumi was not a symbol of religion but of the twice
born and therefore he obtained permission from Archbishop Francis Roz. Synod of Goa had
forbid the sacred thread after baptism and so Nobili tried to include it in permitted category
by pointing out that it was not mark of religion but of rank in the caste structure. Nobili also
gave the interpretation to the cord hanging from neck in his attire of sanyasi made of three
gold and two white linen threads. He explained that the three golden threads signified the
Blessed Trinity, the two white threads the body and soul of Christ and the cross, symbol of
redemption so that the thread which to the common people represented the caste sign
signified to the faithful the mystery of the Blessed Trinity, the incarnation and the
redemption.21
20
M.M.Thomas and P.T.Thomas, Towards an Indian Christian Theology: Life and Thought of Some
pioneers (Tiruvalla: ChristavaShitySamithi, 1998), 17.
21
http://joelsweeten.blogspot.in/2014/08/history-of-christianity-in-india-robert.html (11th August
2017).
7
3.1.6 Caste System: In his effort to indigenized the church Nobili went on to
support casteism in the church. The church which were established under Madurai Mission
were so arranged as to keep caste and outcaste apart in separate positions. When a person
profess faith in Christ they were baptized in the name of the Triune God but were not
required to break caste or change their dress, food or mode of life except in the matter of
idolatry, nor were they expected to join themselves to the Parava congregation.22
3.2 Evangelism
Evangelism is the main focus of any missionary who do missionary work. Most of the
European colonial countries came to India with the motive to make profit through trade and
commerce, and to evangelize the non-Christians in India. The zeal to evangelize the heathens
in the heart of the missionaries helps them to adopt and adapt various mission strategies and
methods in their respective mission fields. Nobili did everything in order to evangelize the
people.
3.2.1 Preaching: Robert De Nobili preached Christianity mainly among the
Brahmins and other high caste people. In those days, any local persons embracing
Christianity were immediately identified as Parangi and excommunicated by society. The
Brahmins enjoyed leadership status in religious, social and other matters and none dare go
against them. So Robert De Nobili concluded that conversion of these high caste persons to
Christianity would help permeate Christianity in all other castes.
After the early days of de Nobili Brahman converts were few, most of the Christians came
from Sudra caste and depressed class. It was reported by Nobili, in his letter to Pope Paul V,
that two hundred people had embraced the Christian faith in his two years ministry among the
Hindus.23 Houpert, a Jesuits father, estimated the total number of Christians in Madurai
Mission in 1700 as about 80,000.24 But it should be noted that these conversion did not come
only through preaching and teaching.
3.2 Education: The contribution of religious institutions in imparting academic
education to the masses is something that cannot be repudiated. Education is one of the most
commonly followed mission strategies and methods of Christians in India from 15th till today.
22
Firth, An Introduction, 112.
23
M. K. Kuriakose, History of Christianity in India: Source Materials (Delhi: ISPCK, 2011), 51.
24
Firth, An Introduction, 120.
8
3.2.1 Literature: During his fifty years’ service Nobili wrote a number of
books and hymns in Tamil, Sanskrit, and Telugu. His famous work was “Gnanopadesam,” a
full-scale of treaties of scholastic theology in five books written in Tamil. Next came Atma
Nirnayam (On the Origin, Nature and End of the Soul), Agnana Nivaranam (getting
ignorance), Dushana Dhikkaram and Punarjanma Akshepam, apologetic works and others.
He also wrote in Sanskrit, Life of the Blessed Virgin Mary and in the same language
composed hymns to be sung by the Brahmin Christians at Madura at weddings and funerals.
Besides these he wrote hymns in Tamil and Telugu. He was also said to have written a
summary of Christian doctrine in a hundred Sanskrit Slokas.25 He had contributed immensely
in the field of education and literature to the Indian Christians.
3.2.2 School and College: The New Madurai Mission is known for its works
in the field of education. Nobili was able to begin instructing a group of young men by 1607,
though it was not in formal school set up, which was also joined by a schoolmaster.
Interacting and debating through this set up of giving education, the schoolmaster was
converted into Christianity, and accepted Nobili as his Guru. Though Nobili and his friend
(Vico) had dreamed of a college where Brahmin Christians might be trained for the
priesthood, their plan never came to fruition.26
4. Evaluation and Conclusion
The Madurai Mission of Jesuits owed its origin to Robert de Nobili, who came to India in
1605 and founded a mission at Madurai in 1606 which came to be called as Madurai Mission.
Soon after settling in Madurai, De Nobili started learning Tamil, the local language and
Sanskrit. He also started learning more about the local customs, traditions and beliefs. Nobili
priest realised that the local people used to refer all Europeans as Parangis. Since Nobili was
a European, he too was referred to as a Parangi. The locals knew that all the Europeans were
non-vegetarians and did not adhere to the basic rules of casteism and untouchability. It was
not surprising that the locals started harbouring a feeling of hatred for the Europeans who
consumed meat and had no qualms about maintaining normal relations even with the
untouchables.
25
Firth, An Introduction, 118.
26
Ibid., 112-119.
9
Robert De Nobili successfully launched an enculturation movement within the Church,
assimilating Indian culture in Christian living and thus wiped out the stamp of parangi given
to Christianity. Instead of bringing about changes in the customs and traditions of the locals,
Nobili preferred changing his own lifestyle. Christianity became a part of the culture in south
India and the local culture was reflected in Christian prayers and the life style of Christians
there. For Nobili maintained that following local traditions of India was not against
Christianity. But this did not stop others to argue that his behaviour was against the basic
tenets of Christianity. Unfortunately, this principle of enculturation was ignored by the other
Christian priests who succeeded De Nobili.
Robert de Nobili was innovative in his expression of indigenizing and accommodating the
Hindu Brahmin culture. Nobili could open the door of India to Christ and many caste Hindus
including Brahmins accepted Christianity. It was a great achievement on his part but not
without critics and opposition from side by side. Nobili is specially credited for initiating the
indigenous approach. He had contributed a lot to the Indian Christian theology and ignites the
thought to pass on to another generation.
Bibliography
Bosch, David J. Transforming Mission, Second Indian Edition. Bangalore: Centre For
Contemporary Christianity, 2014.
Boyd, Robin. An Introduction to Indian Christian Theology. Delhi: ISPCK, 2009.
Cronin, Vincent. A Pearl to India-The Life of Roberto de Nobili. London: Rupert Hart- Davis,
1959.
Firth, C. B. An Introduction to Indian Church History. Delhi: ISPCK, 2013.
Kuriakose, M. K. History of Christianity in India: Source Materials. Delhi: ISPCK, 2011.
Thomas, M.M. and P.T.Thomas, Towards an Indian Christian Theology: Life and Thought of
Some pioneers. Tiruvalla: ChristavaShitySamithi, 1998.
Webliography
https://www.britannica.com (5th August 2017).
10
http://joelsweeten.blogspot.in/2014/08/history-of-christianity-in-india-robert.html (11 th
August 2017).
http://www.maduraijesuits.org/whoweare.htm (3rd August 2017).
http://www.maduraijesuits.org/www.jesuitschennaimission.org (10th August 2017).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madura_Mission (4th August 2017).
http://www.wikipedia.org (4th August 2017).
http://noteszaroka.blogspot.in/2010/01/jesuit-robert-de-nobili-missionary.html (11th August
2017).
11
