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Finite Math is often a required course, taken by students who come with a weak

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Product details

 Publisher : Pearson; 3rd edition (November 10, 2003)

 Language : English

 Hardcover : 712 pages

 ISBN-10 : 0321173341

 ISBN-13 : 978-0321173348
Exploring the Variety of Random
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Government have taken over the exploitation of these deposits, and no public prospecting,
without Government permission, is allowed.
Platinum is known to exist in a number of other localities in Spain, especially in the
northern districts; but so far as is known, it occurs in very small quantities of no commercial
importance. The metal has been recognized in the following rivers: Minho, Luna, Sil, Orbigo,
Gallego, Cinca Darro and Lower Jenil, where it occurs in the concentrate sands, accompanied
by magnetite, ilmenite, zircon and, frequently, gold[58].
 ASIA

Armenia

Platinum, in association with gold, is reported to occur in the district of Batum and Sasun,
on the Charokh River[46] p. 610.

Borneo

Platinum was discovered in south-eastern Borneo in 1831, in the gravels of Gunung

Lawack, but for a long time the natives were ignorant of its value. In recent years it has been
obtained on a small scale as a by-product in the process of gold-washing, carried on in the
province of Tanah-Laut, in the south-eastern extremity of the island[59]. The deposits occur in
streams, which rise in the Bobaris Mountains, where the country rocks are composed of
schists and gneisses, intruded by serpentine gabbro and diorite dykes[52] p. 298. Platinum
has, however, not yet been located in situ. In addition to gold, the platinum is associated with
osmiridium in the gravels, the two former being frequently found intimately intergrown. The
platinum content of the native metal has been found by a number of analyses to vary from
about 57 to 83 per cent., and that of osmiridium from 0·18 to 10·07 per cent.[60].
The rare mineral laurite, a sulphide of ruthenium and osmium, was discovered in these
deposits.
According to L. Hundeshagen[61], the platinum occurring in the diamond placers of western
and south-eastern Borneo is in the form of thin scales, ranging from 0·1 to 1·0 mm. in length.
These platinum scales contain from 3·8 to 4·5 per cent. of copper, evidently as an alloy.

China

In the Uryanchai district of Mongolia, situated on the Russian border, deposits of

auriferous gravels have been worked on a fairly extensive scale for some time past. It was
announced a few years ago that platinum and iridium had been found in appreciable
quantities, associated with the gold, some large platinum nuggets being obtained from this
region in 1911. Although no attempt at commercial development has yet been made, the
prospects of profitable extraction appear to be hopeful. Extensive outcrops of olivine rocks
have been noticed in the vicinity, and the nature of the occurrence is stated to bear some
resemblance to that of the platiniferous fields of the southern Urals[8] p. 107.

Japan

Platinum occurs in the Yubari-garva, Pechau and other rivers in the province of Hokkaido.
It is also found in Nishi-Mikawa, province of Sado. In the former locality gold and iridosmine
are associated with the platinum, and in the latter gold and iron sands are present[62]. In no
case has the metal been traced to its parent source. In the Hokkaido deposits the average
quantity of platinum present is only 2 or 3 per cent. of the iridosmine content. It is possible
that further exploration in these areas will reveal occurrences of greater importance[9] p. 597.
 Sumatra

Platinum is obtained at Sipongi, where it occurs with wollastonite and grossularite in

limestones and schists, near intrusions of granodiorite and augite diorite. Gold is also
present.
L. Hundeshagen[61] is of opinion that the present ore deposit was originally a layer, or a big
lens, of limestone embedded in the old schists, which has, by apophyses of granite, been
altered into garnet and wollastonite, being at the same time, or very soon afterwards,
mineralized by hot solutions carrying copper, gold, platinum, etc. A sample of slightly
decomposed wollastonite with no copper, or only minute traces of that metal, proved to be
richest in platinum, the assay showing 6 gm. of platinum per 1,000 kg., while samples with 2
to 10 per cent. of bornite and malachite contained only traces of platinum; and none could be
detected in auriferous garnet, poor in wollastonite. About 10 to 25 metres from the outcrop
the concentrated river sand shows small particles of whitish crystalline gold and rounded
grains of white platinum, the latter varying from 0·1 to 0·3 mm. in size.
 AFRICA

