Module 1: Historical and Theoretical Perspective on ESP 6.

Characteristics of ESP
● Intended Learning Outcomes: Expected outputs at the end of
each module.
1. Overview of English for Specific Purposes (ESP)
● Absolute Characteristics (Strevens, 1988):
● Let's learn this: Reading, studying, and discussion of assigned
● English for Specific Purposes (ESP): An e-module in a topics and lessons.
o Designed to meet specific needs of the learner.
learning-centered approach to ESP, designed for third-year ● Let's do this: Activities for comprehension checks and o Related in content to particular disciplines or
Bachelor in English Education (BEE) students. summative assessment. occupations.
● Purpose: Aims to enhance understanding of teaching English for o Centered on language specific to those disciplines or
● Flexible Learning Activity: Formative assessment or student
occupations (grammar, lexis, register, study skills,
specific purposes that are responsive to learners' linguistic and reflections on the lesson's relevance. discourse, genre).
cultural backgrounds, preparing students for real language o In contrast to General English.
classroom demands. It covers discussions, simulations, and tasks 4. What is ESP?
for pre-service English teachers in ESL/EFL classes, and
addresses teaching English through content areas like Science ● Variable Characteristics (Strevens, 1988):
and Mathematics. ● Definition: ESP is an approach to language teaching focusing on
the learner's reasons for learning English, often for occupational o May be restricted in the skills to be learned.
2. Key Learning Outcomes Upon completing the module, students are or study purposes. It emphasizes language in context over
o Not necessarily taught according to a particular
expected to: grammar and language structures, and is typically delivered to
methodology.
adult students in work-related settings (EOP), leading to higher
motivation.
● Demonstrate understanding of effective ESP teaching elements,
● Historical Context: Arose in the 1960s as General English (GE) ● Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998) refined characteristics:
including technology use and the relationship between ESP and
ELT. courses often didn't meet learners' or employers' specific needs.
o Removed "ESP is in contrast with General English"
● Discuss current research and theories in ESP strategies, planning, ● Approach vs. Product: ESP is considered an "approach" to
from absolute characteristics.
and design, and be equipped with course design theories and language teaching, not a specific product or methodology. o Added variable characteristics: may be related to
application examples. Decisions on content and method are based on the learner's specific disciplines, may use different methodologies
reason for learning. from GE, likely designed for adult learners (tertiary
● Design curriculum and syllabus through an ESP course design
● Self-direction: An important aspect where learners become level or professional work, but can be secondary
project. school), generally for intermediate or advanced
users of the language and are given freedom to decide how and
● Conduct analyses of specific learner groups' communicative and students, and assumes some basic language systems
what to study. Teachers should also teach learning strategies.
linguistic needs. knowledge.

● Critically evaluate and select ESP teaching materials and 5. Relationship between ESP and English Language Teaching (ELT)
7. Common Features of ESP:
methods, and conduct ESP course evaluation.
● Create original ESP teaching materials. ● ESP is a branch of English Language Teaching (ELT).
● Authentic materials: Use of authentic content, modified or
● Recommend appropriate assessment and testing methods for ● Goal-oriented language learning: ESP is defined as "Goal unmodified, particularly in self-directed study and research.
specific ESP contexts. oriented language learning," meaning students have a specific ● Purpose-related orientation: Simulation of communicative
goal to achieve.
● Connect findings from discourse analysis, especially genre tasks relevant to the target setting.
● ELT Diagram: Illustrates that English Mother Tongue (EMT),
analysis, to teaching ESP discourse skills. ● Self-direction: Learners have freedom in their learning, and
English as a Foreign Language (EFL), and English as a Second
teachers aim to turn learners into users of the language by
Language (ESL) are branches of ELT, with ESL and EFL further
3. Module Structure and Learning Activities Each module contains: teaching learning strategies.
leading to ESP and GE.
8. Basic Conceptions/Principles of ESP (Swale's "enduring
▪ Deficiency analysis: Identifies what learners ● English for Science and Technology (EST).
conceptions," 1990):
lack or feel they lack in their target-situation
● English for Business and Economics (EBE).
needs.
