Methods of Teaching

Teaching method is a broad and general term. It covers both teaching strategies
and tactics of teaching.
According to Burton, teaching method is the stimulation, guidance, direction
and encouragement of learning.
Teaching methods are classified under three domains: telling method, Showing
method and doing method.
Lecture

Lecture is a formal talk' given by a trained or experienced teacher, to a large

group student, that definitely include clarification or the explanation of facts
principles or relationships between various Concepts, that are directly related
to the educational objectives.
The term lecturing is used by the most of the people synonymously with lesson
and teaching.
It is a careful presentation of facts with organized thoughts and ideas by a
qualified person. For many reasons, among which tradition, necessity,
convenience and choice are perhaps most important, the lecture continues to
be the most common teaching method.
Talking by teachers alone is a less effective one-way communication. It can be
made more effective by changing into a two-way communication by talking
with students, where questions and answers and discussions become the major
activity.

Definition
Lecture method is the teaching procedure comprising the presentation of
content, clarification of doubts and explanation of facts, principles and
relationships

Purposes of the Lecture Method

 To motivate, sensitize and to stimulate students in their pursuit of learning
objectives
 To introduce a new topic or subject as this method aids in close and
personal contact with the students
 To economically use staff time
 To provide structured knowledge about a determined concept
 To motivate and guide in hunting knowledge
 To arouse the students' interest in a particular subject
 To clarify difficult concepts and stress on main points
 To assist in preparing students for a student for a discussion
 To promote critical thinking
 To influence students
Factors Influencing Planning Lecture
 Learner factors
 Educational back ground of the student
 Previous knowledge
 Class size
 Learning styles.
 Personality and intelligence

Subject Matter Factors

 Domain of the objective
 Content to be learned
 Nature of the content, simple or complex,

Environmental Factors
AV aids
Lighting and ventilation
Noise and climate
Infrastructure facilities
Furniture
Seating arrangements.

Psychological Factors
 Emotion
 Mood
 Memory
 Abstract thinking
 Concept formation.

According to Walters and Marks (1981), there are three kinds of lecture.
They are the 'ideal' or 'pure', the 'classical' and the 'experiential.

1. The ideal lecture:

The participants attend the lecture of their own willing and this implies
commitment on their part. The role of the lecture is to persuade the
audience by virtue of the beliefs and values that are shared by both parties.
Lecture given by the politicians are the example of the ideal lecture.

2. The classical lecture:

In our education system, attendance at lectures is seen as being largely
compulsory, in contrast the ideal lecture. The students attend the lecture,
with
focus of getting good grades and marks and this is more specific in its
subject matter. he experiential lecture: This form of lecture is used prior
 experiential learning and is given to participants to Plain the basic concepts
and explanations about the issue in question.

Strategies to Deliver an Effective Lecture Method

The lecture has to be well organized so that the learners Can follow
throughout the lecture. Planning for a lecture should include the following:
1.Preparation:
-Set the objectives. Teacher, while lecturing, should keep the educational
objectives clearly in her mind.
-Find out if there is a better teaching-learning method to attain the
objectives.
2.Sequencing the lecture:
ldentify the main points that need to be stressed. teacher, while lecturing,
should keep a central Concept of the lecture in mind and its relativity to the
educational objectives.
The concept is to be completed in one delivery.
3.Organizing the material:
Subdivide the lecture under headings. Each concept has to be broken into
simple pieces of information and the sequence of these pieces has to be
maintained
 Select appropriate AV aids
 Plan student preparation and follow-up activities.
 Allow group discussion/buzz session to solve problems and to gain
arousal feedback
 Have a written teaching plan.
3. Delivering the lecture:
 Begin the lecture by arousing interest
 Present aims and objectives of the lecture in the
beginning
 Recognize limitation of time; avoid too much of
material.
 Do not speak fast; 100 words per minute are ideal
 Vary the pace and loudness to avoid monotony
 Use illustrative anecdotes to teach abstract and complex ideas; aim at
concept learning by all the students
 Appear confident, look at the learners, have eye contact and establish
nonverbal contact
 Assess learner response and react accordingly
 Give 2 to 3 minute break between main parts
Do not dictate notes; use handouts or chalk board to convey the outlines
of the lecture
 Present a summary at the end.
4. Steps to improve active participation by learner:
 The following steps may help to activate and hold learner attention.
  Open the lecture with a series of questions that the learners should be
able to answer at the end of the lecture
 Have wider eye coverage of the student Club the lecture with
discussion
 Allow time near the end of the lecture for students to write a summary
of the main presentation or answer a few questions-based on the lecture
 Follow the principles and techniques of questioning.
5. Evaluation of the Effectiveness of the Lecture
 Informal feedback in the class could be sought by noticing student
behavior
 Formal student evaluation helps in assessing the effectiveness of the
lecture.
 Peer evaluation: Opinion of colleagues or supervisors 1s also obtained
to assess the lecture
 Feedback is also obtained by analyzing the video or audio recording of
the lecture.
 On note-taking: Note-taking results in loss of time for reflection and
discussion. Listening without note-taking is the best method, if the
learnt material had immediate use. Duplicating summary (handouts) is
the best method, if the learnt content had to be used at a later period.
Writing down full notes or outline during the lecture is of little use.

Strategies for Delivering a Good Lecture

 Learn how not to read your lectures
 Prepare yourself emotionally for class.

Opening a Lecture
 Avoid a "cold start"
 Minimize nervousness
 Grab students' attention with your opening
 Vary your opening
 Announce the objectives for the class
 Establish rapport with your students.

Capturing Students' Interest

 During class, think about and watch your audience-your students
Vary your delivery to keep students' attention
 Make the organization of your lecture explicit
 Convey your own enthusiasm for the material
 Be conversational
 Use concrete, simple, colorful language
 Incorporate anecdotes and stories into your lecture
  Do not talk into your notes. It you are not not using
lectern and you need to refer to your note cards, raise the cards
 Maintain eye contact with the class
 Use movements to hold students' attention
 Use movements to emphasize an important point or to lead into a
new topic
 Use facial expressions to convey emotions
 Laugh at yourself when you make a mistake
 Keep track of time
 Be humorous
 Use AV aids to stimulate the students.

Mastering Delivering Techniques

 Vary the pace at which you speak
 Project your voice or use a microphone
 Vary your voice pause.
 Watch out for vocalized pauses
 Adopt a natural speaking stance
 Breathe normally.

Advantages of Lecture Method

Lecture, being the oldest method, has its own merits and
demerits.
It is efficient in the sense that one teacher can communicate with a larger
number of students
 A well-presented lecture motivates the students
 It helps a teacher to build a foundation on which students can
construct their own knowledge
 It is good to introduce a new topic
 It enables the teacher to have complete control of the classroom
 It gives the opportunity to have personal contact with the students
 It aids in monitoring the progress of each and every
student by being keen and alert
 Lecture is a highly economical method of teaching, as
it requires very less resources
 It saves time and energy by teaching a large number at
a time
 Lecture makes the students feel secured as they are
under proper guidance from teacher
 It sprawls enthusiasm and interest among the students
 It helps to teach even complex concepts easily by
following a logical sequence
  It is most flexible as the teacher can alter or mold her teaching
according to the needs, interests, level of students, time limit and
nature of subject matter, etc.
 Though many creative and innovative methods of teaching have
come into practice, lecture method remains to be the most prime
method of teaching. No one can deny the importance and vitality of
this technique. We cannot prevent any teacher from using this
method as it is very natural and spontaneous for a real teacher.

Disadvantages of Lecture Method

The fact that 'All teachers are not good lecturers' envisages
that however vital, if not presented properly, the lecture
method may become the most boring one and may not
serve the purpose.
 Lecturing makes the learner more passive in the learning process. Most
of the time, the students do not participate in the learning process,
remaining dormant
 Attention span of the students decreases considerably after 20 minutes
with a reduction of information assimilated
 As ready-made information s being fed to the students, there is no place
for any practical activity, observation, experimentation or
demonstration
 This method pays little attention to needs, interests and abilities of
individual students
 It may leave gaps in understanding, if the teacher is not having very
good communication skills
 Avery monotonous presentation may not be successful in attracting the
students' attention
 Pace of lecture does not suit all students.
 All these demerits are the drawbacks of the lecturer, not the lecture
method. Hence, all these could be overcome easily and the method
could be used more successfully and productively.

Demonstration

Introduction:-
Teachers may use different types of teaching strategies in different teaching
situations for the effective realization of their teaching objective. The
demonstration method teaches by exhibition and explanation and it has utmost
importance in the teaching of nursing. It is an explanation of the process. It trains,
explains the student in the art of careful observation which is essential to a good
nurse.

Definition:-
 Demonstration as a teaching strategy refers to the visual presentation of
the action and activities or practical work related to the facts and principle of a
delivered lesson by the teacher in the classroom, aiming to facilitate the task of
teaching and learning.

Demonstration components:-
Teacher Learner Lesson Equipment/material
Plan, Observe, Experiment, For explanation use
Perform, Understand, Procedure of blackboard, charts,
Evaluate. Do themselves in Activity diagram, picture,
Classroom lab etc. Process slide, transparencies
For demo-specimen,
object, model, film,
equipment.

Use and importance of demonstration:-

1. To demonstrate experiment and procedure, in the classroom and science
laboratory.
2. Make to understand the use of experiment equipment
3. To teach the procedure to the patient.
4. To review procedure to meet a special situation or to introduce a new
procedure.
5. To demonstrate different approaches in establishing support. Ex IPR
6. To establish more efficient nurse-patient relationship.

Essential characteristics of a good demonstration

1. The demonstrator should understand the entire procedure before attempting to
perform for others. This sometimes necessitates review before performance.
2. All equipment should be assembled and pre tested before the demonstration.
This saves time and ensures that the apparatus will be in good working condition.
3. Advance knowledge- The group as well as the demonstrator should have
advance knowledge of the general procedure, its relation to the unit and its
purpose. Otherwise student’s attention will not be focused on the procedure.
4. A positive approach should be used, emphasis should be placed on what to do
rather than what not to do.
5. Everybody should have a good view of the demonstration. i.e group must be
fairly small in size.
6. Running comments- The person in charge of the demonstration should
accompany it with running comments necessary, processes taking place and
anticipated results. If an actual patient is used in the demonstration, explanations
and comments must be regulated accordingly.
7. The setting for the demonstration should be as true to life as possible.
8. A discussion period should always follow the demonstration this affords an
opportunity for re-emphasis, questioning, recall, evaluation and summary while
the procedure is still fresh.
9. Mimeographed direction should be distributed before demonstration to save
time.
10. Prompt practice – The student should be given an opportunity to practice as
soon as possible after the demonstration.
11. Allow sufficient time for reflective critical thought as the demonstration
proceeds.
12. Active participation of the student provides them the adequate opportunities
to handle the things and apparatus connected with demonstration work.
13. The group as well as the demonstration should have advanced knowledge of
the general procedure.

Steps of demonstration (a psychomotor skill):-

1) PLANNING:-
a) Formulate objective.
b) Review knowledge.
c) Assess behavior or need of learner.
d) Formulate lesson plan.
2) PREPRATION BEFORE DEMONSTRATION:-
a) Assemble equipment.
b) Do rehearsal.
c) Outline the step.
d) Arrange for adequate lighting, ventilation, seating, or standing space.
e) Plan seating arrangement if possible.
f) Check the equipment whether in working condition or not.
3) DURING DEMONSTRATION:-
a) State the objective to the learner.
b) Motivate them by explaining why that is important.
c) Set the tone for good communication.
d) Check and keep the article handy or orderly manner.
e) Keep the demonstration simple.
f) Demonstrate the skill in normal speed.
g) Ask the question to get feedback that the student are following or not.
h) Write the sequence of part skill at normal speed and write on blackboard step
by step.
i) Summarize the procedure and provide a concluding summary.
j) Demonstrate termination of procedure.
k) Provide opportunity to ensure prompt practice.
l) Avoid use of negative examples and variation in teaching.
m) Provide opportunity for application or practice.
4) EVALUATION:-
a) Through discussion.
b) Giving test.
 c) Taking return demonstration.

Advantages:-
1. It activates several Senses, provide better learning opportunities.
2. Provide opportunities for developing observational skill clarifies the
underlying by demonstrating the “why” of each step of procedure.
3. Provide opportunity for observation learning, student not only hear the
explanation but also see the procedure or process.
4. It project a mental image on students’ mind.
5. It creates interest by use of concrete illustrations.
6. It correlates theory with practice.
7. It gives an opportunity to teacher to evaluate the student knowledge of
procedure and to determine re-teaching if necessary.
8. Provide an opportunity for well-directed practice.
9. The demonstration method is adoptable to both group individual teaching.
10. It serves as a strong motivational force for the student.
11. Return demonstration by the student under supervision of the teacher
provides an opportunity for well-directed practice before the student must use
the procedure in the ward.

Disadvantages of demonstration method

1. Needs special skills.
2. Not useful if students are inattentive.
3. Teacher may be tempted to waste time in explanation.
4. Student may blindly follow the laboratory manual or procedure sheets.
5. Demonstration strategy only demonstrates the action but not provides actual
opportunities for learning by doing or self-experimentation.
6. All the topics related to various subject cannot be demonstration.

Responsibility of the teacher:-

1. Demonstration accords to student background of knowledge and readiness
for practice of new knowledge.
2. Arrange as demonstration as is live.
3. Select patient or other person to serve as model.
4. Check equipment before demonstration.
5. Study before showing it to others.
6. Provide advance information regarding activity of demonstration.
7. Provide reference material for follow up information.
8. Arrange physical set-up in such a way that observer are comfortable.
9. Give full explanation about
Purpose of activity
Equipment used
Result denied
10. Proceed with each step of activity in logical sequence.
11. Co-ordinate with each step with running comments.
12. Show how various aspects could be modified to meet immediately after
demonstration.
13. Provide opportunity for prompt supervised practice period.
14. Evaluate individual student progress.

Responsibility of the student:-

1. Understand objectives for demonstration.
2. Study written material.
3. Study or observe or handle the equipments used for demonstration.
4. Follow steps being demonstrated along with written information.
5. Identify how activity can be modified to meet individual needs.
6. Ask for clarification of points not understood.
7. Translate observation of demo in return performance.
8. Take opportunity to practice activity.
9. Demonstrate learned activity to other.
10. Ask about feedback.

Discussion
Introduction
A group discussion is a conversation with a focal point, such as a specific topic,
question, concept or problem, in which there is a sincere desire to arrive at a
decision.