Congo Free State

In the Katanga district, platinum and palladium have been reported to occur in certain
alluvial gravels, accompanied by gold and silver. One sample from this locality is stated to
have yielded the following amounts per metric ton: 3·4 gr. platinum, 12·3 gr. gold, 8·3 gr.
silver. It has also been located in situ in sandstones containing gold.

Madagascar

Platinum is produced on a small scale as a by-product in alluvial gold mining on the Vatana
River, near the village of Ambia, in the Vatomandry district. Traces of the metal have also
been found in auriferous gravels in the regions of Fenerive, Marolambo, and Vandrozo, over
an area extending along the eastern side of the island for a length of about 450 miles. The
platinum is apparently derived from the decomposition of pegmatite. It is rarely found pure,
being usually coated with iron oxide, and strongly magnetic, a property which is utilized in
the process of separation from the gold[63].
 NORTH AMERICA

Mexico

Platinum has been shown to exist in the states of Guerrero and Hidalgo in deposits of
ferrous clays, which are of undoubted sedimentary origin, and are apparently laterites. The
metal exists in a very finely disseminated state, invisible to the naked eye[64].

United States

At the beginning of the war there was a considerable shortage of platinum in the country,
caused partly by the falling-off of the imports, and in part owing to the increased demand in
connexion with munition manufacture.
California is the principal producer of crude platinum, and in 1917 this State supplied 460
oz. out of the total output of 605 oz.; with the exception of a few ounces from the State of
Washington, Alaska and Oregon provided the balance.
A considerable quantity of foreign crude and manufactured platinum is imported annually,
as shown in the following tables:

Imports of Manufactured Platinum into the United States

(In troy oz.)

1912. 1913. 1914. 1915. 1916. 1917. 1918.
From British countries:
Canada 777 582 55 139 511 332 253
United Kingdom 19,169 16,595 6,476 7,692 9,513 3,195 357
Other British countries 4 5 25
Total, British countries 19,950 17,177 6,531 7,831 9,569 3,527 635
From foreign countries:
France 25,723 24,519 16,570 3,480 3,395 2,507 814
Germany 22,673 29,075 30,015 2,350 10
Netherlands 159
Norway 258 120
Russia (European) 815
Colombia 480 207 1,665
Other foreign countries 63 512 57 3
Total, foreign countries 48,396 53,594 47,658 6,373 4,076 2,891 2,482
Grand total, oz. 68,346 70,771 54,189 14,204 13,645 6,418 3,117
 Imports of Crude Platinum into United States

(In troy oz.)

1911[N]. 1912. 1913. 1914. 1915. 1916. 1917. 1918.
From British countries:
Canada 554 45 314 535 139 91 25 76
United Kingdom 28,153 19,951 8,368 7,084 6,805 36,703 1,561 1,073
Other British possessions 7 5
Total, British countries 28,707 20,003 8,682 7,619 6,949 36,794 1,586 1,149
From foreign countries:
France 44,964 10,178 7,284 4,921 3,507 13,014 52 166
Germany 37,041 15,335 23,345 15,105 2,366
Norway 200 442 285 302
Panama 160 105 92 12 372
Brazil 118 103 27
Chile 9 766 3
Colombia 5,503 6,627 10,461 12,387 13,121 25,588 21,071 25,365
Other foreign countries 17 13 1 103 99 21,663
Total, foreign countries 87,525 32,162 41,290 33,015 19,385 39,217 22,103 47,596
Grand total, oz. 116,232 52,165 49,972 40,634 26,334 76,011 23,689 48,745