● Authenticity: Emerged as a central concept, emphasizing real- ● English for Social Studies (ESS).
▪ Strategy analysis: Establishes how learners
world texts and tasks relevant to the learner's specific field (e.g.,
prefer to learn.
aviation, business, technology). This includes authenticity of text
Other applications of ESP include:
(broadened beyond textbooks, narrowed by skill type) and ▪ Means analysis: Investigates the educational
authenticity of task (processing texts as in the real world). environment for the ESP course.
● Research Base: Importance of research into ESP registers to ● Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL): Subjects
establish linguistic contours of different specialized texts, taught through a foreign language with dual aims of learning
● Learning/Methodology: Focus shifted to language learning
initially focusing on word and sentence levels. Later research, content and the language.
processes, leading to the learning-centered approach. This
such as the NEWSPEAK projects (SEASPEAK, AIRSPEAK, ● Content-Based Instruction (CBI): Focuses on teaching
approach emphasizes lively, interesting, and relevant
POLICESPEAK), applied a more sophisticated, four-level
teaching/learning styles, considering learner interests, concerns, academic English through content knowledge, where language
concept of text (purposes, routines, topics, discourse
and the socio-economic and cultural context. Syllabuses are and subject matter content are integrated.
procedures).
determined by learner needs and incorporate aspects of the
● Task-Based Learning (TBL).
● Language/Text: Shifted from register analysis to discourse students' discipline. "Learner-learning centered," "task-based,"
analysis in the 1970s, focusing on the communicative values of "activity-based," and "problem-solving" are attributes of this
discourse and how sentences combine to create meaning and communicative-oriented approach. 10. Phases in the Development of ESP (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987;
continuous prose. Genre Analysis emerged as an offspring, Chanloner, 2006):
viewing text as a whole and identifying overall patterns through 9. Types of ESP ESP is classified based on its utilitarian purpose.
"moves" to sequence functional components of text. Mackay and Mountford (1978) suggest three types:
● Register Analysis: (1960s to early 1970s) Focused on grammar,
● Learning Needs: A fundamental concept acknowledging that structural, and non-structural vocabulary frequently used in
each specific domain has unique language needs. Systematic ● Occupational requirements: English for international telephone specific contexts, particularly scientific and technical English.
analysis of learning and language-use purposes (communication operations, civil airline pilots, etc.. Criticism arose for restricting analysis to word and sentence
needs) is crucial for relevant program content. This involves level and lacking authenticity in materials.
input from teachers, learners, and potential employers. ● Vocational training program: For hotel and catering staff,
● Rhetorical or Discourse Analysis: (Early 1970s) Shifted
technical trades, etc..
attention to beyond the sentence level, focusing on how
● Needs Analysis: Asking questions like whether ● Academic or professional study: English for engineering, sentences combine to create discourse and the communicative
students will use English at university or in their jobs, medicine, law, etc.. values of language in use. Aimed to identify organizational
what language skills are required, and what extra- patterns in texts and linguistic signals. Its shortcoming was
linguistic knowledge is needed. Munby (1978) divides ESP into two broad areas: fragmentary treatment of functional units and limited guidance
on how they form coherent texts.
● Munby's (1978) model: Established needs by
● Target Situation Analysis: Focused on investigating the target
investigating the target situation, central to ESP course ● English for Occupational Purposes (EOP): Where the
design, but criticized for its complexity and what it situation for which learners were being prepared, with Munby's
participant needs English to perform all or part of their
failed to consider. model being a notable example.
occupational duties.
● Forms of Pedagogic Needs Analysis: Complement ● Skills and Strategies: Concerned with identifying the
● English for Educational Purposes (EAP): Where the
target-situation analysis: underlying skills and strategies learners need to perform
participant needs English to pursue part or all of their studies.
communicative tasks effectively in their target situation.
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) break ESP into three branches, each
further divided into EAP and EOP:
 2. Ways of Equipping ESP Teachers objectives, content, processes, resources, and means of
● Learning-Centered Approach: (Latest phase) Emphasizes
Both prospective and current EFL teachers can be equipped through a evaluation of all learning experiences. It is a wider term
understanding the processes of language learning and basing couple of ways: compared to a syllabus.
