otorhinolaryngology (ORL) surgery

ENT (Ear, Nose, and Throat) surgery, also known as otorhinolaryngology (ORL)surgery,
concentrates on the surgical management of issues pertaining to the ear, nose, throat, head,
and neck. It encompasses a variety of procedures for both therapeutic and aesthetic reasons,
intended to enhance or regain functions like hearing, breathing, swallowing, and speech, in
addition to addressing cancer and other conditions in the area.

Here’s a summary of the primary categories of surgical procedures that fall under ENT
surgery:

1. Ear Surgery

Ear surgeries tackle concerns associated with hearing, equilibrium, infections, and congenital
disorders.

 Tympanoplasty: Surgical reconstruction of the eardrum (tympanic membrane) to

address perforations, infections, or injuries. This procedure may entail the
transplantation of tissue to seal the opening in the eardrum.
 Mastoidectomy: Extraction of infected or unhealthy mastoid bone (located behind the
ear) to address persistent ear infections or ailments such as mastoiditis.
 Myringotomy: A technique involving a minor cut in the eardrum to alleviate pressure
or expel fluid from the middle ear, frequently carried out on children experiencing
frequent ear infections.
 Cochlear Implant Surgery: Placement of a cochlear implant for those experiencing
profound hearing loss who gain no advantage from hearing aids. The device
circumvents the affected regions of the inner ear and directly activates the auditory
nerve.
 Stapedectomy: A procedure to treat otosclerosis, a disorder in which unusual bone
development in the middle ear hinders adequate vibration of the ossicles(tiny bones
in the ear). The stapes bone is substituted with an artificial implant to regain hearing.
 Eustachian Tube Surgery: Surgical intervention to resolve issues with the
Eustachian tubes (which link the middle ear to the throat), including dysfunction or
persistent ear infections.

2. Nose Surgery

Nasal operations address issues concerning the nose, sinuses, and associated structures.

 Septoplasty: A procedure to correct a deviated septum(the cartilage and bone that

separates the nostrils), which could be leading to challenges in breathing or frequent
sinus infections.
 Rhinoplasty: Surgical procedures, either cosmetic or reconstructive, aimed at
modifying the shape of the nose, whether for cosmetic purposes or to enhance
respiratory function (e.g., correcting a nasal anomaly resulting from an injury).
 Sinus Surgery:
o Functional Endoscopic Sinus Surgery (FESS): A minimally invasive
technique designed to address chronic sinusitis and various sinus-related
issues by eliminating obstructions or rectifying anatomical problems in the
sinuses.
 o Sinus Dilation (Balloon Sinuplasty)A minimally invasive technique to clear
obstructed sinuses with the aid of a balloon catheter.
 Turbinate Reduction: Surgery to reduce the size of the turbinates(structures within
the nose) to ease respiratory issues resulting from turbinate enlargement.
 Nasal Polypectomy: Surgical extraction of nasal polyps (benign formations in the
nasal passages or sinuses) that may block the airways and lead to ongoing sinus
issues.

3. Throat Surgery

Throat operations address problems associated with swallowing, speech, vocal production,
and airway blockages.

 Tonsillectomy: Surgical extraction of the tonsils, commonly performed because of

frequent infections or breathing disturbances during sleep (like sleepapnea). This is
typically carried out in children, but it can also be performed in adults.
 Adenoidectomy: The excision of the adenoids (tissues found at the rear of the nasal
cavity), frequently performed in pediatric patients to address persistent infections or
respiratory issues.
 Uvulopalatopharyngoplasty (UPPP)A method to eliminate surplus tissue from the
throat (such as the uvula, section of the soft palate) to addresssleep apnea or snoring.
 Laryngectomy: Surgical extraction of the larynx (voice box), usually conducted to
addresslaryngeal cancer. This might lead to the inability to speak, however, speech
therapy is frequently achievable using a prosthetic voice box or alternative techniques.
 Laryngoplasty: Surgical intervention aimed at addressing issues with the larynx,
including vocal cord paralysis, anatomical irregularities, or for aesthetic purposes.
 TracheostomyInsertion of a tube into the trachea (windpipe) via a cut in the neck,
typically to establish an airway for those experiencing breathing challenges or
blockages in the upper airway.
 Thyroidectomy: Surgical removal of a portion or the entirety of the thyroid gland,
frequently conducted to address thyroid cancer, hyperthyroidism, orgoiters (enlarged
thyroid).
 Parotid Gland Surgery: Surgical removal of tumors(benign or malignant) from the
parotid glands, which are primary salivary glands situated close to the jaw.