N. Including manufactured platinum.

In 1917, 38,831 oz. of refined platinum metals, of which 7,384 oz. is believed to have been
of domestic origin, were recovered from alloy with other metals, and 72,186 oz. were obtained
from the refining of scrap metal, and sweepings. The shortage was also to some extent
relieved by the receipt from Russia early in 1918 of a special consignment of 20,922 oz. of
crude platinum, which had been collected in 1917 by the Russian-English Bank, and which
was taken out of Russia by F. W. Draper and delivered to the United States Government. It
yielded 17,640 oz. platinum, 64·75 oz. palladium, 182·11 oz. iridium and 48·56 oz. of rhodium,
a total of 85·725 per cent. of platinum metals, slightly above the usual 83 per cent.[65].
Alaska.—The first production of platinum in Alaska was in 1916, in which year about 12 oz.
were shipped to the United States. In 1917 the output rose to 81 oz., of which 66 oz. were
obtained from the Seward Peninsula and 15 oz. from the Copper River country.
In 1918 an increased output of 135 oz. was partly obtained from alluvial deposits and partly
as a by-product in the treatment of copper ore of the Salt Chuck mine, Ketchikan[66].
This mine is a palladium-copper mine containing mainly bornite with a little chalcopyrite,
and the alteration products covellite and chalcocite, the metals present being, besides copper
and palladium, gold, silver and platinum. The ratio of palladium to platinum averages 50 to 1.
The concentrates produced, representing about 3½ per cent. of the weight of the ore, contain:
copper, 40 per cent.; gold, 1·2 oz.; silver, 5·3 oz.; and platinum metals, 3·15 oz. per ton[67].
In the Seward Peninsula the larger portion is derived from placer deposits in Dyme Creek,
Koyuk district, where the gravels are primarily worked for gold, 1 oz. platinum being obtained
for every $5,000 worth of gold. In 1918, 56 oz. were recovered. Bear Creek and Sweepstake
Creek have also supplied small quantities of platinum, and a little is derived from placers on
Boob Creek, in the Tolstoi district [50] p. 19.
A possible source of platinum appears to lie in the neighbourhood of the Red Mountain, on
the Kenai Peninsula. The mountain is composed of fine-grained dunite, in which abundant
chromite occurs. Up to 1917 no placer mining had been attempted in this locality[68].
In the Goodro Mine, at the head of Kasaan Bay, Prince of Wales Island, were found in 1918
both platinum and palladium, the latter in greater amount, and carried in bornite and
chalcopyrite; some chalcocite and covellite are present also in the ore. The copper minerals
are disseminated through pyroxenite, and the country rock consists of limestones, slates and
other sedimentaries. The platinum content is small, but regular, whilst the amount of
palladium present is proportional to the amount of copper, there being about 1 oz. of
palladium to every 8 to 12 per cent. (units) of copper[69].
A Bill has been introduced into Congress providing for the incorporation of the United
States Platinum Corporation, with capital stock of $30,000,000, the object of which is to
secure a concession from the Government of land areas in Alaska containing platinum sands,
and to pay for such privilege, as a royalty or subsidy, one-eighth of the net profits obtained
from the working of the concession[70].
California and Oregon.—Platinum has been proved to exist over a wide area in placer
deposits associated with gold, but the proportion of the platinum metals to the gold is usually
small. Platinum is obtained from sands in streams rising in the belt of serpentine rocks in
central California, and from the serpentine areas in the Siskiyou and Trinity counties in the