ESP on the learner's needs and how they learn. Pre-service/In-service training:
● Syllabus: Refers to the "content" or "subject matter" of a
● Current language teaching programs might not include ESP particular individual subject. It is a specification and ordering of
11. The Role of the ESP Teacher (Dudley-Evans, 1998): ESP teachers
perform multiple roles, often more specialized than General English methodology or have separate departments for ESP teacher training. content of a course or courses. A syllabus is a statement of the
teachers: In such cases, pre-service training after undergraduate study can be a plan for any part of the curriculum, excluding curriculum
solution. evaluation. It is a set of justifiable, educational objectives
specified in terms of linguistic content. A syllabus acts as a guide
● Teacher: Controls the class, provides information, and manages ● For currently working EFL teachers, in-service training programs
for both the teacher and learner by providing goals. It is a
activities, similar to a GE teacher. This includes organizing are helpful. "summary of the content to which learners will be exposed".
courses, setting goals, creating a positive learning environment, ● Language teachers and prospective language teachers can attend Syllabus refers to the subpart of a curriculum concerned with
and evaluating students. specifying what units will be taught.
professional development workshops to acquire a second field of
● Collaborator: Works with subject matter specialists to meet expertise, such as medicine, engineering, or law. ● Course: An instructional program with a specific name, such as
specific learner needs and adapt methodology. Collaboration can ● Continuous participation in situational decision-making and "English for Engineering Students". A course might be taken to
extend to team teaching, and ESP teachers must often work mean a real series of lessons.
professional involvement in the disciplinary culture helps
closely with learners who are more familiar with specialized prospective ESP practitioners conceptualize appropriate teaching ● Syllabus Design: The process of deciding what gets taught and
content. approaches. in what order. It is seen as "a matter of specifying the content
● Course Designer and Materials Provider: Provides suitable Collaborative work (Team teaching): that needs to be taught and then organizing it into a teaching
materials to achieve set goals. Often involves developing ● The language teacher is not expected to possess sophisticated syllabus of appropriate learning units". It involves organizing
original materials due to the lack of appropriate published selected contents into an ordered and practical sequence for
content knowledge, but basic concepts are needed to design an ESP
textbooks for specific disciplines. teaching purposes. Syllabus design involves a logical sequence
syllabus that supports the content course.
of three main stages: needs analysis, content specification, and
● Researcher: Conducts research (e.g., needs analysis, language ● While language teachers are not trained to teach content subjects, syllabus organization.
analysis) to ensure materials are appropriate and tailored to they can become competent ESP teachers if they participate in ● Course Design: Concerned with how much design should go
specific learner contexts. collaborative efforts.
into a particular course, including negotiation with learners,
● Evaluator: Assesses student progress and the effectiveness of Module 2: ESP Course/Syllabus Design
predetermination by the teacher, and elements left to chance.
ESP courses, providing feedback to students. 1. Introduction to ESP Course/Syllabus Design
This notion is linked to the idea of "focus on the learner".
Unit 5: Ways of Training EFL Teachers for ESP Teaching Module 2 focuses on course/syllabus design in English for Specific
Purposes (ESP). It differentiates between curriculum, syllabus, course, ● Curriculum Design: A more general term that includes all
1. How to Train ESP Teachers
and syllabus design. A key feature of ESP is that teaching and materials processes where designers consider learner needs, develop aims,
● ESP teaching requires a special approach to training teachers are founded on the results of needs analysis. Needs analysis is the process determine an appropriate syllabus, and evaluate it.
who are supposed to teach English through content. of establishing the "what" and "how" of a course. 3. ESP Curriculum Characteristics
2. Definitions of Course, Syllabus, ESP Curriculum, and ESP ESP curriculum differs from General English as its objective is more
● EFL teachers should be provided with the necessary knowledge Course/Syllabus Design practical: applying language in job-specific situations. It contains aspects
and tools to deal with students' specialized fields of study. This is like:
● Curriculum: In its broadest sense, it refers to the study of goals,
because they are specialists in teaching English, not in the
specific content field itself. content, implementation, and evaluation of an educational ● Specific task, vocabulary, and language in context.