Definition
Group discussion is a co- operative, problem solving activity seeks a consensus
regarding the solution of a problem rather than a decision by majority vote.
That is, it is the working together in the search for the solutions of a problem
of common rather than just talking about a topic.

General principles
1. There should be a clearly defined objective which is understood by all the
participants.
2. There should be a leader to guide and coordinate proceedings.
3. The main points in the discussion should be recorded as it is going on either
on the blackboard or by a ‘recorder’ elected by the group.
4. Every one should feel free to participate.
5. Shy person should be encouraged to contribute.
6. All points of view should be fairly considered.
7. Discussion should keep to the point.
8. The discussion should be properly closed with a report, decision,
recommendations or summing up of the matter discussed.
9. The members of the group should come to the conclusion with a basic
knowledge of the topic to be discussed.

Classification of group discussion

 1. Technics which can be used effectively with small group.
This includes:
a) Individual conference
b) Informal class group discussion
c) Clinical conference
d) Seminar
e) Role playing
f) Case- analysis
They are used with groups of not more than 25, so that a face-to-face
relationship is possible.
2. Technics which can be used effectively with large groups.
a) Multiple discussion groups
b) Symposium
c) Panel
These techniques do not permit face-to-face relationships, since they
must be adopted to large groups.

Values of group discussion

1) Group discussion encourages the student to think for herself, to develop
critical habits of study.
2) The teacher can observe the student as she participates in class and can plan
for individual differences.
3) It gives the student an opportunity to learn how to adjust to social
situations.
4) The group benefits because there is a pooling of ideas and harmonizing of
attitudes in the solution of a common problem.
5) Facts and information obtained by direct observation, practice and
experience are contributed by the members of the group.
6) Cooperation in its highest sense is developed.
7) Acquisition of knowledge.
8) Development of skill in discussion.

Steps in group discussion

1) The problem or topic considered must be definitely located, delimited and
defined. So that all members of the group know the purpose of the discussion.
2) Analysis of the problem
Relationship between the cause and effects and the particular use to which the
solution of the problem will be put are considered. Various answers are
proposed by the group and analyzed in order to obtain a tentative solution,
which is then tried out.
3) Results are observed and verified.

Composition of group
 The group leader – one
 The group observer – one
  The group recorder – one
 The group member -15 to 25

GROUP LEADER
Competent leadership is essential to good group discussion. Group discussion
used as a method of teaching may utilize either the teacher or the student as a
leader. The leader of the group is key person.
The major functions of the group leader are:
1) Regulating the discussion
2) Focusing the discussion
3) Guiding the discussion
4) Classifying the discussion
THE GROUP RECORDER
The group recorder makes a record of the salient features of the discussion
and helps the members to recapitulate or correlate with any previous discussion.
The recorder at the end, will read to the group, the draft report of discussion and
obtain the consent of the group.

THE GROUP OBSERVER

The observers job is to use this record in analyzing the behavior of the group
and in making suggestions as to ways in which the group can act differently and
thereby improve it effectively.

THE GROUP MEMBERS

It consists of 15 to 25 members. It is the responsibility of the members,
leader and observer to maintain the atmosphere of the group discussion.

Teachers evaluation of group discussion

The changes in behavior which are generally regarded as desirable changes
that might be expected to occur through the use of group discussion techniques
include,
i. Increased knowledge
ii. Increased intellectual abilities and skills
iii. Increased interests
iv. Changes in attitudes and values
v. Better personal and social adjustment and
vi. Increased cooperation

General guide lines for discussion teaching and learning

These guidelines help the teacher to increase the effectiveness of the method
of teaching and learning.
1. All group members should have a common understanding of the goals
towards which they are working.
2. Procedures which will best help the group to achieve its goals should be
set up by the group itself.
 One of the first steps in establishing effective group procedure will be to
help the students to learn the importance of entering into the discussion
‘what’ and ‘how’
of the discussion.
3. Group members have to learn to become maximally effective in the
performance of skills relevant to their goals.
All members of the students group should be helped to develop the skills
necessary for such shared leadership ex preparing by reading relevant
materials, setting up an agenda, giving support to new members.
4. Possible barriers to effective group action should be considered by the
group and
plans made to avoid or overcome them.
5. All members of the group should participate in all of the aspects of the
group functioning.
All the students should be encouraged to assume all of the various group
role
functions sometimes during the course.
6. Evaluation procedures which will help the group to learn how effectively
they are
working towards the attainment of their goals should be developed by each
group.

Problems in discussion group

The members may be afraid to talk for fear of showing their ignorance.
 Some people don’t like to speak in a group, and avoid being in the
spotlight.
 The people better informed than most of the group will dominate the
discussion.
 The discussion may become very serious.
 The group discussion may go out of track by paying little considerations to
the set objectives.

Seminar
Introduction
A seminar is an instructional technique involves generating a situation for a group
to have guided interaction among themselves on group by one or more members.
The person who presents the theme should have studied the theme thoroughly
beforehand. The collected material is put in the form of paper which is circulated
among the participants in advance or before the paper reading.

Definition
The seminar is a discussion method of teaching in which an informal group of
10-15 students participate to solve problem in a scientific approach and analysis.
Seminar is an instructional technique of higher learning which involves paper
reading on a theme and followed by the group discussion to clarify the complex
aspects of the theme.
Seminars are classes of approximately 15 students each, most commonly used
for upper-level graduate courses, designed to facilitate intensive study of specific
areas
Northern Texas network consortium (2004)

Objectives of seminar
1. COGNITIVE OBJECTIVE
2. AFFECTIVE OBJECTIVE
Cognitive objective: the seminar technique creates the learning situation to :-
- develop higher cognitive abilities like analysis synthesis and evaluation
- develop the ability of responding in this manner that involves higher cognitive
functions like valuing, organizing, characterization, quick comprehension of
the situation, examination of it against the knowledge he possesses and
construction of his reactions to the situation.
- develop the ability of keen observation and to present experiences and
effectively.
- develop the ability to seek clarification and defend ideas of others effectively.
Affective objective: the seminar technique creates the learning situation to:-
- develop the feelings of tolerance to opposite ideas of others and to respect the
ideas of others
- develop the feeling of co-operation with colleagues
- develop emotional stability among participants of seminar
- acquire good manners of putting questions and answering questions
effectively

Requirements of seminar
1. There must be a leader [teacher] and 10-15 participants [students]
2. The topic is presented by the students taking 10-15 minutes
3. Duration of the seminar should be 1-2 hours
4. Leader should keep the discussion within the limits of problem discussed
5. Students present their data in an informal way under the leadership of the
teacher
6. Care should be taken to avoid stereotype
7. All the members have to take part in discussion in an informal way but
orderly in manner
8. A student secretary should record the problem which arise and the
solutions given

Roles of seminar
In organizing a seminar the following roles are performed:
1. Organizer or instructor
2. President or chairman
3. Speakers of the day
 4. Participants
5. Observers
Role of organizer: It is the responsibility of organizer to decide the topic or theme
and assign the different aspects of theme to different persons[speakers]. He also
suggests the name of the convener and prepares total schedule of the seminar.
Role of the president: The participants propose the name of the president. He must
be acquainted with the theme of seminar and must know his rights and duties. He
directs the whole program encourages the participants to take part in discussion
and keeps the discussion on theme. He also take part in discussion and has to
summarize the discussion and may present his view points on the theme. He has
to thank the speakers, participants, guest and observers.
Role of speakers: They prepare the topics thoroughly and Xerox copies of the
papers are prepared and distributed among the participants before commencement
of seminar. He should be ready to defend the questions and should tolerate anti-
ideas or criticism of others.
Role of participants: They should appreciate the performance of the speakers and
should address president for seeking clarifications. They should be able to seek
clarifications and put questions and should place their own ideas regarding the
theme.
Role of observers: They are invited allowed to observe the activities of seminar.
They should be allowed at the end of the discussion to present their observation
by permission of chairman.

Rules for conducting a seminar

 Define the purpose of the discussion
 Relate the topic of discussion to the main concept or objectives to be
obtained
 Direct and focus the discussion on the topic
 Help students express their ideas
 Keep the discussion at a high level of interest so that students will listen
alternatively to those who are contributing ideas
 Plan comments and questions that relate to the topic that will help to guide
a discussion
 Set time limitations for each person to contribute
 Guard against monopoly of discussion by any member of the seminar
 Plan for a summary at intervals during the seminar and also at the end and
relate the ideas expressed to the purpose of discussion
 Have the discussion recorded either by a student as a recording secretary
or have it tape recording
 Plan for teacher and student self-evaluation of progress made towards the
immediate objective

Procedure of the seminar

Seminar as an instructional technique involves creating a situation for a group to
have guided interaction. The topic prepared is circulated among the members in
advance. This helps structure the theme, facilitates its communication and focuses
the scope for discussion. After the theme is presented it is discussed by the group.
During the discussion:
 Seek clarification of the theme presented
 Make observations in the light of their knowledge and experiences
regarding theme
 Raise issues relating theme for further analysis and evaluation
Proceedings of the seminar will be guided by a chairman who may be
knowledgeable about the theme. The chairman’s role is to keep the discussion on
track. Main purpose of the presentation is to initiate the discussion.
When there is an agreement of ideas among individual members, there will be a
reinforcing effect on the individual’s view of theme. And opposite thinking
induces further thinking among participants. In either case individual is benefitted
as he is either lead to further analysis and evaluation of his view points or helped
in validating or strengthening them.

Types of seminar
On the basis of levels of organization, the seminars are of four types:
1) Mini seminar
2) Main seminar
3) National seminar
4) International seminar
Mini seminar: A seminar organized to discuss a topic in class is known as mini
seminar. The purpose is to train students. It is also organized before main seminar.
Main seminar: Such seminars are organized at departmental levels or institutional
levels on a major theme and are organized weekly or monthly. All students and
staff members take part in such seminars.
National seminar: These are organized by an association or organization at
national level. The experts are invited on the theme of the seminar.
International seminar: Generally, such seminars are organized by UNESCO and
other international organizations. The topic or theme will be very broad.

Essentials for seminar

 Clear formulation of realistic goals.
 A permissive atmosphere conductive to full participation.
 Planning in terms of time and resources available.
 Work on specific problem rather than broad general problem area.
 Participation by each group member.
 Physical condition so that each member seen and heard.
 Opportunity of members to get acquainted.
 This technique demands maturity in terms of language, social and
emotional make up and the facility to deal with abstraction.
Advantages of seminar
1) Role of student is active.
2) The seminar teaches the method of scientific analysis.
3) The group as a whole and the individual students will try to solve the
problem.
4) Exchange of facts and the attempt to crystallize the group opinion which
is sound and workable.
5) The students develop a more critical point of view and more organized
scientific approach towards issue.
6) The students develop skill in problem solving.
7) Seminar gives training in self learning and promotes independent
thinking.
8) Ability to see and solve our own problems is increased because personal
difficulties can be compared with those of the group.
9) Seminar promotes group spirit and co-cooperativeness.

Disadvantages of seminar
I. Time consuming
II. Cannot be applied to new students
III. Timid students cannot improve
IV. If subject knowledge is poor unnecessary discussion arises
V. The approach to problems extends to their professional and personal
activities

Limitations of seminar
 A seminar cannot be organized on all the content of a subject matter. Some
topics are highly structured.
 The technique can be used only for higher level of education
 The discussion confines only few persons rather than whole group
 During discussion groups are formed in two ideas and they try to win over
the other
The instructional situations for seminar are not always conductive of learning

Symposium

Introduction
Symposium is a discussion technique used for large groups, one of the techniques
of higher learning. It is used to achieve higher cognitive and affective objectives.
The word symposium has several dictionary meanings, firstly Plato has used this
term for ‘good dialogue’. Another meaning is intellectual recreation or
enjoyment. The recent meaning of the term is a meeting of persons to discuss a
problem or theme. The specific aspect of the theme is presented by an expert of
the theme.
Definition
The symposium is a method of group discussion in which two or more persons
under the direction of chairman present separate speeches which gives several
aspects of one question.
Symposium is a collection of opinions expressed or articles contributed by several
persons on a given subject or topic.

Objectives of symposium
 To identify and understand two various aspects of the theme or problem
 To develop the abilities of decision making and judgment regarding a
problem
 To develop the values and feelings regarding a problem
 To enable the listeners to form policies regarding a theme or problem

Purposes of symposium
1. To investigate a problem from several point of view
2. To boost students ability to speak in group
3. To make students to study independently

Mechanism of symposium technique

The chairman of the topic symposium introduces the topic, suggests something
of its importance, and sometimes indicates the general approaches. Then two or
more speakers, talk from ten to twenty minutes, develops individual approaches
or solutions to a problem. The speeches are followed by questions or comments
from audience.
All members of the performing group can sit in a straight line with the chairman
in the middle. If the symposium is to present two conflicting points of view, the
seating arrangements can be separate in order to indicate difference in opinion or
in order to preserve peace.

Techniques of symposium
 The teacher should plan the program ahead of time.
 Each member should know the objectives of symposium and breadth of the
topic.
 Each student should prepare on given topic.
 The teacher should have a conference with each of the student speaker.
 The teacher or a student may function as a chairman.
 The symposium starts with the chairman introducing the topic.
 The chairman introduces the speakers too.
 Then the topic is presented by the speakers taking 15-20 minutes.
 At the end the chairman gives a brief summary of the speeches as a
conclusion and opens the discussion to the students.
 Any questions or contributions are addressed through the chairman.
Characteristics of symposium
 It provides the broad understanding of a topic or problem.
 The opportunity is provided to the listeners to take decision about the
problem.
 It’s used to higher classes to specific themes and problems.
 It develops feeling of co-operation and adjustment.
 It provides different views on the topic of symposium.
 The higher educational objectives such as synthesis, evaluation and
creativity are achieved by employing this technique.

Precautions for symposium

Firstly, the moderator should see that the speakers are prepared, knows the rules
and sequence of speeches and are aware of the ideas and backgrounds of other
performers and they might benefit from a brief warm up.
Secondly, the chairman should not attempt to stack the cards by ignoring vital
phases of the problem as he selects or delegates his speakers.
Thirdly, the chairman must plan very carefully for the questioning period that
follows the prepared speeches

Advantages of symposium
1. It is suited to large group or classes.
2. This method can be frequently used to present broad topics for discussion at
and conventions and organizing meetings.
3. Organization is good because of the set speeches prepared beforehand.
4. Gives deeper insight into the topic.
5. Directs the students to continuous independent study.
6. This method can be used in political meetings.

Disadvantages of symposium
1. Inadequate opportunity of all students to participate in the discussion.
2. The speeches are limited to 15-20 minutes.
3. Limited audience participation.
4. Questions and answers limited to 3 or 4 minutes.
5. Possibility of overlapping of subjects.