north-west of the State, which continue north-east into Curry, Josephine and Jackson
counties in south-western Oregon[52] p. 300. The sources of the platinum obtained along the
foot-hills of the Sierra Nevada were old stream channels on the western slopes of the
mountains, which are now buried beneath lava several hundred feet deep. These “deep leads”
are also mined by drifting for their gold and platinum contents, and in a few cases a fair
amount of the metals is extracted from them. Some platinum is obtained by hydraulic
mining, but this is carried on with difficulty, owing to the prevailing scarcity of water[50] p. 18.
Platinum occurs in black sands found on the Pacific coast in the counties of Coos, Curry
and Josephine, Oregon and Del Norte, California. Formerly these beach deposits were rich in
platinum, but at the present small quantities only are obtainable after stormy weather. This
area has recently been examined by the United States Bureau of Mines, but the results were
disappointing.
In California most of the output of platinum is produced by dredging for gold in the Butte,
Calaveras and Stanislaus counties[50] p. 19. In Trinity county mining is in progress on the
Trinity River, about 4 miles below Junction City, by the Valdos Dredging Co. The output from
this source for sixteen months in 1916–17 was stated to be 1,950 gm. Platinum, with gold and
osmiridium, is also obtained on the Yuba River, about 12 miles east of Marysville in Yuba
county, by the Yuba Consolidated Goldfields[10] p. 540. Some alluvial platinum has been
recovered at the Bean Hill Gold Mine, situated 12 miles south-east of Placerville, and this
locality is at present under investigation[71]. Californian metal contains from 25 to 45 per cent.
iridium. Its origin is believed to be the serpentine- and olivine-bearing rocks of the Sierra
Nevada and other ranges.
In Oregon, in addition to the platinum obtained from the beach deposits near Bullards and
Marshfield[50] p. 20, it occurs in placer deposits, rich in chromite, in south-west Oregon, the
principal output being derived from the Waldo district.
Platinum also exists in small quantities in streams in the neighbourhood of the Blue
Mountains, eastern Oregon, where the Powder River Gold Dredging Co., in Sumpter district,
produces on a small scale. Other platiniferous localities in eastern Oregon are the Granite and
Canyon districts, and Spanish Gulch in Wheeler county[10] p. 541.
Colorado.—Platinum is known to exist in the black sands from Clear Creek. Its presence
has also been reported in the gold gravels of the Iron Hill placer at Como, where it occurs
mechanically combined with magnetite. Another occurrence recently discovered is in a vein
worked by the Rollcall Mining Co., near Villa Grove. An assay of material from this vein,
taken at a depth of 1,500 ft., showed the following values: gold, 3·2 oz.; platinum, 5·09 oz.;
silver, 3·05 oz.; and copper, 3·5 per cent.[9] p. 592.
Nevada.—In 1909 the occurrence of platinum in Clark county was noticed by the United
States Geological Survey to be in association with copper, nickel and cobalt ores from the Key
West and Great Eastern Mines, near Bunkerville. The ore bodies are contained in pegmatites
and basic intrusions, which carry pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite, the platinum content in the ore
averaging about 0·2 oz. per ton[72].
In 1914 platinum, with palladium, was discovered at the Boss Gold Mine, situated 10 miles
west of Goodsprings, in Clark county. The mine was originally worked for copper, and later
for its copper and gold contents. The country rock consists of limestone of middle
Carboniferous age, intruded by sills of quartz monzonite porphyry, the ore bodies occurring