system. In a restricted sense, it refers to a course of study or the
● EFL teachers are expected to help students, who often know content of a particular course or program. It is a very general ● Starting point based on learners' background knowledge.
their subject better, develop essential skills in understanding, concept involving philosophical, social, and administrative
● Operational, communicative, and notional syllabus.
using, and/or presenting authentic information in their factors in planning an educational program. Curriculum
profession. Teaching content knowledge facilitates learners' development comprises three main stages: design,
acquisition of the formal schema of academic texts. implementation, and evaluation. Curriculum includes goals,
 ● Learner-centred approach, where teaching-learning activities ● Functional/Notional Grammar: A juxtaposition of function ● Methods of Data Collection: Questionnaires (chief instrument
focus on learner needs and progress. ESP teachers are (social behavior and intention) and notion (how the human mind for quantitative data), interviews, observation (non-participant
facilitators. thinks and uses language to divide reality) in language learning. and participant). Participant observation is most useful for
4. Factors Affecting ESP Course Design: Language Description developing a feel for the workplace.
● Discourse (Rhetorical) Analysis: Focuses on analyzing
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) summarize course design questions into 7. Approaches to Course Design
three key factors: language beyond the sentence level to understand
communicative values and how sentences combine to create ● Language-centered Approach: Focuses on describing the target
● Language description meaning. language and identifying specific grammatical and lexical
5. Learning Theories features.
● Learning theory
The module also touches upon learning theories influencing ESP course
● Skill-based Syllabus Skills are abilities that people must be able
● Needs analysis design:
to do to be competent enough in a language, rather
Language description involves understanding the features of ● Cognitive Code Teaching: Emphasizes language forms and independently of the situation or context in which the language
developmental stages of language and incorporating these ideas into explicit descriptive knowledge about those forms. use can occur.
course design. There are six main stages in the development of language:
● Acquisition Theory: Emphasizes unanalyzed and carefully ● Learner-centered Approach: Emphasizes how learners learn
● Classical or Traditional Grammar: Describes language based
selected experiences of the new language. and their learning needs. It considers learners' socio-cultural
on classical languages (Greek and Latin). It is prescriptive and background, learning background, age, gender, and attitudes
rule-governed. ● Constructivism: Suggests that learners construct knowledge and
towards English. This approach views learning as more than just
meaning from their experiences. Key precepts include situated representing language items and skills.
● Structural Linguistics: Emerged in the 20th century (1930s-
learning, cognitive apprenticeships, social negotiation of
1950s), emphasizing overt formal features of language, knowledge, and collaboration. It shifts the teacher's role from ● Target Situation Analysis: Focuses on what the learner needs to
especially phonology, morphology, and syntax. It is a synchronic "sage on the stage" to "guide on the side". do in the target situation. Broken down into:
approach. Ferdinand de Saussure is considered the father of o Necessities: What the learner has to know to function
modern structural linguistics. ● Humanism: Focuses on human freedom, dignity, and potential.
effectively.
Proponents include Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. Learning o Lacks: Gaps between what the learner knows and
● Transformational Generative (TG) Grammar: Postulated by
is student-centered and personalized, with the educator as a necessities.
Noam Chomsky in 1957. It distinguishes between deep facilitator. Affective factors (emotional factors) influence
structure (syntactic base) and surface structure (actual o Wants: What the learners think they need.
learning.
sentences). Also differentiates language competence 8. Syllabus Types
6. Needs Analysis in Detail
(subconscious control of linguistic system) and language Needs analysis is a continuous process. ● Product-Oriented Syllabuses (Synthetic Approach):
performance (actual use of language). ESP initially focused on
● Purpose of Needs Analysis: To find out language skills a Emphasize the product of language learning.
performance, but it's important to describe both performance and
competence. learner needs for a target situation, determine if an existing ● Structural Approach (Grammatical or Linguistic Syllabus):
course addresses needs, identify students most in need, identify Selection and grading of content based on complexity and
● Linguistic Developments Based on Communicative
changes in direction, identify gaps between current and needed simplicity of grammatical items. Focus is on outcomes/product.