Scope for the use of symposium

The symposium technique is used to realize the higher cognitive and affective
objective. The following are the main topics of education on which symposium
are used:
 Use of television for education
 Scope of distance education in education
 Use of essay and objective type tests
 Semester system in education
  Quality control of educational research
 Use of micro teaching in teacher- education
 Use of team teaching in the schools
 Use of action research in classroom teaching
 Scope of educational technology in our education

Limitations of symposium
1. The chairman has no control over the speakers as they have full freedom to
prepare the theme.
2. There is a probability of repetition of content because every speaker
prepares theme as a whole.
3. The different aspects of a theme are presented simultaneously. Therefore,
the listeners are not able to understand theme correctly.
4. The listeners remain passive in the symposium because they are not given
the opportunity to seek clarification and put questions.
5. The discussion and presentation of the theme are not summarized at the end.
The participants take decisions according to their own. Hence mature
persons can make use of this technique.
6. This technique is employed to achieve the higher objectives of cognitive
domain but the affective objectives are not emphasized properly.

Panel discussion

Introduction
Panel is a discussion in which a few persons carry on a conversation in front of
the audience. The discussion provides the equal opportunities in the instructional
situations to every participant.
Panel discussion is a specific format used in a meeting, conference or convention.

Definitions
“Panel discussion is a discussion in which a few people carry on a conversation
in front of the audience.” -R. Sudha
“The panel method is a discussion in which 4-8 persons who are qualified to talk
about the topic, sit and discuss a given problem or the topic, in front of large
group or audience.” - Prof. Harry A Overstreet

Purposes
 It stimulates thoughts and discussion and clarifies thinking.
 It influences the facts, opinions and plans
 It influences the audience to an open minded attitude and respect
 It can be helpful to stimulate discussion and developing group opinions.

Characteristics
 To organize teaching at reflective level.
 Develops the ability for problem solving.
 Helps to understand the nature, problem and theme for discussion.
 Develops ability of presentation of theme.
 Helps in creative thinking.
 Develops right type of attitude.

Types of panel discussion

1. Public panel discussion: It is used for common man. It is used to provide factual
information regarding current problem. It determines social values of current
issues.
Example- Unemployment, Annual Budget, Job delinking, Increase in prize of
things.
2. Educational panel discussion: It is used in educational institutions. It is used
to provide conceptual knowledge and clarification of certain theories and
principles. It provides solution of certain problems.
Examples- Scope of educational technology in our country, examination reform,
population education etc.

Members of panel discussion

1. Instructor:
 Plays an important role in panel discussion.
 Plan how, when and where the panel discussion organized.
 Prepare the schedule for panel discussion.
 Rehearsals also planned.
2. Moderator:
 Keeps the interaction on theme and encourage interaction among members.
 Summarizes and highlights the points.
 Should have mastery over the theme or problem of the discussion.
3. Panelists:
 There are 4-10 panelists in the discussion.
 Members sits in the semi-circle shape in front of the audience.
 The moderator sits in the middle of the panelists.
 All the panelists should have mastery over the topic.
4. Audience:
 Audience are allowed to put questions and seek clarification.
 They can put forward their point of view and their experience regarding
the theme.
 The panelists clarify the doubts.

Procedure
1. Part A- Putting a panel together
2. Part B- Planning a panel discussion
3. Part C- Moderating a panel discussion
1. PUTTING A PANEL TOGETHER PART -A
1. Select a topic
2. Recruit variant participants
3. Invite a moderator
4. Plan the physical setup
2. PLANNING A PANEL DISCUSSION PART -B
1. Figure out the goals of the panel
2. Decide how long the panel should last
3. Consider starting with individual lectures
4. Try to avoid visual presentations
5. Write questions for the panelists
6. Plan out the rest of the panel
7. Introduce the panelists to each other in advance
3. MODERATING A PANEL DISCUSSION PART-C
1. Convince people to sit in the front row
2. Briefly introduce the panel and each participant
3. Involve the audience early
4. Ask the panelists the prepared questions
5. Follow through with your own questions as necessary
6. Get a timekeeper
7. Keep the panelists on task
8. Collect questions from the audience
9. Thank everyone involved

Advantages of panel discussion

 Encourages social learning.
 Higher cognitive and affective objectives are achieved.
 Used to develop ability of problem solving and logical thinking.
 Develops capacity to respect others ideas and feelings and ability to
tolerate.
 It provides opportunities to assimilation of theme and content.

Disadvantages of panel discussion

1. One member of the group can dominate the discussion.
2. There is the possibility to split the group in two subgroups.
3. There are chances to deviate from the theme of discussion.
4. If panelists belong to different groups, it may not create appropriate
learning situation.

Limitations
Chances to deviate from theme at the time of discussion.
Some members dominate the discussion and do not provide the opportunities to
participate others.
Possibility to split the group in two subgroups. i.e. for and against the theme.
 Programmed Instruction

Origin of programmed instructions:

Programmed learning emerged out of experimental research on operant
conditioning. It incorporates all the principle of reinforcement theory or operant
conditioning, to effect behavioral changes in successive approximation to the
desired goal.

History in programmed learning:

Chronologically, the Greek philosophers Socrates is said to be the first
programmer who developed a program in geometry which was recorded by his
disciple Plato I the dialogue ‘Manu.’
B.F. Skinner (in middle of fifties) developed a theory of learning i.e. operant
conditioning. Some consider Skinner the “father of programmed instruction”

Definition:
Abruzzee, 1996: ‘a self-contained instructional activity that allows learners to
progress themselves and at their own pace.’
Orlich, et.al, 2001: Programmed Instruction is the teaching technique that
provides the learners with the ‘small, discrete increments of instruction plus
immediate reinforcement for correct responses’.
Other associated terms: mini course, self-instructional package, individualized
learning activities, etc.
Kochhar, S.K., 1992: It is the kind of learning in which a ‘program’ takes place
of a tutor for the student, and leads him through a set of frames of specified
behaviors designed and sequenced to make it more probable that he will behave
in a given desired way.
It is a learning method in which a student works from known to unknown, from
familiar to unfamiliar.

Programmed instruction in nursing

The theoretical knowledge of programme instruction is essential to use it as
feedback device for the modification of teacher behaviour in nursing education
program.

Characteristics of programme instruction

Some of the major characteristics of programmed instructions are:
 The subject matter is broken down in to small steps called frames and
arranged sequentially.
 Frequent response is required of the student
 There is immediate confirmation of right answer or correction of wrong
answer given by the leaner i.e “Self-correcting feature”
  The content and sequence of the frames are subjected to actual try out with
students and are revised on the basis of data gathered by the programmer.
i.e “diagnostic feature”
 Each student progress at his own pace without any threat of being exposed
to any humiliation in a heterogeneous class.
 The assumptions about the learner are clearly stated in the programmed
learning materials.
 The objectives underlying programming are defined explicitly and in
operational terms so that the terminal behaviour is made observable and
measureable.
 An interaction is emphasized between the learner and the program in
programmed learning.
 In programmed material continuous evaluation is possible by the record of
student’s responses.
 The strategy provides sufficient situation for teaching the students to make
discrimination among range of possibilities and to reduce generalization.

Principles of programmed learning

1. Objective Specification:
The program designer must determine the goals or objectives of the learning
programme i.e. the defining of knowledge skills and attitudes (terminal
behaviour) that the student is expected to acquire through completion of the
program.
2. Logical sequence of small steps:
Subject matter is broken down into fragment of information, is arranged in an
orderly sequence of growing difficulty so that the student may progress
steadily from one point in the program to the next.
It will help in the logical, deliberate development of the learning material,
simplify the acquisition of knowledge, it also tends to reduce the number of
errors.
3. Active Responding:
In order for learning to occur a response must be made by the learner.
Programming does not only present the matter to the learner but it also induces
sustained activity. The learner remains busy and active when he works on the
programme.
This is of two types: Overt responding and covert responding.
Overt responses: an observable response.
Covert responses: an unobservable response.
Both types of responses are active responses and are equally important.
4. Self-pacing:
The principle of self-acing incorporates the concept of individualized
instruction.
5. Immediate feedback:
As soon as a student makes each response, the program informs him of his
correctness or incorrectness.
Assumptions of programmed instruction
 A learner learns better by being active.
 A student learns better if he is motivated to learn by confirming his
responses
 A student learns better if he commits minimum errors in his learning.
 A student learns better if the content matter is presented in small steps.
 A student learns better if the sequence of the content is psychologically
valid.

Styles of programming:
1. Linear or Extrinsic Style
2. Branching or Intrinsic Style.
3. Computer Assisted Instruction.

LINEAR or EXTRINSIC STYLE:

The Linear style of programming was developed by Prof. B.F. Skinner of
Harvard University during 1950s. This is also known as the ‘Skinnerian style of
programming.’ This technique is based on the principle that the learner’s original
response should be gradually altered or shaped until he meets some standard of
acceptable performance.
The frame contains two sets, out of which some key word is missing. After
reading the frame, the student writes the answer. The moment he makes the
response he is given an answer.
For example: Just as the moon is a satellite of the Earth, the earth is also a
______ of the Sun, since it _______ the Sun. (satellite, circles.)

Features of linear programming

1. Information is presented in small steps.
2. Linear arrangement:
Linear means proceeding in a straight line. In this the learners proceed in a
single series of short steps. Learners have to pass through the same fixed
sequence of frames determined by the programmer. The learner starts from
initial to the terminal behaviour following the unalterable, preplanned
sequences.
1 2 3 4 5 6
3. Responses are controlled:
The responses and their order are fixed by the programmer. Learner has no
choice of his own to respond in his own way.
4. Response is Emphasized:
Emphasis is laid on the response. The learner must respond to each and every
step/frame for learning to occur.
5. Immediate Feedback:
 As soon as the learner responds to the frame, he can immediately compare his
response with answer provided at left hand side or foot.
6. Prompting:
A prompt is an additional stimulus in the frame which helps the learner to
respond correctly. Prompts, hints or cues are given at the beginning so that no
time is wasted to find out the correct response.
7. Active Participation:
The learner has to conduct responses for every frame.
Self-pacing:
Every learner proceeds at his own pace through the program without being
forced to work with the speed of other class members.
8. Self-constructed responses: Learner has to construct his own responses.
9. Discouraging cheating: In this model cheating is discouraged by hiding the
responses from the learner. Cheat proof teaching machines have been
developed through which self-instructional programmed material can be
presented to the learner.

Types of linear programming

 Construct response: In this type learner has to construct response while
going through such format of the programme text.
 Multiple choice questions: In this type selected a response on each
frame sequence type of programme.
 Conventional chaining: In this type of formats each frame is connected
to a second frame which becomes a part of stimulus of the third and so
on the down line.
 Criterion frame: This is used to direct the learner along linear path
according to their responses at those critical situations. The creation
frames decide whether the student should go through the particular
sequence or not.
Example – When a man pulls an object, he is said to be working. Work
is therefore accomplished when an object is moved.
 Ruleg system: The content is organized in terms of rules first and then
the examples. The rule is given a complete form and the examples are
in incomplete form. A learner has to construct responses to complete
the example
 Egrule system: It is the opposite of the Ruleg system. The content is
organized in terms of examples and then the rules. The examples are
given in complete form and the rules in incomplete form

Limitations
1. Lack of motivation
2. No freedom of choice.
3. Tendency to guess.
4. Use in limited areas.
5. Serial order learning.
 6. No question of searching material

BRANCHING or INTRINSIC STYLE

Originated by Norman A. Crowder and is called Crowderian Style.
Definition: A program which adapts to the needs of the students without the
medium of extrinsic devices such as computer.
This style of programming is called intrinsic because here in the learner within
himself makes the decision to adapt the instructions to his needs according to his
background of the subject.
Principle: The underlying principle is that different students need different
instructional materials and that students can learn from their own errors.
In this system, the student is given a problem and a number of answers, out
of this one answer are correct. When a student selects the answer he is directed
to a specific frame. This frame shows him if his answer is wrong and why it is
wrong. Then the frame takes him to the first question so that the answer may be
given again or it will direct him to a sub-program and will help him to get the
basic knowledge for answering the question. Depending upon the answers he
gives, the student may branch ahead, or may branch backward and secure further
explanations or move ahead to next step.

A wire or any RESPONSE RIGHT RESPONSE

substance that will CONDUCTOR
carry or conduct
electric current is
called ____________

NEXT FRAME
WRONG
INSULATOR

WHY
Because, insulator is a
substance that does
carry or conduct
electric current.

Features of branching style/Structure

1. In this, a larger frame is used and much information is presented at each
step.
2. Multiple choice questions are asked. Each response to the question is keyed
to different pages.
3. The learner has freedom to choice for his own path of action. He controls
the exact sequence that he will follow.
4. Learners are more alert and concentrate on the subject matter more
carefully.
5. Detection and correction of error is emphasized.
 6. The material is presented to each student is continuously and directly
controlled by the learner’s performance in answering questions.

Technique of branching programme

 Backward programme: If the learner makes an error he has to be taken
to the remedial frame where he has given some more help
understanding the concept and solving the problem then he will be
directed to the original frame number one. So the learner goes through
the same frame twice i.e once before the remedial materials.
 Forward branching: Here whether the learner is making correct
response or wrong response he will be going to the next or new page if
he makes wrong choice he is directed to remedial frame where his
mistakes are fully explained, followed by another question from which
he goes to next frame in the main stream.

Limitations
1. Guessing
2. Infinite branching cannot be provided
3. Cost of preparation high.
4. Cannot be used below grade 5
5. No guarantee that pupil have learnt everything.

COMPUTER-ASSISTED INSTRUCTION
It consists of individual learning booths, each with a comfort. It has a television
screen for displaying information. A complete package of information is stored
in the system and is presented sequentially. The student may question the
computer and feed the answer into it.

Stages of programme development

1. Preparation
 Viewing the programme on any topic
 Deciding to prepare a programme
 Selecting a topic
 Prepare a content outline
 Specification of objectives in behaviour terms
 Specification (Assumption about learner)
 Preparation of pre-test
 Expected performance of the learner at the end of a course
 Preparation of post-test i.e preferably criterion test.

2. Writing the program

 Present the material in frames
 Active responding
 Confirmation of responses
 Careful sequencing of frames
  Selection of paradigm of program

3. Evaluation/ Validation.
 Try out and revision
 Individual tryout
 Small group try out
 Master validation
 Editing, reviewing, and modifying the programme for final preparation
based on fruits of try out.