in a fault zone in the limestone. The copper ores comprise mainly chrysocolla and malachite,
and contain traces only of platinum. The gold ore occurs in a fine-grained siliceous matrix,
containing a bismuth-bearing variety of plumbo-jarosite (a hydrous sulphate of iron and
lead). The rare metals are present in the free state, being apparently alloys of gold, platinum
and palladium[73].
In 1919 the Boss Mine shipped $22,365 worth of platinum-bearing ore[74]. A plant of 300
tons monthly capacity has recently been erected at Los Angeles, California, for the treatment
of its complex ores, which average 7 per cent. of copper, 4 per cent. bismuth, and 1·0 oz. of
platinum and palladium, 0·75 oz. of gold, and 3 oz. of silver per ton. The pulp from ore
pulverized to 80 mesh is agitated with sulphuric acid (2 per cent.). The acid solution contains
the copper and about 20 per cent. of the platinum. The copper is precipitated as cement
copper, together with the platinum, by means of scrap-iron. The remainder of the platinum,
together with the gold and silver, is first leached with, and then precipitated from, a neutral
solution of calcium chloride. The inventors of the process claim that approximately 92 per
cent. of the copper, 96 per cent. of the platinum metals, gold and silver, and over 90 per cent.
of the bismuth are recovered by this process[75].
Metals of the platinum group have recently been shown to exist in small quantities in the
ore of the Oro Amigo Mine, situated between 1 and 2 miles north-east of the Boss Mine. This
ore differs from that of the Boss Mine, in that bismuth and plumbo-jarosite are absent.
According to H. K. Riddell, the platinum metals content averages from a trace to 0·1 oz. per
ton of ore.
North Carolina.—At Mason Mountain, in Mason county, platinum occurs associated with
rhodonite, garnet, biotite and iron sulphides in metamorphic deposits.
New York.—It was reported a few years ago that platinum existed in large quantities in
alluvial sands of the Adirondack region. J. M. Clarke, the New York State Geologist, examined
the occurrence in 1917, and found that platinum was present in traces only, the deposits being
of no economic importance [10] p. 541.
Pennsylvania.—At Lancaster county platinum is associated with pyrite, chalcopyrite and
galena in mica-schist, and also at Boyertown in black Triassic shale.
Washington.—The production of platinum on a small scale has been reported from beach
deposits at the mouth of the south fork of the Lewis River near Yacolt, and also on beaches
southward from the Straits of Juan de Fuca[10] p. 542. The metal has also been located at
various places in the Cascade Mountains in the central part of the State.
Wyoming.—Palladium and platinum, in the proportion of 3 to 1, are obtained at the
Rambler Mine, in Albany county, the metals occurring as sperrylite in copper ore, contained
in the kaolinized portion of a dunite dyke, intrusive into granite gneiss. The ore consists of
covellite, chalcocite, chalcopyrite and tetrahedrite, with nickel and gold[76]. It is stated that the
platinum and palladium contents vary directly with the percentage of copper present, a
typical assay giving the following values: copper, 5 per cent.; gold, 0·02 oz.; silver, 1 oz.;
palladium, 0·4 oz.; and platinum, 0·6 oz. per ton[77].
Utah.—Platinum and gold in very fine particles occur in the Green River, east of Vernal;
also in the Colorado River, near Hite, below the mouth of the Green River. Attempts to mine
these deposits have so far proved unsuccessful, due largely to the inaccessibility of the region,
as well as the finely-divided condition of the platinum[42] p. 11.
 SOUTH AMERICA