4. Head and Neck Surgery

Head and neck surgeries tackle cancers, tumors, and additional conditions influencing the
anatomy of the face, mouth, and neck.

 Neck Dissection: The surgical excision of lymph nodes along with adjacent tissue
from the neck, frequently carried out as a component of cancer therapy (e.g., for
cancers of the head and neck).
 Oral Cancer Surgery: Removal of tumorsor malignant growths in the mouth,
tongue, or jaw. This could involve restorative surgery to enhance appearance and
functionality.
 Salivary Gland Surgery: Removal of tumorsor calculi from the salivary glands, or
surgical intervention to resolve duct blockages in glands like the parotid,
submandibular, or sublingual glands.
  Thyroid Surgery: Involves techniques to eliminate a portion or the entirety of the
thyroid gland, typically for addressing thyroid issues like cancer,goiters, or
hyperthyroidism.
 Head and Neck Reconstruction: Reconstructive surgery following the removal of
tumorsor injury to the face, jaw, or neck. This may involve the utilization of grafts or
prosthetic devices to enhance both appearance and functionality.

5. Sleep Apnea Surgery

Surgical treatments for sleep apneaare taken into account when non-invasive options such as
CPAP (Continuous Positive Airway Pressure) therapy do not yield results.

 Uvulopalatopharyngoplasty (UPPP): Elimination of surplus tissue from the throat

to enlarge the airway and address obstructive sleepapnea.
 Genioglossus Advancement (GA): Surgical procedure to adjust the tongue muscle
(genioglossus) to avert airway obstruction while sleeping.
 Hyoid Suspension: A method to secure the hyoid bone and the muscles of the tongue
to avoid airway obstruction.
 Bariatric Surgery: Although not a procedure exclusively related to ENT, bariatric
surgery might be an option for individuals experiencing severe sleepapneatriggered by
obesity, as it may alleviate symptoms.

6. Cosmetic and Reconstructive Surgery

Apart from functional surgeries, ENT doctors may also carry out cosmetic and reconstructive
treatments pertaining to the ear, nose, and throat.

 Rhinoplasty: Surgical procedures aimed at altering the shape of the nose, whether for
cosmetic purposes or to enhance breathing capabilities (e.g., fixing a deviated
septum).
 Otoplasty: Aesthetic surgery aimed at fixing ears that are prominent or irregular in
shape. This operation is usually conducted on children but can also be performed on
adults.
 Facial Plastic Surgery: Restoration of facial characteristics following injury,
operations for hereditary issues, or aesthetic surgeries to enhance appearance (e.g.,
facelift operation, eyelid surgery, etc.).

7. Minimally Invasive ENT Procedures

With advancements in technology, many ENT surgeries can now be performed using
minimally invasivemethods, resulting in quicker healing and reduced stress on the body.

 Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A procedure that is minimally invasive, utilizing a

slender tube equipped with a camera (endoscope) to eliminate obstructions or fix
structural problems within the sinuses.
 Endoscopic Nasal and Throat SurgeryEndoscopic methods are employed to carry
out operations within the nose or throat through tiny cuts and minimal scarring.
  Laser Surgery: Lasers are sometimes used in ENT surgeries for conditions such as
laryngeal cancer, snoring, or tonsil issues. It can serve for both assessment and
treatment purposes.

ENT surgery encompasses a wide range of techniques aimed at addressing health problems
and enhancing the function and appearance of the ear, nose, throat, head, and neck. Whether
it’s for resolving typical concerns such assinus infections, tonsillitis, or hearing loss, or
more complex treatments like head and neck cancer or sleep apnea, ENT specialists are
educated to manage a range of issues related to the upper respiratory and sensory systems.

Urologic surgery

Urologic surgeryinvolves operative treatments associated with the urinary system (kidneys,
ureters, bladder, and urethra) and the male reproductive system (prostate, testes, penis, and
scrotum). Urology is a distinct specialty that addresses both medical and surgical
interventions for issues like urinary tract infections (UTIs), kidney stones, cancers, and male
infertility, among other conditions.

Here is a summary of the primary categories of surgical procedures that are classified under
urologic surgery:

1. Kidney Surgery

Kidney operations concentrate on addressing ailments that impact the kidneys, including
cancer, stones, and infections.