Advantages of programmed instruction

1. The certain intellectual abilities and motor skills can be efficiently taught with
the help of drills and memorization functions.
2. It teaches effectively the discernment of logic of various disciplines and
inspiring students to creative thinking and judgment.
3. The good teachers are freed from the routine class room activities and can now
devote their time to creative activities.
4. Problems of discipline are automatically solved.
5. They cater to the needs of individual students.
6. It enables the teacher to diagnose the problems of the individual learner.
7. The novelty of learning in this manner provides in itself a motivation.
8. A single good program can be used by a number of students.
9. Immediate feedback sustains the motivation of the student.
10.In this, the complexity of the subject matter into small and more easily
assimilated segments of information.

Criticism/Disadvantages
1. It produces regimentation and limits creativity of the learner.
2. The impersonal form causes the student to experience dehumanization in
school.
3. It limits the student’s line for reflecting, guessing and feeling like a person.
4. It is a single answer approach which makes knowledge seem fixed and orderly
which is wrong.
5. Cost- Developing instructional materials can be expensive and time
consuming. Also, students need to have access to appropriate materials and
technologies.
6. Lack of repetition- Programmed instruction provides students with limited
exposure to new material. Frequently a learner is exposed to new material only
once. Also, programmed instruction tends to have a static sequence which is
not appropriate for all learning contexts. Also, students learning may be
interfered with because of repeated exposure to similar problem types or
sequence of problem types (i.e., serial learning).
7. Ignoring frequency of behavior- Most behaviors are measured based on
accuracy (i.e., percent correct) and not on the repeated occurrence of a
behavior when presented with a similar problem.
8. Failure to shape behavior- It is unclear if programmed instruction is
successful in reinforcing successive approximations of a target behavior.
9. Branched programming instruction is complex- It is not possible for even the
most advanced computer technologies to maintain a true branching structure
(i.e., accounting for all possible outcomes) for extended learning activities.
10.Lack of diversity of methods for presentation of and response to new material-
Programmed instruction frequently requires students to read a fact and then
write an answer. It may be more effective to employ a broader range of stimuli
and evoke a broader range of responses from students in order to insure that
they are learning efficiently.

Applications of programmed learning

 In education
 Industrial Application
 Use in Military
 Correspondence Courses
 Agricultural Practices
 Use in banks
 Vocational Training and Psychotherapy
 Programmed Instruction for exceptional handicapped children.

Problem based learning

Introduction
Problem based learning is a student-centric instructional strategy where students
collaboratively solve problems and reflect on their experiences.

Definition
According to DJ Boud (1985) – The principal idea behind problem-based learning
is that the starting point should be a problem, a query or a puzzle that the learner
wishes to solve.

Problem based learning includes the following components:

-Non-lecture format with the teacher as a facilitator
-The presentation of real world situation or problem that expand on previous
learning
-Student group work and discussion
-Student –directed solution of the problem

Problem-based learning is guided by a constructivist framework that emphasizes

problem solving should occur in the same environment as the problem, the
presence of a problem is what starts and guides the learning process and
determines how the problem is solved, and knowledge is expanded through group
discussion and collaboration.
Use of problem-based learning
-Acquiring subject matter knowledge
-Motivating students to learn
-Helping students with retention
-Developing students thinking skills
-Developing students key skills relevant to employment such as interpersonal
communication skills
-Fostering professional competence and confidence together with professional
identity
-Mirroring the interdisciplinary team process graduates will use in work and
research
-Facilitating students how to learn
-Encouraging students to integrate knowledge from different subjects,
disciplines and sources.
-Linking theory and practice
-Having a sense of belonging and friendship
-Having a sense of fun while learning
-Expressing in operational form a philosophy of learning that is student-centric
and problem focused.

Common features of problem – based learning

- Learning is initiated by a problem
- Problems are based on complex, real-world situations
- All information needed to solve the problem is not given initially
- Student’s identify, find and use appropriate resources
- Students work in a permanent group
- Learning is active, integrated, cumulative and connected

The problem-based learning cycle/Process

Problem-based learning consists of the following steps:
1. Presentation of problem
2. Organize ideas and prior knowledge (What do you know)
3. Pose questions (What we need to know)
4. Assign responsibility for questions, discuss resources
5. Research questions, summarize, analyze findings
6. Reconvene, report on research
7. Integrate new information, refine questions
8. Resolution of the problem (How did we do)
 1. Applying (planning
effective use of learning)

5. Generalizing
(developing real-world 2. Experiencing
principles) (activity phase)

4. Processing 3. Sharing (exchanging

(discussing patterns and reactions and
dynamics) observations)

Steps of the problem – based cycle

Advantages of problem-based learning

-Relates to real world and motivate students
-Requires decision making or judgements
-A multistage process
-Designed for group solving
-Poses open-ended initial questions that encourage the discussion
-Incorporates course content, objectives, higher –order thinking and other
skills.

Disadvantages of problem-based learning

-Students may not be motivated
- Use of books by students may not be there in this method
- The teacher should have good knowledge and should be experienced

Microteaching

Introduction
The art of teaching does not merely involve a simple transfer of knowledge from
one to other. Instead, it is a complex process that facilitates and influences the
process of learning.
Quality of a teacher is estimated on how much the students understand from
his/her teaching.

Definition
▪ Allen, D.W (1966): Micro-teaching is a scaled down teaching encounter in class
size and class time.
▪ Allen,D.W. and Eve,A.W. (1968): Micro-teaching is defined as a system of
controlled practice that makes it possible to concentrate on specified teaching
behaviour and to practices teaching under controlled conditions.
▪ Bush,R.N (1968): Micro-teaching is a teacher education technique which allows
teachers to apply clearly defined teaching skills to carefully prepared lessons in a
planned series of 5-10 minutes encounter with a small group of real students,
often with an opportunity to observe the result on video-tape.

Basic concepts
▪ Microteaching is a teacher training technique for learning teaching skills. It
employs real teaching situation for developing skills and helps to get deeper
knowledge regarding the art of teaching.
▪ The Stanford technique involved the steps of “plan, teach, observe, re-plan,
re- teach and re-observe”
▪ Effective student teaching should be the prime quality of a teacher. As an
innovative method of equipping teachers to be effective, skills and practices of
microteaching have been implemented.

Efficient technique and effective teaching

 Microteaching can be practiced with a very small lesson or a single concept
and a less number of students.
 The modern-day multimedia equipment such as audio–video recording
devices has a key role in the learning process.
 Microteaching helps in eliminating errors and builds stronger teaching
skills for the beginners and senior teachers.
 Microteaching increases the self-confidence, improves the in-class
teaching performances, and develops the classroom management skills.

Features of micro-teaching:
1. Micro-Element:
▪ Micro teaching reduces to complexities of the teaching situation in terms of
students, duration of the lesson and subject matter to be taught so as to enable
the trainee to concentrate on the training process.
▪ Training is also given in the mastery of only one skill at a time. One should
master the components of the task of teaching before he attempts to perform
effectively the complicated task of teaching at macro-level.
2. Teaching Skills and Teaching Strategies:
(i) Pre-Instructional Skill:
This involve writing of instructional objectives, sequencing and organising
knowledge to be presented in order to achieve specific objectives, appropriate
content, proper organisation, selection of proper audio-visual aids etc
ii) Instructional skills:
Like skills of introducing a lesson, skills of explaining and illustrating,
reinforcement, probing questions, reinforcing pupil participation, diagnosing
pupil’s difficulties etc.
(iii) Post-Instructional skills:
Like skills of writing test items, interpreting pupils, performance in a test,
planning remedial measures etc.
3. The feed-back Element:
In the present system of assessing the teaching competency of the trainees,
feedback is given by the supervisor.
(a) Oral feedback by the supervising teachers.
(b) Observation schedules filled in by the peer group participating in the
micro- lesson
(c) Audio-tape recording is a source of accurate feedback.
(d) Video-tape recording provides the most accurate and powerful source of
feedback.
4. Safe Practice Ground:
A micro-teaching laboratory appears to possess all the inherent features of the
classroom.
5. The Teaching Models:
The trainees have many opportunities to study the desired patterns of behaviour
through a tape or film of teaching models or a demonstration given by the
supervisor.

Principles underlying micro-teaching

1. Principle of One Skill at a Time:
In Micro-Teaching, training of one skill is given till the person has acquired
mastery over it. Then the second skill is taken up and so on. Thus, we find that
Micro-Teaching is based on the principle of giving training of one skill at a
time.
2. Principle of Limited Contents:
Micro-Teaching, limited contents are taken up and the teacher is required to
use those contents only. It helps the beginner teacher teach that limited material
easily and confidently.
3. Principle of Practice:
Micro-Teaching is based on the sound principle of practice. Here lot of practice
is given by taking up on is skill at a time. Practice makes a man perfect. It helps
the pupil- teacher in becoming better and better.
4. Principle of Experimentation:
The pupil-teacher and the supervisor conduct experiment on teaching skills
under controlled conditions. Variables like time duration of the lesson, contents
of the lesson to be taught, number of students sitting in the class etc., can be
easily controlled.
5. Principle of Immediate Feedback:
The micro lesson lasts for four or five minutes only. Thereafter, feedback is
provided to the pupil-teacher. It helps the pupil-teacher to know his drawbacks
and improve them effectively without any delay.
6. Principle of Evaluation:
In Micro-Teaching, each micro lesson is supervised by the supervisor or the
peers. Drawbacks in teaching are pointed out and suggestion for improvement
is given. Self-evaluation is also possible. Thus, evaluation ensures good
learning by the pupil-teacher.
7. Principle of Continuity:
 Learning of different skills of teaching is a continuous process in Micro-
Teaching programme. The pupil-teacher is learning one skill at a time and
learning continues till he has mastered the skill. For each skill, the principle of
continuity is implied. It makes the teacher good and effective.
8. Principle of Individualised Training: In Micro-Teaching, each trainee is
given training very thoroughly. There is individual attention by the supervisor.
The drawbacks in teaching are pointed out, suggestions given one by one and
thus improvement is brought about.

Characteristics of micro-teaching
1. It is a teacher training technique and not a method of classroom instruction.
2. It is micro in the sense that if scales down the complexities of real teaching.
(a) Out of contents, a single concept is taken up at a time.
(b) Only one skill at a time is practiced.
(c) Size of the class is reduced and thus the number of students is just 5 to 7.
(d) Duration of each micro lesson is 5 to 7 minutes.
3. Feedback is provided immediately after the completion of the lesson.
4. The use of Video Tape and Closed Circuit Television makes the observation
very objective.
5. It is highly individualized training device.
6. There is a high degree of control in practicing a skill when this technique is
used.
7. Micro-Teaching is an analytic approach to training.
8. Micro-Teaching involves actually teaching a real lesson to real pupils with
none of the role-playing of earlier modelled teaching situations.

Components of micro-teaching
(i) A teacher,
(ii) The pupils (usually 4 or 5),
(iii) A brief lesson,
iv)The objectives of the specific Micro-Teaching occasion,
(v) Feedback by the supervisor, or by using audio tape recordings, video tape
recordings and closed circuit television.

Steps of Micro-teaching
1. A particular skill is defined to students in terms of specific teaching
behaviours. 2. The teacher-educator can be given a demonstration lesson where
the particular skill is employed.
3. The pupil-teacher then pre-decided model on a suitable topic relating to the
particular skill which he proposes to practice.
4. The pupil-teacher teaches the lesson to a small group of pupils; preferably
of peer group is a simulated condition.
5. Feedback is provided immediately to the pupil-teacher by audiotape or
video-tape recorder.
 6.The observation schedule maintained by the college supervisor and peer
group observers can provide useful information for the feedback session. This
session is sometimes called ‘critique session.”
7. The revised lesson is re-taught to a different but comparable group of pupils.
8. The lesson is again observed and observations are noted in the performs.
Feedback is again provided on the re-teach session. This step is called ‘re-
feedback session’.
9. The plan, teach, feed-back, re-plan, re-teach and re-feedback sessions will
constitute a single micro-teaching cycle. This cycle may be repeated till
adequate level of skill acquisition takes place.

Main assumption
1. Real teaching: Micro-teaching is real teaching. Although the teaching
situation is a constructed one in the sense that teacher and students work
together in a practice situation, nevertheless, bonfire teaching does take place.
2. Reducing complexities: Micro-teaching lessens the complexities of normal
class-room teaching. Class size, scope of content, and time are all reduced.
3. Focus on training: Micro-teaching focuses on training for the
accomplishment of specific tasks. These tasks may be the practice of
techniques of teaching, the mastery of certain curricular materials, or the
demonstration of teaching methods.
4. Increased control of practice. The rituals of time, students, methods of
feedback and supervision, and many other factors can be manipulated. As a
result, a high degree of control can be built into the training programme.
5. Expanding knowledge of results: Immediately after teaching a brief micro-
lesson, the trainee engages in a critique of his performance. To give him a
maximum insight into his performance, several sources of feedback at his
disposal.

Five r’s in microteaching

Recording, Reviewing, Responding, Refining, Redoing
Time duration of a micro lesson: 6 minutes. ▪
Time duration of a Micro-Teaching cycle: 36 minutes.

PROCEDURE IN MICRO-TEACHING:
▪ 1. Defining the skill: A particular skill is defined to trainees in terms of
teaching behaviours to provide the knowledge and awareness of teaching
skills.
▪ 2. Demonstrating the skills: The specific skill is demonstrated by the experts
or shown through video-tape or film to the teacher trainee.
▪ 3. Planning the lesson: The student teacher plans a short (micro) lesson with
the help of his supervisor, in which he can practice a particular skill.
▪ 4. Teaching the lesson: The pupil-teacher teaches the lesson to a small group
of pupils (5-10). The lesson is observed by supervisor or peers or video-taped
or audio-taped or televised at close circuit television (CCTV).
 ▪ 5. Discussion: The teaching is followed by discussion to provide the feedback
to the trainee.
▪ 6. Re-planning: In the light of the discussion and suggestions the pupil-
teacher re-plans the lesson in order to practice the small skill effectively.
▪ 7. Re-teaching: The revised lesson is re-taught to another small group of
students of same class for the same class duration to practice the small skill. ▪
8. Re-discussion: The re-teaching is again followed by discussion, suggestions
and encouraging the teaching performance. Thus the feedback is again
provided to the trainee.
▪ 9. Repeating the cycle: The ‘teach re-teach’ cycle is repeated till desired level
of skill is achieved.