Competence: The concept of communicative competence is abilities, and collect information on learner problems.
vital to ESP. It involves the rules guiding grammatically correct ● Situational Syllabus: Organizes content based on situations and
sentences, and also "what, whom to speak with, where and in ● Interpretations of Needs (Brindley):
settings where learners will use English.
what manner of a language". This led to three stages: o Narrow or product-oriented needs: The language
learners will use in a specific communication situation, ● Notional Syllabus: Organizes content based on meanings
● Language Variation and Register Analysis: Register refers to
also called "goal-oriented needs" or "objective needs". (notions) that learners need to express. Examples of notions
the variation in language use according to context. It varies o Broad or process-oriented needs: Analyzes the learner include quantity, time, location.
according to medium (e.g., speech, writing), domain (subject as an individual, considering affective and cognitive
matter or function), and tenor (politeness/formality based on ● Functional Syllabus: Organizes content based on
variables.
audience and social situation). ESP identifies characteristics of communicative functions of language (e.g., inviting, advising,
various registers for syllabus item selection. apologizing).
 ● Target Situation Analysis (TSA): Focuses on what learners ● Objective vs. Subjective Needs: Objective needs are explored
● Skills-based Syllabus: Organizes content based on skills (e.g.,
will need to do in real-life or future situations (e.g., job tasks), before a course, subjective needs are addressed during the
reading for gist, writing reports). considering the English they will use. course.
● Process-Oriented Syllabuses (Analytic Approach): Emphasize ● Present Situation Analysis (PSA): Ascertains students’ current ● Task-Based Approach: Uses tasks and activities to encourage
language level and abilities at the beginning of a course, learners to use language communicatively to achieve a purpose.
the learning process.
estimating strengths and weaknesses.
● Task-based Syllabus: Designed around tasks that require ● Deficiency Analysis: Identifies the gap between Present 4. Principles for Analyzing Learner's Needs
learners to use language to achieve a non-linguistic outcome. Situation (what learners know now) and Target Situation (what
they need to know), highlighting missing skills or content.
● Content-based Syllabus: Uses content from a specific subject ● Strategy Analysis: Investigates how learners prefer to learn,
area as the vehicle for language learning. focusing on their preferred learning styles and strategies. ● Give First Priority to Communication Needs: What learners
● Means Analysis: Examines the educational environment, are taught should align with what they will actually use.
● Learner-led Syllabuses: Emphasis on the learner, who is including practical limitations or opportunities such as class size, ● Give Equal Importance to Learning Needs: Cognitive and
involved in syllabus implementation. available time, facilities, and materials. affective variables, as well as learning situations, are crucial in
● Proportional Approach (Multi-dimensional syllabus): determining how language is learned.
● Take "Context" into Account: Language teaching and design
Attempts to develop "overall competence" by combining various
must consider the specific context of the students to be effective.
elements, with a theme linking units. It is dynamic and flexible. 3. Key Approaches to Needs Analysis ● Invite Multiple Perspectives: Recognize biases and include
9. Syllabus Implementation/Methodology
viewpoints of all stakeholders, as English learning needs are
Successful syllabus implementation requires increased resources, training,
● Sociolinguistic Model (John Munby): A systematic approach shaped by diverse expectations and values.
and re-training of ESP teachers. Factors affecting implementation include
for analyzing specific language needs, especially in ESP. It ● Employ Multiple Data Collection Methods: Use varied
cultural, educational, organizational, learner, teacher, and material factors.
focuses on identifying the target situation and the communicative methods (interviews, class observation, work samples, focus
contexts learners will engage in. groups, material evaluation) for a deeper understanding of
● Components: Participant's background and goals, complex needs.
Approaches and Techniques for Needs Analysis in Language communicative needs (what the learner needs to say/do), and a ● Treat Needs Analysis as an On-going Activity: It should be a
Learning structured summary of required language skills. continuous process to adapt to learners’ changing goals,
● Learning-Centered Approach (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987): environments, and conditions.