 Nephrectomy: Nephrectomy, typically carried out to address kidney carcinoma or

other serious ailments such as injury or long-term illness.
o Radical NephrectomyComplete excision of the kidney along with adjacent
tissues (e.g., adrenal gland, lymph nodes) when cancer is detected.
o Partial Nephrectomy: Removal of only the tumoror unhealthy portion of the
kidney, maintaining healthy tissue.
 Kidney Stone Surgery:
o Extracorporeal Shock Wave Lithotripsy (ESWL)A procedure that doesn't
require surgery, employing shock waves to shatter kidney stones into smaller
pieces that can be expelled through urine.
o Percutaneous Nephrolithotomy (PCNL)A procedure that is minimally
invasive, involving a small cut on the back to extract large kidney stones
utilizing a nephroscope.
o Ureteroscopy: A procedure where a thin tube (ureteroscope) is placed into the
urinary system to extract stones from the kidneys or ureters.
 Renal Transplantation: Surgical operation to transfer a functioning kidney from a
donor to a recipient suffering from advanced kidney failure or renal illness.
 Kidney Biopsy: Extraction of a tiny portion of kidney tissue to identify kidney illness
or unusual growth.

2. Bladder Surgery
Bladder operations deal with issues impacting the bladder, including cancer, infections, and
urinary incontinence.

 Cystectomy: Excision of a portion or the entirety of the bladder, usually performed in

instances of bladder cancer.
o Partial Cystectomy: Excising a portion of the bladder while maintaining its
functionality.
o Radical Cystectomy: Complete excision of the bladder, usually performed for
advanced bladder carcinoma. A urinary diversion (such as an ileal conduit
or neobladder) is conducted to establish a new route for urine to leave the
body.
 CystolitholapaxyA technique for fragmenting and eliminating bladder stones with
the aid of a cystoscope. This is usually performed under generalanesthesia.
 Bladder Suspension Surgery: Surgical interventions aimed at addressing urinary
incontinence or pelvic organ prolapse by elevating the bladder and reinstating its
typical function.
 Bladder Augmentation (Cystoplasty): A procedure to increase the size of the
bladder, frequently performed on individuals experiencing bladder issues, like a
reduced bladder capacity resulting from neurogenic bladder or congenital disorders.
 Transurethral Resection of Bladder Tumor (TURBT): A procedure where
tumorsin the bladder are extracted with a specialized tool that is inserted via the
urethra. It is frequently utilized in the treatment of bladder cancer.

3. Prostate Surgery

Prostate operations address issues like benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), prostate cancer,
and various other prostate-related concerns.

 Prostatectomy: Surgical extraction of the prostate gland, commonly performed to

address prostate cancer.
o Radical Prostatectomy: Excision of the complete prostate gland along with
adjacent tissue, commonly carried out for localized prostate cancer. This
procedure can be executed through conventional open surgery, laparoscopic
methods, or robotic-assisted techniques.
 Transurethral Resection of the Prostate (TURP): A procedure that is minimally
invasive, where a section of the prostate is excised via the urethra, frequently
performed for benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) to alleviate urinary blockage.
 Prostate Biopsy: A process in which tissue specimens are extracted from the prostate
gland to examine for cancer or other issues. This is frequently assisted by ultrasound
or MRI.
 Laser Prostate Surgery: Laser energy is utilized to evaporate or decrease the
prostate tissue, leading to a reduction in prostate size and alleviating BPH symptoms.
Common varieties consist of GreenLight laser prostatectomy and Holmium laser
enucleation of the prostate (HoLEP).

4. Urethral Surgery

Urethral procedures focus on issues impacting the urethra, the conduit that transports urine
from the bladder to the exterior of the body.
  Urethrectomy: Elimination of a portion or the entirety of the urethra, generally
prompted by trauma or illness, such as urethral cancer or obstructions.
 Urethroplasty: Surgical correction or rebuilding of the urethra, frequently performed
to addressurethral strictures(narrowing of the urethra), which may occur due to
trauma, infection, or surgical procedures.
 Transurethral Resection of Urethral Stricture (TURP for Urethra): Elimination
of a constriction in the urethra to enhance urine passage.

5. Male Reproductive Surgery

These procedures concentrate on addressing issues related to the male reproductive system,
encompassing the testes, penis, and erectile dysfunction.

 VasectomyA small surgical operation to sever and close off the vas deferens,
successfully sterilizing the male and stopping sperm from being discharged during
ejaculation.
 Vasovasostomy: Surgical restoration of fertility through the reversal of a vasectomy.
 Orchiectomy: Surgical removal of a testis or both, frequently conducted to address
testicular cancer or in instances of hormone treatment for prostate cancer.
 Penile Prosthesis SurgeryInsertion of an inflatable or flexible prosthetic device into
the penis to address erectile dysfunction that does not respond to alternative therapies.
 Testicular BiopsyA method to extract a tiny piece of tissue from the testes for
analysis, usually to evaluate male infertility.
 Hydrocelectomy: Elimination of a hydrocele, a sac filled with fluid around the testes
that may lead to swelling.
 Circumcision: Surgical excision of the penile foreskin, frequently performed for
health or cultural purposes.