Brazil

José Vieira do Couto, in 1801, first pointed out that platinum occurs in the sands of the
Lages River, near Conceiçao, Minas Geraes. According to E. Hussak[78], platinum in that
region occurs only in the alluvium of rivers having their rise on the eastern slope of the Serra
do Espinhaço. The platinum is accompanied by black pebbles of quartz-tourmaline rocks,
magnetite, hematite, rutile, octahedrite, xenotime, monazite, senaite, pseudomorphs of rutile
after octahedrite (captivos), zircon and gold, which is sometimes of a copper-red colour
(palladium-gold). Palladic gold was formerly called ouro branco (white gold), by the miners.
At Condado, further north on the eastern slope of the same Serra, platinum also occurs
with very similar associations. The platinum from both localities occurs in bunchy,
mammillated and globular forms, concave within, with thin walls, having a radiated fibrous
structure under the microscope. It is frequently in thin foliated crusts, having the
characteristic structure of hematite. It was accurately described by Wollaston in 1805 and
1809. Hussak thinks the primary formation was an olivine rock, or gabbro, while the
platinum is secondary, having been most probably re-deposited from solutions resulting from
the decomposition of platiniferous pyrites or of sperrylite (PtAs2), minerals derived, possibly,
from the neighbouring schistose quartzite, or from the overlying conglomeratic quartzite.
The platinum of Condado, although comparable, as regards density, to the Russian
platinum, is very rich in palladium, is non-magnetic and contains practically no iron. An
analysis by G. Florence gave the following percentages: insoluble residue, 0·92; platinum,
73·99; iridium, 0·08; palladium, 21·77; iron, 0·10 (= 96·86), undetermined (rhodium and
osmium), 3·14.
In the Rio Abaeté, Minas Geraes, platinum—very different in appearance and chemical
composition from that of the Serra do Espinhaço—occurs in placer deposits, associated with
gold, diamonds and the following minerals: rolled pieces of a hydro-phosphate of barium and
aluminium (gorceixite = “marumbé” of miners), garnet, almandite, pyrope, ashy-blue oxide
of titanium (bagageira—regarded as a good indicator for diamonds), magnetite, chromite
and calcium-titanate (perovskite). Pyroxene-olivine rock, a typical picrite-porphyry, rich in
perovskite, and granular magnetite rocks, rich in titanium, have been observed by Oliveira in
the vicinity. Hence it is highly probable that the platinum, as in the Urals, came from olivine
rocks. The platinum occurs in thin laminæ, strongly rolled, and, rarely, in cubical crystals
with the edges visibly rounded. It is strongly magnetic and contains no palladium. Minute
crystals of osmiridium may occur with those of platinum, and in the platinum particles are
found regular inclusions of osmiridium, as at Nizhne Turinsk, in the Urals, the platinum of
which locality it resembles in chemical composition, magnetic properties and crystalline
structure. The following analysis shows the percentage and composition of a general sample:
insoluble residue, 7·57; iron, 9·62; palladium, trace; copper, trace; platinum metals, 82·81.
The auriferous alluvial of the Cuyabá and Coxim rivers in the southern part of the State of
Matto-Grosso, also contain some platinum. According to Luiz Caetano Ferraz[79], platinum
occurs in the River Coxipó-Mirim, where golddredging is carried on, combined with
palladium, iron, osmium and iridium in small spherical grains, flattened on one side, of a
brilliant white colour and strongly magnetic. It is found in alluvial deposits, associated with
various kinds of quartz and oxides of iron, marcasite, arsenopyrite, rutile, anatase,
almandine, garnet, black tourmaline, monazite, staurolite, white topaz, sphene, cassiterite,
wolfram, graphite, galena and native silver.
In the State of Bahia, platinum has been found in Ituassú, Feira de S. Anna and Serra do
Assuruá, and it is said to occur at Sâo Bartholomeu, and in the Serras do Pitango and
Macahubes[80].
Platinum also occurs in Brazil as rare disseminations in the gold-bearing jacutinga,
intercalated in the itabirites (e.g. at Gongo Socco Mine, long since abandoned). The jacutinga
occurs as narrow bands and nuclei in the itabirites, containing a high percentage of gold, with
much talc, clay and pulverulent pyrolusite. As accessory minerals zircon, rutile, cassiterite
and tourmaline occur. Hussak thinks that the gold-bearing jacutinga has been derived from
altered pegmatite veins.
From analyses made by Johnson (1833–41) on the Gongo Socco bullion, it would appear
that the percentages of silver and platinum decreased while those of copper and palladium
increased with depth (Henwood). The percentages of palladium varied from 3·89 to 4·80, and
that of platinum from 0·04 to 0·12.
At Candonga, gold occurs in an eruptive rock rich in magnetite enclosed in itabirite, and is
probably of contact-metamorphic origin. The gold occurs in grains of high standard, and with
it are found fine indented scales of palladic gold, of a bright copper-red colour.
At Itabira do Matto Dentro gold occurs in jacutinga, lying between a micaceous iron schist,
rich in quartz, and an enormous solid bed of itabirite. The palladium-gold may be copper-red,
dark-brown or silver-white in colour. Native platinum also occurs with the gold.
Grains of platinum have also been found in the most northerly of the auriferous lenticular
masses, which occur near the Bruscus River, near Pernambuco, in Cambrian crystalline
schists. The matrix is a coarse white quartz containing small quantities of the arsenides and
sulphides of iron, and the sulphides of copper, lead and zinc.
Platinum, although widely distributed in Brazil, occurs in such small quantities that so far
there has been no production; but in the near future richer and more extensive deposits may
be discovered, or it may be found practicable to win the metal from those already known, as
an important by-product.
Palladium-gold, or porpezite, is a natural alloy of palladium and gold, and may contain up
to 10 per cent. of the former metal. It is found in Brazil, in gold-washings, and also in the
gold-bearing jacutinga reefs at Gongo Socco, Candonga and Itabira do Matto Dentro. In 1870
Henwood showed that the palladic gold from Gongo Socco contained, to a moderate depth
from surface, from 0·04 to 0·12 per cent. of platinum. (Palladium-gold has also been reported
from gold-washings in the Caucasus, near Batoum.) Ruer concludes, from an examination of
the freezing-point curves of artificial alloys of gold and palladium, that these alloys form a
continuous series of mixed crystals, and that there is no indication of chemical
combinations[81].