Merits of micro-teaching
▪ 1. It is an effective feedback device for the modification of teacher’s
behaviour. ▪ 2. It is highly individualized type to teacher training.
▪ 3. It is useful for developing teaching efficiency in pre-service and in-service
teacher training programme.
▪ 4. It helps in systematic and objective observation by providing specific
observation schedule.
▪ 5. It helps in acquiring various types of skills which ultimately form the basis
of successful teaching.
▪ 6. It reduces the complexities of normal class-room teaching such as size of
class, time and problem of discipline.
▪ 7. It is a training device for improving teaching practice and to prepare
effective teachers.
▪ 8. Teaching is a complicated type of activity. Micro-Teaching simplifies it so
as to make it suitable for the beginner teachers.
▪ 9. It develops the feeling of confidence among the teachers.
▪ 10. It provides economy in mastering the teaching skills. The use of video-
tape enables the trainee to analyse his own teaching performance.
▪ 11. It can be done either in real class-room conditions or simulated conditions.
▪ 12. It focuses on training for the practice of instructional skills, mastery of
certain curricular materials and practice of techniques of teaching.
▪ 13 It permits increased control and regulates teaching practice.
▪ 14. It enables the trainee to make progress in developing teaching skills at his
own rating depending upon ability.
▪ 15. Trainees get satisfaction when they hear and see themselves through
audio- video-tapes

Demerits of micro-teaching
▪ 1. Through Micro-Teaching one trainee is trained at a time.
▪ 2. It is more time consuming as a trainee will take 35 minutes to practice one
skill only.
▪ 3. It presents fragmented view of teaching.
 ▪ 4. The immediate feedback which is a must may not be feasible in all
conditions.
▪ 5. Due to short lesson of 6 minutes, a trainee cannot get training in evaluation,
diagnostic and remedial skills.
▪ 6. It cannot fit in Indian conditions and situations due to its short practice
period which may create academic and administrative problems in the schools.
▪ 7. It depresses the creativity of teachers. During teaching a teacher evolves
something new but he has to stop as the micro lesson ends.
▪ 8. Micro-Teaching can be carried on successfully only in controlled
environment but generally it is found classroom situations are flexible.
▪ 9. It wastes a lot of time of students. Each micro lesson goes on for 5 to 10
minutes where the main emphasis is on teaching technique, learning by
students is almost ignored.
▪ 10. Micro-Teaching alone may not be sufficient. There is need of integrating
it with other teaching techniques.

Self-Instructional module

Definition
"Self-contained written material for self-learning". Self-instructional module
(SIM) is an accepted strategy for self-learning and enhancing the knowledge. It
refers to self-contained written material which can be used by the students for
self-learning. The purpose of SIM is to feed relevant knowledge to the students
from multiple angles by providing proper quality material.

Characteristics of SlM
Self-explanatory: The content is self and is clear in Concept.
Self-contained: It is self-sufficient, the student does not have to hunt for
additional sources.
Self-directional: It is presented in a form of easy explanation, illustration and
learning activities. It guides, instructs and regulates the learning process and
performs the role of the teacher.
Self-motivating: The material arouses curiosity, raises problems and relates
knowledge to familiar situation and makes learning meaningful.
Self-evaluating: It provides questions, exercise and other
activities for self-evaluation and checking ones learning
progress.
Self-learning: It gives directions, hints and references and motivates a person
for self-learning. The construction of self-learning materials involves three
important phases that include:
1. Preparatory phase: This phase refers to input, concerned with collection of
data regarding target groups, their characteristics, job responsibilities and
learning needs. This information serves as a baseline information for
construction of learning materials.
 2. Implementation phase: This phase refers to the process comprising the
program definition, preparation, production, dissemination, assessment,
monitoring of activity and utilization of instructional material
3. Evaluation phase: This phase is a process of arriving at judgment and
decisions based on a careful appraisal of all aspects of the trained performance.
This information provides concrete and precise idea of developing a SIM.

Elements of self-instructional module

 An introduction & statements of purpose.
 A list of pre-requisites skills that the learner needs to have to use the
module.
 A list of behavioral objectives which are clear & measurable statements.
 A preset to learner needs to proceed with the module.
 An identification of resources and learning activities which specifies the
equipments needed.
 Provide self-assessment which provides feedback to the learner throughout
the module.
 A post-test to evaluate the learner’s level of mastery in achieving the
objectives.

Preparation of self- learning module

It includes writing, content verification, editing, pretesting and finalization. The
following points should be considered.
- General objectives should be considered
- Description of the learning programme in terms of specific objectives, content
areas, learning activities and learning material
- Course plan

Advantages
 The learner can study at home without undue disruption of work at his/ her
own time & space.
 Modules can be made readily accessible to learner along with any resources
that are needed to complete the self-study programs.
 There is advantage of self-pacing, active learning & the chance to review
& reflect on information.
 The ability to get frequent feedback.
 Self-instructional module represents an attractive alternative to traditional
classroom.
 Self-instructional modules are excellent choice for annual training updates
in selected topics or skills that require periodic review to determine
competency. Using self-instructional module is an economical process.
 The self-contained unit provides a comprehensive coverage of a given
topic.
Limitations of self-learning module and strategies to overcome
 Independent study requires adjustment to a new learning style and high
level of motivation and self-discipline on the part of the learner.
 There is minimum teacher learner interaction.
 Language problem may arise when the emphasis is on written materials
only.
 Whether the learner will continue in the self-learning module program or
not will depend on the efficiency of the system for distributing learning
materials and feedback to learners on their performance.

Simulation

Introduction:
Simulation is as old as human being on earth. Not only human being but even
animals also use the technique of simulation to train their young ones to teach
them to adjust in their physical environment.

Meaning:
Simulation has been in use since the man on earth but its systematic use started
after the First World War in the training of Pilots in Air Force. The Pilots were
given all types of experiences of actual flying in rooms, on maps or on models
prepared to acquiring the trainees with the strategy of war fair.

Definition:
Simulation can be defined as a process of abstracting some aspect of reality and
concretely representing it for a specific purpose.

Simulation as an educational tool:

Simulations are intended to provide a means for students to learn new skills
without risk to themselves or others and with the maximum opportunity for
guided practice and feedback in a situation which closely resembles reality.

Characteristics of simulation:
(1) To simulate means “to imitate”. When we provide experience through
simulation, we represent the original reality in a highly modified fashion so that
we can make it readily accessible to the student’s understanding.
(2) Provide a mixed experience that can be replicated for successive learner.
(3) Provide a safe environment in which learning had priority over patient care or
system demand.
(4) Focus on application rather than un- certain recall of knowledge.
(5) Provide immediate feed-back on performance.

Specific conditions where simultion is preferred to actual conditions:

(1) When reality is unavailable: students often need training and evaluation
 in their handling of rare but important situation.
e.g. Simulations or models may used to represent rarely encountered
bacterial cultures, heart sounds, epidemics of rare diseases or
organization for disaster relief.
(2) When reality is too dangerous for the student: examples include
training and evaluation of the use of high voltage defibrillator
equipment.
(3) When incorrect maneuvers are too dangerous for the patient: incorrect
maneuvers in physical therapy can bring about increased suffering or
debility for the patient. incorrectly performed spinal taps can lead to
paralysis.
(4) When reality is too expensive; student examination techniques in the
performance of a female pelvic exam may be demonstrated on a
mannequin, drastically reduce supervision time of faculty and also
conserving expensive clinic space and nursing time required to prepare
real patients for the procedure.
(5) When reality is unpredictable: evaluation is simplified and made more
equitable if students can be exposed to test situation as nearly alike as
possible. Simulations permit the same model of reality to present to each
student in an organized schedule. e.g situations like how to handle
emergencies.
(6) When reality is too complex: fair evaluation of a student’s ability to
employ biomechanical principles in moving patients may be hampered by
factors such as the presence of an anxious spouse or fear of pain by the
patient. The use of mannequins simplifies the environment, allowing
students to concentrate on the use of physical leverage and momentum
being evaluated. Other important variables can be added to a simulation
after students have demonstrated the basic skills.
(7) When reality includes irrelevant and confusing factors: for example, a
significant heart sound may be masked by other irrelevant noises. Heart
sound simulators permit extraneous noises to be electronically filtered to
permit more rapid and positive recognition of the important sound.
(8) When reality is too time consuming: real patients react to illness and
management over hours, days and weeks. Simulating the time sequence
of events can provide rapid feedback of data for learning and can speed
up healthcare delivery for the purpose of evaluation.

Types of simulations
Simulations are usually classified in terms of the dominant medium or technology
involved in representing or reproducing the real situation being simulated.
(1) Paper and pencil simulation.
(2) Audio visual simulation.
(3) Simulated patient and structured role-playing.
(4) Mannequins.
(5) Computer simulations.
PAPER AND PENCIL SIMULATIONS.
It is best suited to the evaluation of student’s abilities to select appropriate clinical
information and to apply that information in making clinical decision.

Paper cases are usually packaged in booklets containing:

(a) An introduction to the setting and the problem.
(b) A list of additional enquiries the student may choose to make.
(c) List of actions students may take.
(d) An answer sheet providing students with response to specific enquiries
(e) and consequences of decisions they make in managing the care.

Scores generally expressed in terms of:

1. Error of omission: failure to obtain important information or to select
important actions.
2. Errors of commission: selection of improper actions.
3. A proficiency score: (ratio of the sum of weighted choices to the total of
positively weighted choices) of agreement between the student’s choices and
an efficiency score ( i.e. ratio of contributory choices to total correct choices.)
in managing the case presented.

Advantage: Economy in production and administration.

Disadvantage:
1. Cannot manage the complex situation.
2. It involves the considerable reading and direction following by the listed
alternative choice, not as characteristic of the real clinical setting being
simulated.
3. Compared to multiple choice questions, paper cases involve complex scoring
procedure, and are time consuming to administer, usually requiring 30 minutes
or longer to complete each case.

AUDIO VISUAL SIMULATIONS

The clinical presentation to a video tape, audio tape, photographic slides or films.
Students are required to go through a fixed sequence of audio tapes or stimulus
film representing clinical data. They are then asked to interpret the clinical data
after which the pre designed presentation continues. e.g. audio tapes of heart
sounds can be used to determine whether the student can distinguish normal heart
sounds from several abnormal sounds.

Advantage:
Economy of production as well as ease of administration in most evaluation
settings.

Disadvantage:
The student can’t ask questions and receive answers from a tape or film, which
restrict the realism of the interactive clinical situation being simulated.

SIMULATED PATIENT AND STRUCTURED ROLE PLAYING

Simulated patient.
It involves the use of an individual trained to simulate a patient.
Simulated patients were introduced by Barrows and Abrahamson in 1964 as a
means of evaluating clinical performance during a neurology workshop.
Simulated patients can be recruited from the ranks of peers, upper class men,
drama students, community actors, the aged and even disabled and chronically ill
ambulated patients.

Advantages:
- They can be scheduled for repeat performance in the evaluation setting.
- They are economical in the sense that they are easy to train and once
trained, can provide their services at a nominal range.

Structured role playing

Here the role-player is the examiner, who has access to data and other media,
such as photograph, film, x-rays or lab. Results to represent the patient being
simulated.
When questioned the examiner answers as the patient, using the history and
physical examination data to ensure that verbal responses accurately represent the
background presenting symptoms and pathology of the patient being simulated.
Abnormal pathology is represented by various media or described orally by the
examiner.

Advantages:
It allows the examiner to simulate a wider variety of clinical situation, more
complex interaction and a wider range of patient pathologies than an actor would
able to simulate.

Disadvantage:
Simulation generally proceeds at a lower level of fidelity in order to
accommodate more complex scenarios.

MANNEQUINS
Mannequins are three dimensional models of some part of the body with which
the healthcare professional must interact.
These are very expensive, time consuming and better engineering task is needed.
Two sophisticated prototype mannequins are computers and electro mechanical
devises to simulate several pathologic conditions and complex physiological
responses to management.
Mannequins have been developed to meet specific objectives, usually at the level
of preliminary skill training before those skills are developed further with real
patients.
e.g. the first computer supported mannequin, SIM-I, was developed by
Abrahamson at the University of Southern California. This was designed
primarily to train anesthesiology residents.

COMPUTER SIMULATIONS
Computer simulations are computer software to represent the patient, instead of
using actors or structured role play.
The student is placed in the role of healthcare provider and the computer and the
computer presents the patient, responding with patient information to the
student’s enquiries or orders.

Advantages of simulation
1. It actively engages learner in the application of knowledge and skills
in realistic situation.
2. It is useful in promoting transfer of learning from classroom to the
clinical setting.
3. Simulation permits the application of theory in to practice when access
to clinical setting is limited or impossible.
4. Student can receive feed-back for their actions during simulation.
5. Students can learn without harming the patient.
6. Bridging the gap to reality- Simulation works to bridge the gap between
real to un-real and motivating the student in making real life situations
more exciting and interesting.
7. Allow more flexibility to practice based upon their schedules. The learner
can practice this skill a number of times in an environment that is safe,
non- threatening and conducive to learning.

Limitations of simulation:
1. Simulation can’t be conveniently used in case of small children.
2. Learning is a serious activity which is highly individualized and
needs concentration on the part of learner. It reduces the
seriousness of the learning.
3. Time consuming.
4. Difficulty in using analytical approach.
5. Need for many simulators.
6. Learners may not find simulation relevant to the situation

Computer assisted instructions and Computer assisted learning

CAI
Introduction
A computer is defined as an electronic equipment which can store information &
data which can be retrieved form as and when required
Definitions:
1. “Computer assisted instruction-when the computer is used as an aid to
teaching method of instruction is called computer assisted instruction.” - K.P.
Neeraja
2. “Computer assisted instruction (CAI): it refers to the on line direct
interactive learning experience through the computer.”
3. “Instructional activities that uses a computer as the primary vehicle for
teaching content or process rather than one to one interaction with a student.
- Miller keane Dictionary & encyclopedia
4. “Computer assisted instruction (CAI) is defined as the use of the computer
in the delivery of instruction.”
5. “A self-learning technique, usually offline / online, involving interaction
of students with programmed instructional materials.
6. “Computer assisted instruction is an interactive instructional technique
where by a computer is used to present the material and monitor the learning
that takes place.”

Purposes
• Instructional Purposes
• Curriculum development.
• Educational administration and management.
• Educational Planning.
• Educational Documentation.
• Educational Test construction.
• Scoring and processing of examination results.
• Educational research.

CAI provides:
• 1. Text or multimedia content
• 2. Multiple choice questions
• 3. Problems solving
• 4. Immediate feedback
• 5. Notes on incorrect responses
• 6. summarizes students’ performance
• 7. Exercises for practice
• 8. Worksheet and tests.