1. What is Needs Analysis? Concerned with language learning rather than just language use.
Learner needs are approached from two directions:
Approaches to and Steps in ESP Course Design
Needs analysis is a systematic process to identify and evaluate the ● Target Needs: What the learner needs to do in the target
requirements, gaps, and objectives of individuals, organizations, or situation, broken down into:
1. Language-Centered approach:
communities. It involves gathering and analyzing information to help ○ Necessities
design relevant lessons, choose appropriate materials, and set realistic ○ Lacks
Language is the focus in a course book, in which learners have the chance
learning goals. ○ Wants
to take the language to pieces, study how it works and practice putting it
It addresses questions such as: ● Learning Needs: Socio-cultural factors, age, gender, knowledge
back together (Hutchinson & Waters). A syllabus based LCA highlights
of specialized content, English background, teaching/learning
the structures of a discourse. - Lexis to express functions and the lexical
● What language do students already know? styles, effectiveness of methods, and learner expectations.
input…
The following steps should be taken by a course designer who intends
Focus on Learner's Needs:
adopting the language-centred approach to course design:
What language will they need in the future? i. Identification of the target situation;
● Perceived vs. Felt Needs: Perceived needs are from experts'
ii. Selecting the appropriate learning theory;
perspectives, while felt needs are from learners' perspectives.
How do they want to learn? iii. Finding out the linguistic features characteristic of the target situation;
● Product vs. Process-Oriented Interpretations: Product-
iv. Designing/creating a syllabus
oriented views needs as language required in target situations;
2. Types of Needs Analysis v. Designing or writing materials to suit the purpose and
process-oriented focuses on how individuals respond to learning,
vi. Evaluation/assessment of the syllabus (Umera-Okeke, 2005, p. 53)
including affective and cognitive variables.
According to Hutchinson and Waters, here are the disadvantages of ● Appropriate or ineffective teaching and learning methods
constructing syllabus based on LCA: ● Knowledge of specialized contents that teachers should have
(a) it is a learner-restricted syllabus. ● Suitable instructional materials and study location
(b) It is a static and an inflexible procedure. Once the initial target ● Time of study and status of ESP courses
situation analysis is done, no change is done. It did not take care of ● Expectations about what learners should achieve in the courses
conflicts and contradictions inherent in human endeavours. ● How necessary the courses are for the learners
(c) It appears to be systematic giving the impression that learning is ● Learning centred approach considers the social context of
systematic. Systematization in learning is internally generated not education and gives more latitude to the teacher.
externally imposed. ● Learning should consider tasks, exercises, teaching techniques,
(d) Language centred approach is at the surface level. It says nothing and all other activities through which the content is to be learnt.
about competence that underlies performance. Learning is not a Learning-centred approach examines how the learners achieve
straightforward logical process. A lot of other factors come into play. their goals in learning.
(e) It gives no attention to other factors which play a part in course design
such as the role of interest and motivation (p. 68-69). Steps in the Course Design

2. Skill-based Syllabus 1. Needs Analysis: "Needs analysis is the cornerstone of ESP and
In this syllabus the content of the language teaching involves a collection leads to a very focused course." - Dudley-Evans & St. John
of particular skills that may play a role in using language. (1998). It determines both the 'what' and the 'how' of the ESP
Situational syllabuses combine functions together into specific settings of course.