Colombia

This republic is the second largest producer of platinum in the world, and in pre-war years
supplied about 5 per cent. of the world’s total output. Owing to the decline of the Russian
supply, and the increased demand for the metal, the industry has in recent years received a
considerable stimulus, and in 1916 Colombia’s production rose to approximately one-third of
the Russian output.
Platinum was first introduced into Europe from Colombia in 1735, although the metal was
known in America for some time previously[48] p. 608. In 1810 the value of platinum stood at
$5 to $6 (U.S.) per oz., and in 1823 the price had further dropped to from $3 to $4 per oz. As
a result, platinum was rejected as waste in the operation of refining gold by the “dry-blowing”
system. Later, when platinum became valuable, much of this dumped metal was recovered,
notably in Quibdo, the capital of the Chocó district, where much gold-refining was carried on.
The following table gives the outputs of crude platinum from Colombia, in recent years,
principally produced in the Chocó district:

Year. Oz. (troy).

1911 12,000
1912 12,000
1913 15,000
1914 17,500
1915 18,000
1916 25,000
1917 32,000
1918 35,000 (estimated)

The larger portion of the production is shipped to the United States, the exports to that
country for the years 1910–18 being as follows:

Year. Oz. (troy).

1910 1,600
1911 5,503
1912 6,627
1913 10,461
1914 12,387
1915 13,121
1916 25,588
1917 21,278
1918 27,030