Characteristics Any CAI should:

• Promoting interactive learning
• Promoting educational management
• Providing additional learning opportunities
• Introduce flexibility into the learning environment.
• Accommodate different learning strategies.
• Encourage open mindedness by allowing a variety of acceptable answers.
 • Develop and reinforce critical thinking skills.
• Allow the learner to formulate and test her own hypothesis.
• Consideration of the teaching and learning philosophy expressed in the
program.

Advantages
 Self-pacing One to one interaction
 Great motivator Freedom
 Instantaneous response more time to individual students & Individual
attention Privacy helps the shy and slow learner to learn.
 Learn more And more rapidly Interactive.
 Provides consistency in presentation.
 Can adjust according to level of learner. (highly flexible)
 Can maintain records of student performance.
 Frees the instructor to do other things.
 Self-directed learning Receivers
 Responded continuously as instruction receives.
 All units of learning are broken down into subunits.
 Reinforcement of learning can be achieved.
 Can be learned in own style and ways.
 The program can be repeated as often as required. Learning can be tested
at any time of progress.
 Accessed by disabled students who cannot attend class. 4,000 students can
be instructed simultaneously with the instructional procedure
 Student cannot cheat during testing by a computer.
 Provides the multi-dimensional learning The high storage capacity of
computer

Disadvantages
 Mechanical and deprive human touch.
 Fatigue.
 May feel overwhelmed
 Over use of multimedia may divert the attention from the content.
 Non availability of good CAI packages.
 Lack of infrastructure.
 Extremely expensive.
 Takes time and money.
 Not all learning outcomes are well addressed.
 Unsophisticated applications may not make good use of the computer.
 Does not help in developing the language proficiency mechanism
responses by punching key can become dull & frustrating.
 Value judgments cannot be tested by the computer.
 Computer assisted learning (CAL)

Introduction
There are still good reasons to use CAL rather than internet based technologies.
CAL is run either straight from a CD or floppy disk drive or over a local network
so the constrain of the internet- slow download times for multimedia

Concept & techniques

• Tell me and I forget.
• Show me and I might remember.
• But involve me and I will understand. CAL is to convey a vast amount of
information in a very short period of time. It is powerful method of reinforcing
concepts and topics.

Definitions
• 1. “Computer assisted learning is a systematic control of instruction by
computer is characterized by testing, diagnostic learning, presentation and
through record keeping.”
• 2. “It is defined as one kind of learning environment in which though the use
of computer technology, a learner receives, reacts to, and interacts with
instructional material prepared by an instruction specialist.
• 3. “A teaching process that uses a computer in the presentation of
instructional materials, often in a way that requires the students to interact with
it called computer assisted learning. -Mosby’s medical dictionary
• 4. “Reduce the detrimental effects of having too much content to cover in too
little time and yet provide unique educational gains through computer.” -Petty
• 5. “Interactive technique in which a computer is used to present instructional
material, monitor learning, and select additional instructional material in
accordance with individual learner needs.”
• 6. “Computer-assisted learning (CAL) is an approach to teaching and learning
in which computer technology is used as an aid to the presentation,
reinforcement and assessment of material to be learned, usually including a
substantial interactive element.”
• 7. “Computer Aided Learning (CAL) or Computer Assisted learning can be
defined as learning or teaching subjects like mathematics, Science, Geography,
and etc., through computers with subject wise learning packages/materials.
• 8. “Computer assisted learning can be defined as “learning through the new
Information and Communication Technologies, as computer networks and
multimedia”.

Types
1. Interactive video:
2. Multimedia:
3. Visual reality:
 4. Internet based

Ways to Apply CAL

• Distance Learning / Education Web-based education (internet & WWW)
Computer & video technologies
• Computer-mediated courseware (interactive CD-ROM)
• On-line Classes
• Telemedicine

Advantages
 Some so called hard subjects, like English, Mathematics and Science will
be joyful through computer.
 Better teaching learning material helps to reduce drop out, repetition rate
 Enhance in the achievement levels etc,.
 Not only help to memorize the tough topics at ease but also it will act as a
virtual laboratory experiments.
 Enhance clinical judgment skills
 Reduce required instruction time.
 Performing as well, compared to other more traditional education
techniques.
 CAL in nursing education can be made clear by consideration of adult
education theory and curriculum design
 Provides freedom for repetition.
 It allows the learner to proceed at his own pace.
 Offers safe practice environment.
 Provides private learning environment.
 It involves any student actively in the learning process.
 Reinforcement of learning in such situations is immediate and
systematized.
 Frees faculty members or training coordinators to devote more time to the
personal, human considerations of their students.
 CAL is very useful in remedial education.
 Interactive Access is easy and flexible Supplement traditional classroom
or lecture materials
 Gives prompt feedback
 More accurate monitoring of learner progress

Disadvantages
1. cost
2. Lack of computers or resources
3. Must be internally or self-motivated
4. Hardware or software problems / internet connectivity
5. Must be familiar computer hardware and software
 6.Time commitment required to prepare
7.Resistance of learners and teachers
8. Individual differences in learning styles

Scientific use of computers in education

Four focal areas of computer management support to teachers.
1.Constricting, scoring and analysing test.
2. Keeping records of student’s performance and progress.
3. Providing guidance to students and advising for next.
4. Reporting on the performance and progress of students, tutors and
Educational administration.

Computer’s educational aims:

1. Motivates students to achieve aims.
2. Provide meaningful experiences to students.
3. Assist goal attainment by providing appropriate material.
4. Assist in formatting realistic goals.
5. Use of computer in drill and practice.
6. Use of CAI in new learning.
7. Computer learning based on individual needs.

Uses of computer in nursing:

• To maintain the nursing records of the patient.
• To record admission of the patient.
• To record discharge of the patient.
• To maintain intake and output chart of the patient.
• To keeping inventory records.
• Storage of patient information for a long period of time.
• To evaluate the patient problem.
• To record all data for future references.
• To maintain dietary plans of the patients.
• To facilitate the continuity scare of the patient.

Role Play
Introduction
Every teacher devises his or her good effective method for teaching. The teacher
in her method should appeal through sense perception to the understanding of the
student. One of the methods used in teaching learning is “role play”.

Definitions
Role playing is an educational technique in which people spontaneously act out
problems of human relation and analyse the enactment with the help of the other
players and observers.
Role play is a method by which learners participate in an unrehearsed
dramatization, acting out an assigned part of a character as they think the
character would act in reality. Bastable, S. B. (2008).

Purposes of Role Play

To convey information.
To develop specific skills.
To develop a situation for analysis.
To develop understanding of points of view of others.
To increase insight into typical way of dealing with a problem.
Provides an opportunity for social interaction among members.

Values of Role Playing

 There is emotional involvement as the actors try to feel the character he/she
is portraying and puts himself in that person’s character.
 It is enjoyed by people who do it.
 It is a method to involve a group through participation.
 It can bring out human behaviour and human relations which are not made
available by other methods.

Principles of Role Playing

Role playing is flexible.
The role play should be stimulant to think and not escape from the discipline
of learning.
There is no single best method of selecting the characters, the group may do
the assigning.
Analysis and evaluation is essential to attain the maximum learning benefits.
Role play should be brief.

Setting up of Role Playing

 Define the problem to be considered and the nursing situation in a meaning
full manner to all student in the class.
 Identify the characters in the situation and ask for volunteers to play these
roles.
 Ask the participants to try to place themselves in the position of the
characters.
 Caution the participants against the desire to express their own ideas and
options.
 Each class member selects some role and identifies herself with it, listen and
try to anticipate what the person in the situation might say or do,
At any point during a dramatization participant may hold a short conference
to clarify the problem understudy.
 The length of role play will depend upon how long it takes to make the
nursing situation clear and the student become aware of feelings and thoughts
of these in the actual situations.
 At the end of the activity time should be given for a discussion.

Phases or steps involves in Role Play

 Warming up the group
 Selecting participants
 Set the stage
 Preparation of observers
 Enactment
 Discussion and evaluation
 Re-enactment
 Re-discussion and Evaluation
 Deriving Generalizations

Effect of Role Play Role Playing helps the student to :-

 Develop real communication skills in leadership, interviewing and social
interacting. E.g. how to lead a communication etc.
 Develop sensitivity to another’s feelings by having the opportunity to put
oneself in another’s place and develop empathy and understanding.
 Develop skill in group problems solving. E.g. the group works as a whole to
develop the problem of concern to the group. To develop the situation, to
identify issues and to come to some mutual agreement.
 Develop ability to observe and analyse situations.
 Practice selected behaviours in a real life situation without the stress of
making a mistake

Role of a teacher in Role Play of Teaching

This provides the teachers with the opportunity to note individual student by
observing and analysing her needs in a real life situation.
Encourage independent thinking and action by stepping aside on giving
indirect guidance to emphasize them to themselves.
The teacher can correct the errors and use the role play for specific teaching
on the subject.

Points to be remember while doing Role Playing

There should never one answer to a situation presented.
The time of the play should be brief.
Enough time should be allowed for discussion and analysis of the situation.
Evaluation concerns the teacher and participants through discussion or
follow-up as to specific individual behaviour or group action.
Advantages of Role Play
-Develops real communication skills in leadership, interviewing and social
interaction and obtain constructive feedback form peers
- Develop sensitivity to another’s feeling by having the opportunity to put
oneself in another’s place
- Develop skills in group problem solving
- Develop an ability to observe and analyse situations
- Practice selected behaviours in a real life situation without the stress of
making a mistake.
- In teaching situation
It helps to observe and analyse student needs in a simulated real life
situation
Assist students in meeting their needs
Encourage independent thinking and action

Disadvantages
The teacher can direct/limit the learner
Maybe inaccurate due to real life experiences.
Group size is normally limited.
High expectations
Peer performance anxiety

Field trip

Definition
These are excursions, educational trips, and visits conducted to observe an event
that is unavailable within the classroom.
A visit to a place outside the regular classroom which is designed to achieved
certain objectives which cannot be achieved as well by using other means.

Planning a field trip includes these steps:

• Preliminary planning by the teacher
• Preplanning with others going on the trip
• Taking the field trip
• Post-field trip follow up activities
Preliminary planning by the Teacher
• Make preliminary contacts, a tour on final arrangements with the place to
be visited.
• Make final arrangements with the school principal about the details of the
trip.
• Make a tentative route plan, subject to later alteration based on class
planning and objectives.
• Try to work out mutually satisfactory arrangements with other teachers if
the trip will conflict with their classes.
 • Prepare preliminary lists of questions or other materials which will be
helpful in planning with the students.
Preplanning with the Others Joining the Trip
• Discuss the objectives of the trip and write them down.
• Prepare a list of questions to send ahead to the guide of the study trip.
• Define safety and behaviour standards for the journey there and for the field
trip site itself.
• Discuss appropriate dress.
• Before the trip, use a variety of learning materials in order to give each student
a background for the trip.
• Other people accompanying the group like parents, other teacher and school
administrator staff must be oriented on the objectives, route, behaviour
standards required.
Taking the Field Trip
• Distribute route map of places to be observed.
• Upon arriving at the destination, teacher should check the group and introduce
the guide.
• Special effort should be made to ensure that:
- the trip keeps to the time schedule. – the students have the opportunity to obtain
answers to questions.
– the group participates courteously in the trip.
– the guide sticks closely to the list of questions.
Evaluating the Field Trip
• Could the same benefits be achieved by other materials? Was it worth the
time, effort, and perhaps extra money?
• Were there any unexpected problems which could before seen another time?
Were these due to guides, students, poor planning, or unexpected trip
conditions?
• We renew interests developed?
• Should the trip be recommended to other classes studying similar topics?

Types of Field Trips

• Instructional Trips - a visit by a class or group of student to a location outside
the regular classroom which is designed to allow the students to achieve
specific course objectives which cannot be achieved as efficiently by other
means.
• School Contest or Festival - extra campus activity which provides an
opportunity for students to demonstrate knowledge and skills developed
through subject area instruction.
• Motivational Trips - an extra-campus activity which is not a part of a scheduled
class. It provides a motivational incentive for the school, club, group, or class
and is related to improving the school climate.
 Virtual Field Trip - is a guided exploration through the world wide web that
organizes a collection of pre-screened, thematically based web pages into a
structured online learning experience.
Advantages
• Acquisition of lasting concepts and change in attitudes are rooted on concrete
and rich experience.
• Real-world experience.
• Increase in quality of education.
• Improvement of the social relations.
• Provides new cultural context.

Disadvantages
• It is costly.
• It involves logistics.
• It is extravagant with time.
• Contains an element of uncertainty.
• Lack of support from the school administrations.
• Poor student behavior and attitudes.
• Shortage of resources and choice of venue.
• Medical risk.

Workshop

Introduction
The workshops are organized to develop the psychomotor aspects (skill
development) of the learner regarding practices of new innovations in area of
education. Under this technique participant have do some practical work to
produce instructional teaching and testing material.

Definition
Workshop is defined as assembled group of 10 to 25 persons who share a common
interest or problem. They meet together to improve their individual and skill of a
subject through intensive study, research, practice and discussion.
Workshop is a meeting during which experienced people in responsible positions
come together with experts and consultants to find solutions for the problem that
cropped up in the course of their work and they have had difficulty in dealing
with on their own. It is large group discussion method.

Essential features of workshop

 Complete active involvement by the participants.
 The whole point of attention is to work and learn from practical experiences.
 Participants may have to work as reporters or a leader.

Principles of workshop
 Allowing the participant to prepare and select objectives to be reached will
increase the participant’s motivation.
 Giving the participants an active role will make teaching more effective.
  Improve a person’s attitude towards other people.
 Learn better human relations.
 Giving the participants an active role will take teaching more effective.
 Every individual has worth and contributes to the common goals.
 Cooperation is a technique and a way of life that is superior to competition
and is a primary factor to be allowed.
 Workshop should focus on the current issues in the profession to be
discussed.
 Workshop should be conducted with full cooperation within organizers.

Objectives of workshop
There are two objectives Cognitive Objective Psychomotor Objective
- COGNITIVE OBJECTIVES:-
To solve the problem of the teaching profession To provide the philosophical
and sociological background for instructional and teaching situation. To
identify the educational objectives in the present context
To develop an understanding regarding the use of theme and problem
- PSYCHOMOTOR OBJECTIVE
• To develop the skills to perform task independently
• To determine and use of teaching strategies effectively
• To train the persons for using different approach of teaching.
• Workshop technique is used to seed, explore and identify the solution to a
problem.
• It is used for in-service teachers for giving awareness and training of new
practice education.
• It provide an opportunity to prepare specific professional, vocational and
community service function.