language use. 2. Course Planning & Goal Setting: According to Taba’s
Skill-based syllabi merge linguistic competencies together into curriculum mode this involves: (a) Formulating learning
generalized types of behaviour, such as listening to spoken language for objectives, (b) determining goals tied to learner contexts, (d)
the main idea, writing well formed paragraphs, delivering effective Prioritizing based on necessities, lacks and wants (h&w)
lectures, and so forth. 3. Syllabus Design: What gets taught and in what order? “Syllabus
Purpose of Skill-based instruction: (1) to learn the specific language skill. design is seen as a matter of specifying the content that needs to
(2) to develop more general competence in the language be taught and then organizing it into a teaching syllabus of
Widdowson‘s goal oriented and process oriented courses appropriate learning units.” Munby (1984). It includes selection
Process oriented course is intended to enable learners to achieve a of themes, functions, language skills, Content sequencing (from
purpose of constantly developing proficiency as the learning process goes known to unknown), Alignment with communicative tasks and
on. The process oriented approach concentrates on skills. It is the duty of professional language use
ESP to help learners to develop skills and strategies which might stay 4. Materials Development: Relevant to the learners’ field (e.g.,
with them even after the ESP course. The learner is considered in the English for Engineering, Nursing), Authentic, reflecting real-
process of learning unlike in the language-centred approach. world documents and tasks, Task-based, supporting
communicative functions
3. Learning-Centered ApproachLearning needs approach is the best 5. Teaching & Delivery: “Learning should consider tasks,
route to convey learners from the starting point to the target situation. exercises, teaching techniques, and all other activities through
Learner needs are approached from two directions; target needs and which the content is to be learnt.” In ESP, teaching should: Be
learning needs (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987:54-56). learner-centered, Emphasize interaction and communication,
Three categories: Incorporate learners’ background and experience
necessities- what the learner has to know 6. Assessment & Evaluation: “Evaluation should be regarded as an
lacks- the gaps between what the learner knows and the necessities. ongoing needs assessment.” — Richards (2001) This includes:
wants- what the learners think they need ● Formative assessment during the course (e.g., quizzes,
performance tasks)
Learner needs also involve: ● Summative assessment at the end (e.g., project,
presentation)
● Teaching and learning styles with which the learners are familiar ● Course evaluation for improvement based on feedback
Materials Development: ● SLA Theories: How key SLA theories (e.g., Krashen's Input ● Needs Analysis: The crucial first step of identifying learners'
Hypothesis, Swain's Output Hypothesis, Long's Interaction needs and goals. We'll discuss different methods for conducting
Introduction to Materials Development Hypothesis) inform the design of effective materials. a needs analysis.

II. Defining Materials and Materials Development 1. Krashen's Monitor Model: This influential model comprises five ● Content Selection and Organization: Choosing appropriate
hypotheses: content and structuring it logically to facilitate learning.
● Types of Materials:(textbooks, workbooks, digital resources,
● Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis: Distinguishes between ● Activity Design: Creating engaging and effective activities that
etc.),
subconscious language acquisition (similar to first language promote interaction, communication, and language practice.
● The Development Process: A step-by-step breakdown of the
learning) and conscious language learning (formal instruction).
stages involved in creating materials—from needs analysis to
Krashen argues acquisition is more important for fluency. ● Evaluation and Revision: The ongoing process of evaluating
evaluation and revision.
materials and revising them based on feedback and learner
● Monitor Hypothesis: Proposes an internal "monitor" that edits performance.
III. Current Trends and Issues in Materials Development
and corrects language output based on conscious grammatical
knowledge. This monitor is most effective in writing and with EXAMPLES:
● Technology's Role: How technology (apps, online platforms, ample time for reflection.
multimedia) is changing materials development and impacting I. Needs Analysis:
teaching and learning. ● Natural Order Hypothesis: Suggests that grammatical
structures are acquired in a predictable sequence, regardless of ● Questionnaires: Surveys given to learners to determine their
● Authenticity vs. Pedagogical Simplification: The ongoing the learner's age or teaching method. The order might vary learning goals, current proficiency, learning preferences, and any
debate about balancing authenticity with the need to adapt slightly across languages but is consistent within a language. existing materials they've used. Example question: "What are
materials for learners' proficiency levels. your goals for learning English?" or "What aspects of English do
● Input Hypothesis: Focuses on the importance of you find most challenging?"
● Inclusivity and Accessibility: Ensuring materials are comprehensible input (i+1)—language slightly beyond the
appropriate and accessible for diverse learners, considering learner's current level—for successful acquisition. This input ● Interviews: Individual or group interviews to gather more in-
factors like learning styles, cultural backgrounds, and should be understandable within context, not necessarily depth information about learners' needs and motivations.
disabilities. explicitly explained.
● Classroom Observations: Observing learners in class to assess
● Affective Filter Hypothesis: Highlights the role of emotional their current skills and identify areas where they need support.