The crude platinum is estimated at 84 to 85 per cent. fine. The price in 1917 fluctuated from
£16 to £20 10s. per oz., the average for the year being nearer the latter amount.
During 1918 the United States Government fixed the price at $105 per oz., which
stimulated production.
The deposits are alluvial, and consist of re-concentrates of older gravels. The principal
source of supply is at the head of the San Juan River, which enters the Pacific Ocean north of
Buenaventura, the richest deposits occurring in the Condoto, Opagado and Tamanal Rivers,
tributaries of the San Juan[82]. Platinum is also obtained in the Upper Atrato River, which
flows northward to the Caribbean Sea. It is nearly always found associated with gold. In the
gravels of the San Juan River the two metals are present in about equal proportions, and in
those of the Atrato the ratio is approximately 85 of gold to 15 of platinum.
The area including the watersheds of the San Juan and Upper Atrato Rivers is known as the
Chocó district. T. Ospina, Director of the Colombian School of Mines[83], estimates that in the
area are 5,000 sq. miles of gold and platinum deposits, the Mira River forming the southern
boundary of the area. In 1916 he estimated that there were in it 68,000,000 c. yd. of actually
profitable gravel, with a reserve of 336,000,000 yd. of possibly profitable ground. Platinum
has also been recovered in much smaller amounts on the Micay River in the Barbacoas
district, near the frontier of Ecuador. The stream beds in which platinum occurs are those in
which Tertiary conglomerates have become eroded; the river gravels about the areas
underlain by that formation are barren. The conglomerates are composed of rounded
boulders of basic rocks, such as diabase, melaphyre, peridotite and dunite[48] p. 620.
At Novita Vieja, in the centre of the Chocó district, a bed of conglomerate 6 to 12 ft. thick
has been laid bare, over an area 2½ miles long and ½ mile wide, through the sluicing away of
the overlying sands. It contains 0·5 oz. of gold, and 0·5 oz. of platinum, per ton[84]. According
to Castillo, the parent rock is a typical gabbro, pyroxene predominating over the felspar[85] p.
826.
Platinum has been found in the Chocó district in serpentine rock. Granite also occurs in the
same district, traversed by quartz lodes containing palladium, iridium, osmium and rhodium.
Colombian crude platinum contains from 80 to 85 per cent. platinum, the remaining 15 to
20 per cent. consisting chiefly of iridium and osmium. The sands in which it occurs are
described as brown in colour, and carrying, besides platinum and gold, the heavy minerals
chromite, magnetite and ilmenite [85] p. 384.
In the past, mining operations have been very irregularly carried on, by primitive methods
of working, but dredges are now being employed in increasing numbers. In 1915 a dredge was
operated on the Condoto River, in the province of Chocó, by the Anglo-Colombian
Development Company, and showed good results. Native methods of working are very
simple. The alluvial gravels derived from dried-up beds of ancient rivers are hand-washed
with the use of the batea or dish. Where the metal occurs in the bed of a river it is obtained by
diving girls, who work down to the platiniferous gravels, removing the gravel in small dishes,
the men being employed in washing the gravels on the river banks[86]. About 90 per cent. of
the total output is recovered by these primitive methods.
A large portion of the industry is in the hands of two companies, one of which is the South
American Gold and Platinum Company, of New York, a Lewisohn company, which has
absorbed the interests of the above-mentioned Anglo-Colombian Development Company,
Ltd., the Gold Fields American Development Company, Ltd., and Johnson, Matthey & Co.,
Ltd., of London. The second company—the British Platinum and Gold Corporation, Ltd.—has
recently amalgamated with the Paris (Transvaal) Gold Mines, Ltd., taking in the latter’s
interests on the Opogodo and other places.
The question of transporting platinum concentrate to the coast is not a matter of much
difficulty, as the Atrato River is navigable as far as Quibdo, and the San Juan can be ascended
by vessels of moderate draught for over 140 miles inland.
An estimate of average working costs appears to be 6d. per c. yd. for dredging, and 3d. for
hydraulicking[87]. In 1917 new platiniferous deposits were discovered in the Caceres district,
between the Cauca and Nechi Rivers, in the department of Antioquia. The mineralized area
extends along the Caceri River, a distance of 14¼ miles, the width at the north end being 1¼
miles, and 300 ft. at the southern extremity [10] p. 545.

Ecuador

Platinum occurs, in association with the gold obtained from steam gravels, in the area
covered by the Rivers Bogota, Cachabi, Uimbi, Santiago and Cayapas, but it has not so far
been found in sufficient quantities to be of economic importance.
Dredging has been employed in mining these deposits, but does not appear to have been a
success, and operations are now largely confined to native washings[88].
 French Guiana

Platiniferous gold-bearing sands are found in the Aporuague River, the metal, according to
an analysis by A. Danmer, having the following composition in percentages: platinum, 41·96;
gold, 18·18; silver, 18·39; copper, 20·56[89].
WORLD MAP OF PLATINUM DEPOSITS

Map showing the platinum-bearing districts

referred to in the Text.

(British Empire and Protectorates shaded.)

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PRINTED BY
HAZELL, WATSON AND VINEY, LD.,
LONDON AND AYLESBURY,
ENGLAND.
 TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES
1. Footnote [90] (was 64) was unanchored.
2. P. 59, added missing title “WORLD MAP OF
PLATINUM DEPOSITS.”
3. Silently corrected typographical errors and variations in
spelling.
4. Archaic, non-standard, and uncertain spellings retained
as printed.
5. Footnotes were re-indexed using numbers and collected
together at the end of the last chapter.
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