Purpose
1. To put teachers in situation that will break down the barrier between them
to facilitate communication.
2. To give opportunity for personal growth through accepting and working
towards a goal held in common with others.
3. To give teachers an opportunity to work on the problems those are direct,
current, concern to them.
4. Teachers will learn new methods and techniques which they can use in their
own classroom.
5. To place teachers in a position of responsibility for their own learning.
6. To put the teacher in a situation where they will evaluate their own efforts.
7. To give the teachers an opportunity to improve their own moral.

Procedure
The organization of the workshop can be divided into 2 phases:-
1) Pre-active phase
2) Active phase
THE PRE-ACTIVE PHASE
STEP 1: - (define the goal) Every workshop must have a goal, clear goal should
be kept at the centre of the discussion.
STEP 2: - (Decide the target groups) Knowing who will participate directly refers
to the objectives. Make a list of people who needs to be there. Try to be as specific
as possible, but leave a few openings for last-minute additions.
STEP 3:- ( select the right location)
Think about the logistics and practical details of the workshop for the selection
of the location.
Make sure that everyone be able to see the visual aids.
Also make sure that the appropriate facilities for breakout sessions.
Will everyone be able to reach venue or need to organize accommodations for
people who are coming from a long way.
STEP 4 :- (Prepare an agenda )
Main points Create a list of main points to discuss and breakdown each larger
point into details.
Visual aids List the visual aids if any, to be use for each point. If need technical
support provide expert help, this helps the people to determine where they need
to focus their efforts.
Discussion and activities
Take a time to list exactly which group discussion and activities will be used at
which point, in the workshop. How much time will be allowed for each exercise?
Make sure that activities are appropriate for the size of the group and ensure that
the venue has the resources.
STEP 5:- Develop a follow-up plan
The only way to find out if the workshop was a success is to have an effective
follow up plan. Create a questionnaire to give to all participants at the end of the
event, and give them plenty of opportunity to share their opinion on how well it
went. It is the only way to learn and improve for the next time.

The Active phase

I) FIRST STAGE:-
Presentation of the theme for providing awareness. Resources persons or experts
are invited to provide the awareness and understanding of the topic. Paper reading
is done to discuss the different aspects of the theme. In the first stage theoretical
background is provided to the participants.
II) SECOND STAGE:-
Practice the method for its applicability. In the second stage the group is divided
into small group on basis of language, subjects studies and every participants has
to work individually and independently. A resources person or expert is assigned
to provide the guidance for the work to be performed. Every trainee has to
complete the task within the given period. At the end they meet in their groups
and discuss and present their task to be completed.
III) THIRD STAGE :-
 At the round-up of workshop, a representative of each group will then be asked
to present the findings. In second stage, the participants are required to elaborate
a meaningful ordering scheme for the thus for collected context elements.
The round up will be a reflective discussion with all workshop participants; where
the experience of teaching methods is put into personal (eg:-what value
participants see in the use of teaching methods ; or what elements regarding the
context cause uncertainties with participants

Follow up
• It is an important part of good workshop.
• Effectiveness is ascertained by an objective follow up.
• The trainees are asked to continue their task and examine its work ability and
inability in their working setup (institutions).
• The participants are invited to meet again and present their institutions feedback
regarding applicability of the topic or new practices.
• They may give some practical suggestion in this context.
• And last report of the workshop is prepared.

Advantages
1) Use to realize the higher cognitive & psychomotor objectives.
2) Used for developing understanding & proficiency for the approaches and
practices in education.
3) Provide opportunity and situations to develop the individual capacities of a
teacher.
4) Develops the feeling cooperation and group work or team work.
5) Provides the situations to study the vocational problems.
6) It introduces new practice & innovations in education.
7) It is used for developing and improving professional efficiency, e.g. nursing,
medical, dental, etc.
8) The teacher proficiencies can be developed by using the workshop technique
for in-service teaching.

Disadvantages
 The workshops in education are seminar—cum- workshop on any theme or
problem.
 The in-service teachers do not take interest to understands and use the new
practices in their classrooms.
 The workshop cannot be organized for large group so that large number of
persons are trained.
 The teachers do not take interest in practical work or to do something in
productive form.

Project method
Introduction
Project method is one of the modern method of teaching in which, the students
point of view is given importance in designing the curricula and content of
studies. This method is based on the philosophy of Pragmatism and the principle
of ‘Learning by doing’. In this strategy pupils perform constructive activities in
natural condition. A project is a list of real life that has been imparted into the
school. It demands work from the pupils.

Definition
According to W.H. Kilpatrick, “A project is a wholehearted purposeful activity
proceeding in a social environment”.
According to Ballord, “A project is a bit of real life that has been imparted into
school.”
According to Thomas & Long, “It is a voluntary undertaking which involves
constructive effort or thought and eventuates into objective results”.

Characteristics of project method

 It takes the student beyond the walls of the class room. It is carried out in
a natural setting, thus making learning realistic and experiential.
 It encourages investigative learning and solution of practical problems.
 It is focused on the student as it enlists his/her active involvement in the
task set.
 It encourages the spirit of scientific enquiry as it involves validation of
hypotheses based on evidence gathered from the field through
investigation.
 It promotes a better knowledge of the practical aspects of knowledge
gained from books.
 It enhances the student’s social skills, as it requires interaction with the
social environment.
 Teacher plays a facilitative role rather than the role of an expert. It allows
the students a great degree of freedom to choose from among the options
given to them; hence it provides a psychological boost. It encourages the
spirit of research in the student.

Types of project
- Individual and Social projects: In individual project every student solves
problem according to their interest, capacity, attitude and needs.
Group projects the problem is solved by the group of pupil in the class. Here the
social, citizenship qualities and synergism develops.
- Simple and Complex project:- In the simple projects the students are completing
only one work at a time. It gives the deep information about the project in a one
angle. The students get deeper and broader knowledge about the problem.
In the complex project the students are carried out more than one work at a time.
They are focuses on the work in various subject and angles. Here the students get
the knowledge about the work in various activities and dimensions.
According to Kilpatrick there are four types of projects:
1. Constructive project: Practical or physical tasks such as construction of article,
making a model, digging the well and playing drama are done in this type of
projects.
2. Aesthetic project: Appreciation powers of the students are developed in this
type of project through the musical programmes, beautification of something,
appreciation of poems and so on.
3. Problematic project: In this type of project develops the problem solving
capacity of the students through their experiences. It is based on the cognitive
domain.
4. Drill project: It is for the mastery of the skill and knowledge of the students. It
increases the work efficacy and capacity of the students.

Steps of a project method

1. Creating Situation:
In the first step teacher creates the proper situation to the students in the class. He
puts up the knowledge about the project method procedure, steps, and uses to the
students. A project should arise out of a need felt by students and it should never
be forced on them. It should be purposeful and significant.
2. Selection of the problem:
The teacher helps the students to select the problem and guide them. Students are
having freedom to choose the topic or problem based on their interest and ability.
Before choosing the topic the principles should be taken in to an account. Such
as school tasks are to be as real and as purposeful and they are of such a nature
that the student is genuinely eager to carry them out in order to achieve a desirable
and clearly realized aim. Teacher should only tempt the students for a particular
project by providing a situation but the proposal for the project should finally
come from students.
3. Planning:
The teacher discuss with the students about the problem in various angles and
points. After the free expression of the students’ opinion about the problem, the
teacher writes down the whole programme of action stepwise on the blackboard.
In the process of planning teacher has to act only as a guide and should give
suggestions at times but actual planning be left to the students.
4. Execution:
The students are stating their work in this step. They are collecting the relevant
information and materials at first. The teacher should give the time and right to
the students according to their own speed, interest and ability. During this step
the teacher should carefully supervise the pupils in manipulative skills to prevent
waste of materials and to guard accidents. Teacher should constantly check-up
the relation between the chalked out plans and the developing project.
5. Evaluation:
Evaluation of the project should be done both by the pupils and the teachers. Here
the students evaluating their task. They determine whether the objects are
achieved or not. After that they criticize and express their feeling about the task
freely. The evaluation of the project has to be done in the light of plans,
difficulties in the execution and achieved results.
6. Reporting and Recording:
It is the last step of the project method in which each and every step of the work
are reported. The reported things are recorded in a certain order in a book form.
It should include the proposal, plan and its discussion, duties allotted to different
students and how far they were carried out by them. It should also include the
details of places visited and surveyed guidance for future and all other possible
details. The book formatted report is submitted to the teacher at the end.

Role of the teacher:

• In project method of teaching the role of a teacher is that of a guide, friend and
philosopher.
• The teacher is not a dictator or a commander but a friend, guide and a working
partner.
• He encourages his students to work collectively, and co-operatively.
• He also helps his students to avoid mistakes.
• He makes it a point that each member of the group contributed something to the
completion of the project.
• If the students face failure during execution of some steps of the project the
teacher should not execute any portion of the project but should suggest them
some better methods of techniques that may be used by them next time for the
success of the project.
• He should help the students in developing the character and personality by
allowing them to accept the responsibilities and discharge them efficiently.
• He should provide democratic atmosphere in the class so that the pupils can
express themselves fully without any fear of the teacher.
• He should be alert and active all the time to see that the project is running in its
right lines.
• He should have a thorough knowledge of individual children so as to allot them
work accordingly.
• He should have initiative, tact and zest for learning.
• Teacher should always remain alert and active during execution step and see
that the project goes to completion successfully.
• During execution of the project teacher should maintain a democratic
atmosphere.
• Teacher must be well – read and well-informed so that he can help the students
to the successful completion of the project.

Merits of project method:

a. As students get proper freedom to execute the project in accordance with
their interest and abilities, because of which they get their psychological needs
satisfied to considerable extent.
b. This method is not only subject centered, but due importance is being
provided to the students also.
 c. Through this method, students are provided with various opportunities by
which they can satisfy their interests and desires.
d. Habit of critical thinking gets developed among the students through this
method.
e. With this method, students get the ample chances in which they can develop
coordination among their body and mind.
f. Through this method, teacher can lead a well-balanced development of the
students. g. Through this method, science teaching can be done with
considerable success, as science is a practical subject and this method is also
scientific and practical in nature.
g. This method helps in promoting social interaction and co-operation among
the students, as they have to work in a group and have to interact with various
persons for gathering information.
h. As students gain knowledge directly through their own efforts, thus, they
acquire permanent kind of information, which is retained by them since a long
period of time.
i. Mostly the projects are undertaken in classroom as classroom assignments,
because of which load of home work from the students get reduced to
considerable extent.
j. It helps to widen the mental horizon of pupils.
k. It sets up a challenge to solve a problem and this stimulates constructive and
creative thinking.

Demerits of project method

a. This method takes a lot of time to plan and execute a single project.
b. It is not possible to design different projects for different topics and it is also
not possible to cover all the topics or content in a single project.
c. For proper execution of a project, large number of financial resources are
required.
d. Such method can only be prove successful if the teacher is highly
knowledgeable, alert and exceptionally gifted.
e. Systematic and adequate learning is not provided by this method, as it is a
method of incidental learning. Through this method, students learn only what
is required by them in relation to the completion of the projects.
f. Generally, it is found that teachers do not possess much information
regarding the manner in which this method should be used as a result of which
they hesitate from using this method, as a result of which, its utility remains
more or less limited to negligible extent.
g. Sometimes the projects may be too ambitious and beyond student’s capacity
to accomplish.

Clinical teaching methods:

Definition
According to Schweer (1972) ‘clinical teaching is a vehicle that provides students
with the opportunity to translate basic theoretical knowledge into the learning of
a variety of intellectual and psychomotor skills needed to provide patient centred
quality nursing care’.
A teacher’s core activity in the clinical setting is clinical instruction and guidance.
The teacher must guide, support, stimulate and facilitate learning.

Types of clinical teaching methods

1. Nursing case study
2. Nursing case presentation
3. Nursing rounds
4. Bedside nursing clinics
5. Nursing Assignments
6. Nursing care conferences
7. Health care conference
8. Process recording
9. Field visits

Case Method/case study

Definition
Nursing care study is the blueprint of nursing care rendered by a nursing student
to a selected patient, for a particular period by following nursing process approach
with an intention to develop comprehensive nursing care abilities.

Purposes of case study

-It provides an opportunity to the student to learn nursing skills using the problem
solving approach
-Students learn to identify and define a patient’s problem
-It trains the students to locate, gather and process the information required to
solve the patient’s problem.
-It develops a sense of accomplishment from providing individualized
comprehensive care
-It helps the student solve the patient’s problems by critical and reflective
thinking
-It emphasizes the facts that the patient is an individual personality with unique
problems
-It stresses the health and social aspects of nursing
-It points out the relationship and cooperation of the various agencies interested
in the patient’s problems and welfare such as social service and public health
nursing.

Principles of case study

-The students be able to make their nursing care study on a patient for whose
nursing care they are responsible for.
-The selection of patient can be done by coordination between the clinical
instructor and students.
- With the help of a case study, the student should be able to study the patient’s
state of health, self-help abilities, etc of the patient that will help in understanding
of all these factors contributing to patient’s welfare
-The first part of the study should be concerned with information and facts about
the patient, his disease condition and his social and personal history, and how this
knowledge is applied in providing nursing care to the patient
-The second part of the nursing study takes in the responsibilities and the
activities the nursing student will be concerned with in giving complete
comprehensive nursing care to the patient.
-It should emphasize on the individual needs of a patient and how they are met
- Special emphasis should be made on patient learning
-If outpatient experiences and home nursing is included in the study, it helps in
better evaluation of the patient’s recovery and his ability to maintain healthy
health habits.
-It should serve as an excellent tool to demonstrate nursing skills, scientific
knowledge and sociological or psychological insight into the problems of the
patient.
-It should encourage critical evaluation of solutions presented by others. The
student is presented with the whole situation so that she may visualize it
completely.

Forms and presentation of case study

-Written
-Verbal/oral

Advantages of case study

Written case study
-It provides for individual differences of the student
-It provides an opportunity for self-expression in writing
-It provides experience in organizing and writing a paper in a scientific manner.
-It provides a source of material for future reference.

Oral case study

-It provides an opportunity for the instructor to direct student thinking into new
channels and to correct errors of information
-It serves as a basis for better personal understanding and relationship between
the instructor and the student.
-It is time-saving and does not require lengthy recopying of the notes to
acceptable forms
-It offers an opportunity for a public-speaking experience
-If discussion is invited after presentation the case becomes cooperative and
everyone involved benefits from the study.
-The student feels the thrill of achievement in presenting her study to others
Disadvantages of case study
Written case study
-It gives no opportunity to branch out and incorporate new ideas once the study
is completed
-It requires a great deal of time to rewrite to an acceptable form

Oral case study

-It does not offer an opportunity for writing and other creative expressions, since
only notes are used for the presentation
-It leaves no records that may be kept for future reference as it is used generally

Nursing Rounds
Definition
Nursing rounds is an excursion into the patient’s area involving the student’s
learning experiences.
Generally, a small group of nursing professionals such as nursing faculty, ward
nurse manager, bedside nurses and nursing students on the patient’s bedside to
discuss the routine nursing care provided to patients so that efficient nursing care
be ensured.
A nursing round is a tour into the patient’s ward to provide the student a learning
experience. In this clinical teaching method, a group of nurses visit all or selected
patients at their bedside in a particular ward with directly or indirectly
contributing into clinical teaching.