IV. Who Should Develop the Materials? factors (motivation, self-confidence, anxiety) in language
learning. High anxiety or low motivation can create an "affective
● Teacher Involvement: The crucial role of teachers in materials filter" that blocks input from reaching the language acquisition II. Content Selection and Organization:
development, emphasizing their practical experience and system.
understanding of learners' needs. ● ● Authentic Materials: Newspaper articles, short stories, songs,
● Learner Characteristics: Considering factors like age, learning podcasts, or videos relevant to learners' interests and the course
● Collaboration: The benefits of collaborative materials styles, motivation, and prior knowledge when developing objectives. For example, if the topic is travel, a travel blog or a
development involving teachers, curriculum designers, linguists, materials. documentary about a specific country could be used.
and technology specialists.
● Task-Based Learning: The importance of incorporating task- ● Graded Readers: Books specifically written for language
● External Resources: How to effectively utilize existing based activities that promote meaningful communication and learners at different proficiency levels. These provide controlled
materials and adapt them to specific contexts. language use. vocabulary and grammar structures.

V. Principles of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) Relevant to the ● Thematic Units: Organizing content around specific themes
Development of Materials VI. Principles and Procedures of Materials Development (e.g., family, work, travel) to create coherence and provide
context for language learning.
III. Activity Design: learning objectives.. Key principles include effectiveness (do materials
achieve learning goals?) and efficiency (are they better than alternatives?)
● Gap-fill exercises: Filling in missing words or phrases in a text
to practice vocabulary and grammar. 2. Qualities of Effective Materials: Each unit should:

● Role-playing activities: Acting out scenarios to practice ● Be clear and well-organized: Information should be presented
conversational skills. logically and understandably.
● Be engaging and motivating: Materials should capture learners'
● Discussions and debates: Engaging in discussions on topics of interest and encourage active participation.
interest to develop speaking fluency. ● Be relevant and appropriate: Content should align with
learners' needs, levels, and learning objectives.
● Writing tasks: Writing emails, essays, or reports to practice ● Provide varied activities: A mix of activities caters to different
writing skills. learning styles and promotes deeper understanding.
● Offer opportunities for feedback: Learners should have
● Games and puzzles: Using games and puzzles to make learning chances to receive and provide feedback.
more fun and engaging. Example: A vocabulary crossword ● Be authentic and contextualized: Using real-world examples
puzzle. makes learning more meaningful.
● Be accessible and inclusive: Materials should be designed to be
IV. Evaluation and Revision: accessible to all learners, regardless of background or ability.

● Learner Feedback: Gathering feedback from learners through 3. Types of Materials Evaluation:
questionnaires, interviews, or focus groups to assess the
effectiveness of the materials. Example question: "What did you - External Evaluation: Physical book or material evaluation
like most about this lesson?" or "What could be improved?" - Internal Evaluation: in-depth evaluation
● Teacher Feedback: Getting feedback from teachers on the
TOMLINSON’S VIEW
clarity, effectiveness, and appropriateness of the materials for
their students.
● Pre-use evaluation: Assessing materials before use, often
● Trial Runs: Testing the materials in a classroom setting to involving a review of content, design, and alignment with
observe how learners interact with them and identify any areas objectives.
for improvement. ● While-use evaluation: Monitoring materials during use,
gathering feedback from teachers and learners on their
● Data Analysis: Analyzing learner performance data (e.g., test effectiveness.
scores, participation rates) to assess the effectiveness of the ● Post-use evaluation: Assessing materials after use, analyzing
materials. learners' achievements and identifying areas for improvement.
This often involves quantitative data analysis.

Examples:
MATERIAL EVALUATION:
● Pre-use: Reviewing a textbook's table of contents and sample
chapters to assess its suitability for a course.
1. Definition and Principles: Materials evaluation is the systematic
● While-use: Administering questionnaires to learners mid-course
process of judging the value and effectiveness of teaching and learning
to gauge their engagement and understanding.
materials. It aims to determine if materials meet learners' needs and
● Post-use: Analyzing test scores to determine the effectiveness of
a specific instructional unit.