6. Urinary Tract Surgery

Procedures involving the urinary tract address infections, traumas, or birth defects impacting
the kidneys, bladder, ureters, or urethra.

 UreteroscopyA method to assess and address issues in the ureters or kidneys, like
eliminating kidney stones or managingtumors. A small, flexible camera
(ureteroscope) is inserted via the urethra into the ureter.
 PyeloplastySurgical repair of an obstruction or constriction in the renal pelvis (the
junction of the kidney and ureter), usually performed to address hydronephrosis or
ureteropelvic junction obstruction.
 Nephrostomy Tube PlacementInsertion of a tube into the kidney for the purpose of
draining urine when the typical flow is blocked, frequently employed in cases of
serious urinary tract obstructions or infections.
 Urinary Diversion: Surgical establishment of an alternative pathway for urine to
leave the body, usually performed following cystectomy (bladder removal) or for
individuals with neurogenic bladder issues.
o Ileal Conduit: A segment of the small intestine is utilized to form a stoma
(aperture) allowing urine to be directed outside the body.
o NeobladderA new bladder is formed using a section of the intestine, enabling
the patient to urinate normally via the urethra.
7. Adrenal Gland Surgery

Surgical interventions on the adrenal glands, situated above the kidneys, address issues
liketumors, hyperplasia, or adrenal cancer.

 Adrenalectomy: Excision of one or both adrenal glands, frequently performed to

address adrenaltumors, adrenal carcinoma, or excessive hormone production (e.g.,
Cushing's syndrome orpheochromocytoma).
 Laparoscopic Adrenalectomy: A less invasive technique for excising the adrenal
gland through small cuts and a laparoscope, leading to shorter recovery periods and
lower surgical risks.

8. Minimally Invasive and Robotic Urologic Surgery

Developments in minimally invasive methods have enabled the execution of numerous

urologic operations with reduced tissue damage, quicker recovery times, and fewer
complications.

 Laparoscopic Nephrectomy: A procedure that is minimally invasive to extract a

kidney, generally utilized for kidney cancer or benign conditions.
 Robotic-Assisted Surgery: Surgeons use robotic systems (e.g., Da Vinci robotic
system) to carry out intricate urologic surgeries, such as prostatectomy, nephrectomy,
and cystectomy, with increased accuracy and fewer incisions.

9. Urologic Cancer Surgery

Urologic operations are conducted to address tumors affecting the kidney, bladder, prostate,
testes, and various other urological organs.

 Radical Cystectomy: Surgical elimination of the bladder for individuals with

aggressive bladder cancer, frequently paired with urinary diversion.
 Radical Prostatectomy: Surgical extraction of the prostate for individuals diagnosed
with prostate cancer.
 Nephrectomy: Surgical excision of the kidney due to kidney cancer or other cancers.
 Orchiectomy: Excision of the testes, usually conducted in instances of testicular
cancer.

Urologic surgeryincludes a broad range of methods designed to tackle both functional and
cancerous issues of the urinary tract and male reproductive organs. Starting from less
invasive approaches such aslaparoscopy

Vascular surgery

Vascular surgeryis a distinct area of surgery that emphasizes the identification, treatment,
and management of ailments and disorders impacting the blood vessels, such as arteries,
veins, and lymphatic vessels. Vascular surgeons address issues that vary fromarterial
blockages, aneurysms, and varicose veinsto more intricate vascular conditions such as
deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and vascular malformations.

Here’s a summary of the primary categories of surgical procedures that are classified under
vascular surgery:

1. Aortic Surgery

Aortic surgery deals with problems related to the aorta, the body's largest artery, which
transports blood from the heart to various parts of the body. It is usually conducted to treat
conditions such as aneurysms or dissections.

 Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm (AAA) Repair:

o Open Surgical Repair: Entails creating a cut in the abdomen to excise the
aneurysm and substitute it with an artificial graft.
o Endovascular Aneurysm Repair (EVAR): A low-impact technique in which
a stent graft is inserted via tiny cuts in the groin and positioned within the
aneurysm to strengthen the aorta and avert rupture.
 Thoracic Aortic Aneurysm Repair: Operation to mend an aneurysm in the thoracic
aorta, situated in the chest area. This may include traditional open surgery or
minimally invasive endovascular methods.
 Aortic Dissection RepairA rupture in the internal layer of the aortic wall can result in
serious, potentially fatal issues. An operation is conducted to mend the dissection and
restore blood circulation.
 Aortic Bypass Surgery: A method to circumvent an obstructed part of the aorta,
typically performed in instances of atherosclerosis or other types of obstructions.