Purposes of nursing rounds

-To acquaint the staff and students with all the patients admitted in the ward
including their disease condition, diagnostic test, ongoing treatment and nursing
care provided.
-To demonstrate the specific clinical features of particular disease condition,
which are important for planning the nursing care interventions
-To clarify the terminologies studied.
-To compare a patient’s reaction to disease and study the disease condition
-To demonstrate effects of the drug
-To plan and illustrate skillful nursing care
-To promote team spirit and professionalism among nurses
-It also facilitates in building the skills of handling over and taking over of
patients by nurses at change of shift.
-The students develop an ability to categorize patients into high-risk, moderate-
risk and low-risk patients depending on severity of the disease condition of
particular patients.

Advantages of nursing rounds

-This method provides opportunity to learn about the patient’s progress through
the highly experienced nursing experts.
-Nursing rounds provide an opportunity for students to learn about the effect of
different drugs, treatment modalities and nursing intervention and change
in the plan of medical and nursing management based on progress of patient
- This method facilitates to learn about more patients in short time through
nursing rounds.

Disadvantages of nursing round

1. It is not a suitable method of teaching for a bigger group of students
2. The bedside discussion about patient during nursing rounds may be
discomforting and uncomfortable for patient and it may be a cause of
anxiety
3. It may be wastage of time for nurses who are not directly involved in care
of particular patient.

Bedside nursing clinics

The nursing clinic is a group discussion that utilizes the presence of a selected
patient, whereby nursing aspects are presented and discussed.

Definition
Ahmed M (2002) described bedside teaching as ‘a rich visual, auditory, tactile
and olfactory experience.’ Bedside clinic also called bedside teaching is a
teacher-centred method where a small group of students are taught in the presence
of the patient.
This method enables learners to acquire skills in observation, recording of health
history, communication and physical examination, knowledge of clinical ethics
and professionalism.
The nursing clinic can be conducted at the patient’s bedside or in a clinical
teaching/conference room.

Purposes of bedside nursing clinics

- To apply theory into actual practice by observing, interviewing and studying a
patient
- To apply knowledge and experience to real-life situations.
- To highlight the uniqueness of each individual patient, this can give deeper
insight into their individualized nursing problems

- To understand certain types of apparatus used for particular patient care.

Advantages of beside nursing clinics

- Bedside nursing clinic provide an opportunity for the learner to actively
participate in real life situation learning, thereby building close relationship
between theory and practice
- It provide opportunity for nursing students to learn how to interact with patients,
develop rapport, empathy, self-confidence and develop qualities of observation
and decision-making.
-Anxiety of students is relieved as students learn directly by interacting with
patients in the presence of clinical nursing teacher.

Disadvantages of bedside nursing clinics

- It is not a suitable method for clinical teaching for a large group of students
- It may not be convenient and comfortable for a patient
- Routine care of patient may be disrupted
- Bedside teaching-learning environment may not be always conducive for
student, teacher, patient and neighboring patients and healthcare workers of a
particular ward.

Nursing care conference

Definition
Nursing care conference is a method of teaching that provides an opportunity for
an informal discussion of a problem and free exchange of knowledge and
experiences about the common interest.
It consists of a group discussion using problem-solving techniques of the nursing
process.
It is a method of teaching where the teacher meets a small group of students for
the purpose of accomplishing clinical learning objectives.

Advantages
- It helps the student collect information in a creative way
- It provides a real practical learning environment to students
- It provides free opportunity to think

Disadvantages
- It will be little use if the students are not accustomed to such situations.
- There are chances of using these conference hours for classroom teaching

Individual conference
Individual conference is sometimes described as a conversation with a purpose
or more simply as an interview. The teacher may introduce the students to new
fields of knowledge, imparting information to them regarding this field and strive
to motivate them in the acquisition.
Individual conference may be defined as a teaching tool, which primarily gives
an opportunity to discuss a student’s professional problems privately.

Purposes
- To clarify the personal and professional doubts of the student and provide
him/her educational guidance.
- To answer queries and clarify doubts of students individually.
- To discover the interests, needs and problems of students individually.
- To help the student help themselves and achieve self-development.
 - To also help in supplementing the clinical instructions provided.

Advantages
- Individual conference offers the teacher opportunity to know the student as
a unique individual and understand his/her strength and weakness.
- The student gets an opportunity to know about his/her progress and
achievements and gains encouragement to do better in future.
- It provides a useful avenue and opportunity for individual teaching and
guidance.
- The student feels more secure in the learning environment when his/her
problems and difficulties are discussed confidentially and guidance is
provided.
- It provides excellent opportunity for individual learning.

Disadvantages
- If the teacher has any prejudice or bias towards a student, the individual
conference may provide an opportunity for its demonstration.
- The students may not convey his/her entire problems to the teacher.
- Facing teacher alone without the support of other group members may
create anxiety in the student.

Group conference
Group conference may be defined as meeting of a group of professionals in the
presence of expert teacher or a senior person in a group to discuss a topic common
interest. The main purpose of group nursing conference is to communicate the
common message face to face in short time, where group gets an opportunity to
seek the clarification.

Purposes of group conference

-To communicate a message of common interest to large groups in short-time
period.
-A unique clinical problem or nursing issue may be discussed by an expert to a
common group.
-To obtain the inputs from each member of group so that the best accepted and
recognized solution can be drawn for a particular problem of clinical interest.
-To help find a particular problem of clinical interest
- To help student in developing problem-solving and critical thinking skills

Principles of group conference

- The essential principles of the group conference are that there must be common
objective or common topic of interest in the conference
- There must be an expert team leader to conduct the conference and clarify the
doubts of the group
- The leader must motivate each member to participate in the discussion so that
fruitful results of the group conference may be achieved
- The topic, place, time of conference must be decided and communicated to all
the group members well in advance so that they may come prepared to discuss on
the topic
- The topic of conference must be unique and latest clinical topic of common
interest to achieve the objectives of clinical learning.

Advantages of group conference

- Group conference facilitates to teach a clinical topic to a group of students,
which helps in creating open-mindedness and cooperation in group
- It also provides an opportunity to each student to actively participate in group
activity, which enables to create a conducive social –learning environment in
clinical setting.
- It helps students in developing problem-solving and team-building skills as well
as the ability to express their ideas strongly.

Disadvantages of group conference

- It is not suitable for the beginning level students because they may not contribute
to the discussion
- Students may not always come prepared to group conference to share their own
ideas, and purpose of group conference is defeated.
- The suggestions that come forth from the discussion may not be realistic,
applicable and acceptable.
- It requires lots of efforts and time in planning and implementation of group
conference activity.

Health team conference

Definition
Health team conference is a group of health professionals involved in
accompanying common goals for the purpose of interchanging ideas and solving
problems centered around the patient.
Health team conference may be defined as group-integrated clinical teaching
method, where multidisciplinary health professionals meet to discuss a topic to
enhance the mutual understanding of all the dimensions of care and management
of a patient.

Principles of health team conferences

- There must be an objective or a purpose that is to be accomplished
- Prior announcement of time, place, purpose and duration of conference to all
concerned, so that all come prepared and the purpose of the conference is met.
- Obtaining the most recent data available prior to a conference assures the leader
that the imparted information is pertinent and accurate
- Interaction of conference members on an equal basis encourages active
participation and leads to usable solution to the objective
- Sharing feelings through conferences unifies and integrates membership and
allows progress
Advantages of health team conference
- It is the most modern method of clinical teaching, where in a short time student
from different discipline may be obtaining the clinical learning from experts of
multidisciplinary team
- The compartmentalized clinical learning may be avoided
- Students learn the latest advancements in the other related disciplines form the
expert’s teachers.
-It is the most useful method in nursing, where students may be benefited from
the involvement and inputs of experts from the medical discipline

Disadvantages of health team conference

-Sometimes the student may not be interested in learning the clinical
information’s of other related disciplines
-It may be wastage of time and resources while covering the topic vertically and
horizontally integrated with multidisciplinary approach

Process recording

Introduction
Nursing students are continually attempting to cope with the wide range of human
experience. Often they are faced with conflicts which arise within the
interpersonal process. Process-recording is used as a tool to help them in assisting
to acquire understanding of a competence in IPR.

Definition
Process recording is also known as interpersonal-relations recording, patient-
nurse interaction interviews.
Walker defines “A verbation account of a visit for purposes of bringing out the
interplay between the nurse and the patient in relation to the objectives of the
visit”.
Hudson defines it as “An exact written report of the conversation between the
nurse and the patient during the time they were together. It is also, record of the
nurse’s feelings about what was going on at that time and of the observations of
the patient’s behavior during the conversation”.

Purposes
The aim of process recording is to improve the quality of the interaction of better
effect to the patient and as a learning experience for the nurse to continuously
improve her clinical interaction pattern. When correctly used it:
1) Assist the nurse or student to plan, structure and evaluate the interaction on a
conscious rather than intuitive level.
2) Assist her to gain competency in interpreting and synthesizing raw data under
supervision.
3) Helps to consciously apply theory to practice.
4) Helps the writer to develop an increased awareness of her habitual, verbal and
non-verbal communication pattern and the effect of those patterns on others.
5) Helps the nurse to learn to identify thoughts and feelings in related to self and
others.
6) Helps to increase observation skills as there is a conscious process involved
in thinking, sorting and classifying the interaction under the various headings.
7) Helps to increase ability to identify problems and gain skills in solving them.

Uses
There are mainly three uses:
1. As a Teaching-Learning Tool: Used to teach conversational skills, nurse-
patient interaction, therapeutic communication, etc.
2. As a Self-Evaluation Tool: It provides student an opportunity to evaluate the
effectiveness of her communication, creating awareness within the student for
strengths and weakness in this area.
3. As a Therapeutic Tool: Patient can be helped more by doing process-recording
as the nurse develops more skills in communication and meeting patient’s
needs. As the interactions are recorded, they are open for modification and
hence modified interaction acts as therapeutic tool.

Process recording as a method of clinical teaching

Process recording can be used effectively in any or all of the clinical nursing
areas. The criteria for selection of its use as a method of teaching lie not in the
kind of clinical nursing subject to be taught but the ability of teachers to use it
effectively and in the degree to which it meets the objectives.
Many times the student nurses communicate superficially and stereotyped way
rather than bring therapeutic. She needs to develop more perceptiveness, so that
she can effect constructive intervention through verbal exchange. Regardless of
the area of function, nurse must be aware of dynamics of human behavior and
skill in using her own behavior.

Techniques of process recording

1. Preparing the Students for Process Recording
a) The teacher must help the student to define clearly the appropriate
objectives to be accomplished regarding nurse-patient interaction.
b) Process-recording as a teaching-learning tool should be explained to
student in light of objectives and also to determine how it can be used best
to accomplish the desired goals.
c) Teacher should help the student to learn how to go about in writing a
process-record.
2. Recording Nurse-Patient Interaction
a) An exact verbation report of the patient-nurse conversation.
b) The student’s conscious feelings and her interprepation of the patient’s
feeling.
c) Analysis for meanings and clues to patient’s needs.
 d) The instructor’s and student’s evaluation of the total process record
experience.
For process record to be effective teaching-learning equipment, the necessary
conditions needed are:
 A minimum of 2 people.
 Reassurance of the patient regarding the confidentiality of the
interview. The student also must be impressed with the importance of
keeping the interview material confidential.
 Recording all verbal interaction.
 Notations on thoughts, feelings and actions that the student experiences
during interaction.
 Notation on the non-verbal communication of the patient.
 Notation of the interaction done as soon as possible after the interaction
occurs, noting the time lapse between actual interaction and recording.
3. Evaluating the Nurse-Patient Interaction
a) After the interaction data have been collected by the student, the teacher
and the student have the subject matter for a learning experience.
b) Analysis of data is time consuming and should be considered by the teacher
before she selects the process-recording as a teaching tool.
c) During the process of analyzing the recordings, the objectives of the
learning experience should be kept clearly in focus.
d) The teacher must discuss the process-recording with the student. Each
student is an individual and will relate to each patient in her own unique
way.
e) The teacher should help the student to explore the reason for nurse-patient
interaction.
f) Student needs guidance in analysis according to preplan, a theme is a
generalized, a summary abstraction, characteristic of an event consisting
of many details. These indicate an individual’s mood, thought or action.
g) Themes abstracted from the process-recording facilitate comparison of one
interaction situation with another, thus providing a framework of reference
for interpretation. The process of theme abstraction includes identifying
cues from patient’s verbal and non-verbal communication or from the
nurse’s response to the interaction, analyzing the significance of these cues
and then formulating a theme that summarizes patient’s behavioral
response. Once the theme has been selected nurse should seek consensual
validation of her conclusions. The teacher’s function in this phase of
learning is to provide the consensual validation for the student’s
conclusions or if she doesn’t agree with the student, to repeat the theme
abstraction process together with the student describing, analyzing and
formulating another theme. As the student’s skill increases she may assume
greater responsibility for independent analysis of both the patient’s
communication and her own. Thus, self-evaluation is an integral part of
process-recording analysis.
 h) It provides the teacher with an accurate account of the student’s clinical
learning experience.
i) It makes it possible for the teacher to utilize interaction situations in
helping the student learn communication skills.
j) The instructor uses the technique correctly.
k) Time consuming.

Form of process recording

1. A short description of the patient, his name, age, educational level, health
problems as much as known, and length of stay in hospital.
2. Goals for working with assigned patient.
3. Important factors in patient’s personality development (from history).
4. Somatic therapies and medications for the patient (past and present).
5. Date each recording.
6. Amount of time which you spend with the patient.
7. Describe briefly the setting or situation previous to conversation.
8. Format in Process Recording
Conversation between Student’s Instructor’s
Nurse and Patient Comments Comments

Signature
9. Identify patient’s needs as represented by behavior.
10.Identify mental mechanisms that you think the patient is using and give
examples.
11.After completion of this assignment, comment on how well you were able to
meet the goals which you set up for working with assigned patient.
12.Evaluate the process record as a learning experience for you at the end of the
assignment.