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Hydrogen energy
Canan Acara,b and Ibrahim Dincerc,d, a University of Twente, Enschede, the Netherlands; b Bahcesehir University, Istanbul, Turkey;
c
Ontario Tech University, Oshawa, ON, Canada; and d Yildiz Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey
© 2024 Elsevier Inc. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
This is an update of Canan Acar, Ibrahim Dincer, 1.13 Hydrogen Energy, Editor(s): Ibrahim Dincer, Comprehensive Energy Systems, Elsevier, 2018,
Pages 568e605, ISBN 9780128149256, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-809597-3.00113-9.

Introduction 4
Why hydrogen? 6
What makes hydrogen stand out? 7
From global needs to local solutions 7
Transitioning to a hydrogen economy 7
Hydrogen fundamentals 8
Natural gas steam reforming 8
Water electrolysis 8
Hydrogen applications 10
Hydrogen’s potential as a fuel 14
Fundamental properties of hydrogen 14
Physical and chemical characteristics 14
Energy characteristics 14
Comparative analysis with other fuels 15
Combustion and safety characteristics 15
The challenges and opportunities of liquid hydrogen 15
Hydrogen in the future energy landscape 16
Hydrogen energy systems 16
The genesis of a hydrogen energy system 16
Sourcing hydrogen 16
Decarbonizing production 16
Colors of hydrogen 17
Storing the energy 18
Transporting hydrogen 18
Utilization of hydrogen 18
The auxiliary benefits of byproducts 18
Geographical considerations 18
Potentials and perspectives of hydrogen energy 18
Unlocking hydrogen energy 19
Hydrogen in transportation 20
Hydrogen delivery challenges and solutions 20
Current challenges and the path forward 21
Horizon of hydrogen energy 21
Energetic and exergetic performance of hydrogen energy systems 21
The flexibility of hydrogen systems in energy production 21
Beyond energy storage: Multiple facets of hydrogen energy 21
Hydrogen energy storage challenges 23
Characteristics and importance of hydrogen storage 23
Divergent needs: Transportation versus stationary storage 23
Exploring storage forms: Solid, liquid, and gas 24
Hydrogen energy storage potentials 24
Characteristics of an ideal hydrogen storage medium 24
Nature of hydrogen interactions with storage mediums 24
Current challenges and research trajectories 25
Industrial applications and future directions 25
Hydrogen energy perspectives 26
Fuel cells: A synergistic path to the future 26
Hydrogen safety and public perception 27
Hydrogen energy marketsdComprehensive overview 27
Hydrogen energy marketsdPotential 29
Future directions 30
Integral components of hydrogen energy systems 31

Reference Collection in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-44-313219-3.00079-4 1

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2 Hydrogen energy

Expanding the horizon with hydrogen energy 32

Foundations of science and technology 33
Technological advancements and coordination 33
Product testing and acceptance 33
Policy, regulations, and public awareness 33
Concluding remarks 34
References 35
Further reading 36
Relevant websites 36

Key points
• Hydrogen, the most abundant element in the universe, offers tremendous potential as a sustainable energy carrier.
• Its high energy content per mass, outshining other fuels, allows for diverse applications across transportation, heating, and
industry.
• Hydrogen can seamlessly integrate into our energy infrastructure, from production to consumption, through advanced
systems.
• While its market is emerging robustly with increasing investments and key players, safe storage and handling remain
paramount due to its inherent flammability.
• As we gaze into the future, the continuous evolution of hydrogen technologies and production methods holds promise for
a sustainable energy landscape.

Glossary
Combustion A chemical process where a substance reacts with oxygen to produce heat and light.
Flammability The quality of being easily ignited and capable of burning rapidly. Hydrogen, due to its properties, has a wide
flammability range in the air.
Fuel Cell An electrochemical cell that converts the chemical energy from a fuel (i.e., hydrogen) into electricity and heat through
a reaction with oxygen or another oxidizing agent.
Hydrogen Energy The use of hydrogen, often as a fuel or an energy carrier, to produce power, typically with reduced emissions
compared to fossil fuels.
Infrastructure The foundational facilities and systems serving a country, city, or area, including services and facilities necessary
for the economy to function.
Oxidizing Agent A substance that can accept electrons from another substance, facilitating specific chemical reactions.
Production Techniques Methods and processes employed to produce or manufacture a specific product or material. In the
context of hydrogen, it refers to methods used to produce hydrogen.
Storage Methods Techniques and systems used to store energy or materials. For hydrogen, it may refer to compressed gas,
liquid, or solid-state storage.
Versatility The ability to adapt or be adapted to many different functions or activities. In the context of hydrogen, it refers to its
wide range of applications.
Zero-emission Refers to vehicles, technologies, or processes that do not emit greenhouse gases or pollutants when operated.

Nomenclature
C Specific heat (J/g K)
H Enthalpy (kJ)
R Universal gas constant (mL-atm/g K)
z Compressibility factor

Greek symbols
D Change

Subscript and superscripts

f Formation
p Constant pressure