2. Carotid Artery Surgery

Carotid artery surgery addresses the constriction or obstruction of the carotid arteries, which
provide blood to the brain. This is vital in averting stroke.

 Carotid Endarterectomy (CEA): A method to eliminate fat accumulations

(atherosclerotic plaques) from the carotid artery in order to restore circulation and
avert stroke.
 Carotid Artery Stenting: A minimally invasive technique in which a stent is inserted
into the carotid artery to maintain its patency and enhance blood circulation. This is
frequently considered an option to endarterectomy, especially for patients at elevated
risk.

3. Surgery for Peripheral Arterial Disease (PAD)

PAD is a condition where the blood vessels supplying the limbs become constricted or
obstructed, resulting in pain, sores, or potentially the loss of a limb.

 Peripheral Artery Bypass Surgery: A method to circumvent an obstructed artery by

employing a graft (which may be sourced from the patient's own body or synthetically
created) to reestablish blood circulation to the legs or feet.
  Angioplasty and Stenting: Consists of utilizing a balloon catheter to expand a
constricted artery and inserting a stent to maintain the artery's openness, enhancing
blood circulation.
 Endarterectomy: Surgical extraction of plaque from the arterial walls, carried out in
instances of considerable obstructions.
 Thromboembolectomy: A process to extract a blockage (embolus) that is obstructing
blood circulation in the arteries of the arms or legs.

4. Venous Surgery

Venous surgery addresses issues associated with the veins, includingvaricose veins, venous
insufficiency, and deep vein thrombosis (DVT).

 Varicose Vein Surgery: Surgical intervention for swollen and twisted veins,
frequently found in the legs.
o Vein Stripping: A conventional surgical method in which the damaged vein is
excised.
o Endovenous Laser Therapy (EVLT)A procedure with minimal invasion that
utilizes laser energy to seal varicose veins.
o Sclerotherapy: Injection of a sclerosingsolution injected into the varicose
veins to cause them to collapse and close off.
o Radiofrequency Ablation (RFA): A procedure that is minimally invasive
utilizing heat produced by radiofrequency energy to seal the affected veins.
 Deep Vein Thrombosis (DVT) Surgery: Surgical intervention for DVT, a condition
characterized by the formation of blood clots in the deep veins, usually located in the
legs.
o Thrombectomy: Elimination of the thrombus that is blocking the vein.
o Inferior Vena Cava (IVC) Filter InsertionA filter is placed in the inferior
vena cava to stop blood clots from traveling to the lungs and leading to a
pulmonary embolism.
 Chronic Venous Insufficiency (CVI) Treatment: Operation to address CVI, a
condition where veins are unable to transport blood from the legs back to the heart.
o Vein Bypass Surgery: Developing an alternative pathway to redirect blood
circulation around impaired veins.
o Venous Valve Reconstruction: Operation to fix or substitute the impaired
valves within blood vessels.

5. Arteriovenous Fistula and Graft Operation

Arteriovenous fistulas or grafts are surgically established links between arteries and veins,
frequently utilized for dialysisin individuals with renal failure.

 Arteriovenous Fistula CreationA surgical operation to link an artery directly to a

vein, typically in the arm, to establish a location for hemodialysis.
 Arteriovenous Graft PlacementA synthetic graft is employed to link an artery and
vein when a fistula cannot be formed because of inadequate vein quality.

6. Aneurysm Repair
Aneurysms can develop in different areas of the body, like in the brain, legs, and aorta.
Fixing aneurysms is essential to avoid rupture and severe, potentially fatal bleeding.

 Endovascular Aneurysm Repair (EVAR): A procedure that is minimally invasive,

employed to address aneurysms in the aorta and various other arteries by inserting a
stent graft within the aneurysm to strengthen the artery wall.
 Open Aneurysm Repair: Conventional open surgery in which the aneurysm is
excised and substituted with a synthetic graft, utilized for larger or more intricate
aneurysms.
 Cerebral Aneurysm Repair: Surgical procedures aimed at addressing aneurysms in
the brain, which might include clipping the aneurysm or utilizing endovascular
methods to close it.

7. Mesenteric Artery Surgery

The mesenteric arteries provide blood to the intestines. An obstruction or constriction of these
arteries can result inmesenteric ischemia, resulting in discomfort and gastrointestinal
problems.

 Mesenteric Bypass Surgery: A method to circumvent occluded mesenteric arteries

and reinstate circulation to the intestines.
 Angioplasty and Stenting: Entails employing a catheter to place a stent within the
mesenteric arteries to clear obstructions.

8. Lymphatic Surgery