Chapter 2:

THE MORAL
AGENT
 Moral Agent
• Looked into how culture shapes one’s moral behavior.
• The chapter also discusses the reason why culture should
not be the ultimate determining factor of values.
• Moreover, it looks into understanding as Filipinos of
what is right and wrong, why this is how we interpret
moral situations and what influences our moral decisions.
 Culture
• The father of sociology Emile • The father of cultural anthropology,
Durkheim asserted that culture has the Edward Tylor stated that in
power over individuals to create beliefs general, culture is the way of life of
such as belief in God. He added that a group of people that “includes
with more people holding same beliefs, their knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals,
social order is also strengthened. laws, customs and any other
capabilities and habits acquired by
man as a member of society”.
 Lesson 1:
How Culture
Shapes Human
Behavior
 How culture shapes human behavior?
Culture - is a complex phenomenon. It contains all aspects of shared human
experiences.
Human beings are naturally social creatures, who are also naturally drawn to
participate in culture.
➢ People want to belong, to be accepted by peers, and also need protection
from danger. Being part of the social group not only feeds the need to be
accepted, it also increases the human being’s chances to survive.
➢ Thus, because of the safety in numbers that being part of a group provides,
human beings learned to modify behaviors to match that which their cultural
group deem accepted.
 Elements of Culture
1. SYMBOLS
- Can be anything that a group of
people find meaningful.
Examples:
1. the Cross is the symbol for
Christianity while
2. the Crescent is for Islam.
2. LANGUAGE
- is a complex symbol system that enabled human beings to
communicate either verbally or through writing.
Example: Ilocano, Bisaya, Tagalog, Subanen and several other
languages were already spoken in pre-colonial Philippines.
- the ancient script or writing called Baybayin has characters, and
each character represents a complete syllable (Lewis 2015)
3. BELIEFS
- are assumptions or convictions held to be true by an individual or
a group of people. These assumptions/convictions could be about
events, people or things.
Example: Ancient civilizations attributed events to spirits and gods.
This is what we call as “superstitious beliefs”
- However, when people started to think critically and scientific
research flourished, events are now explained differently. This also
shows that beliefs change through time.
4. VALUES
-are culturally accepted standards of behavior. It is what a
person considers important or beneficial in life.
Example: In pre-colonial Philippines there were evidences
that women were equally valued and held central roles in
society just as did the men (Perez, 2013). This was in stark
contrast to the Spanish colonizers however, who valued
women mainly as domestic caretakers.
5. NORMS
- Is an informal guideline by a particular group of people or social
unit about what is considered normal or correct/incorrect social
behavior.
Example: The Filipino norm in relating to other people is to get along
well with others, even with complete strangers. This Filipino trait is called
“Pakikisama”.
 How does culture define moral behavior?
Plato - one of the revered founders of western philosophy in his famous
philosophical work. The Republic cited three critical elements that jointly influence
the human person’s moral development. These elements are:
• Native traits (genetic characteristics)
• Early childhood experience
• One’s cultural surroundings
 Plato
• Implied that if a person’s cultural surroundings reward conformity to agreeable
norms it would lead the person to behave much better and quell undesirable
conduct.
• He also expressed that the power of culture over an individual is more potent in
children because they do not have any pre-existing values. The child’s cultural
surroundings create these values and dispositions.
• He insisted that a child’s cultural surrounding should “express the image of a noble
character”; that role model should display the conduct of a proper human being
because the behavior of the adults serves as the child’s moral foundation as he or she
grows and develops (Cornford,1966; Pekarsky., 1998).
 Franz Boaz

➢ He is a German-American Anthropologist who first

articulated in 1887, “that civilization is not something
absolute, but is relative and our ideas and conceptions are
true only so far as our civilization goes”.
➢ But the first to use the term “Cultural relativism” was
philosopher and social theorist Alain Locke in 1924.
 Lesson 2:
Cultural
Relativism
 Cultural Relativism
• A term that was first used by philosopher and social theorist Alain
Locke in 1924.
• Explains why one’s behavior or practice is completely acceptable by a
particular group of people, while it is taboo in another.
• It refers to the idea that values, knowledge and behavior of people
must be understood within its own cultural context, and not by the
standard of other cultures. Hence, all moral and ethical standards are
valid and there is not “one” standard that is “better” among all others.
5 claims of cultural relativist as to why right or
wrong is a matter of cultural standards –
Dr. James Rachels.
1. Different societies have different moral codes
2. The moral code of a society determines what is right or wrong. There is no
objective standard considered better than others.
3. There is no universal moral truth.
4. The moral code of particular society has no special status. It is but one
among many.
5. It is arrogant for the culture to judge another culture. There should be
tolerance among culture.
 Advantage of Cultural Relativism
1. It warns us from assuming that our preferences are the absolute
rational standard.
2. It teaches us to keep an open mind and to be more amenable in
discovering the truth.
3. Many of our practices are relevant only to our particular community.
This implies our moral views are a reflection of our society’s
prejudices. Cultural relativism makes us understand that what we think
as truth may actually be just the result of cultural conditioning.
 Dangers of Cultural Relativism
1. We cannot call out societal practice that promote harm.
➢ if cultural relativism is true, then we should not condemn what
Hitler and the Nazis did against the Jews, Apartheid in South
Africa, or any form of maltreatment, damage, injury, or
destruction that the community inflicts upon anyone or anything.
2. We cannot justifiably criticize our own culture’s harmful practices.
- this implies that to decide whether your action is right or wrong all
you need to do is check whether your action is in accordance with the
standards of your society. If your actions are in line with your culture, then
you have done nothing wrong - even though your actions were harmful.
After all, if it is true that you cannot criticize other cultures, then all the
more can you not criticize your own culture, since people in your group
accept it as away of life.
3. The idea of social progress becomes doubtful
- progress means replacing something old with
something better. However, if cultural relativism is to be
followed, by what standards do we say that a society has
become better? The idea of social reform is now eradicated
because we are prohibited judging one society as better over
others.
 Three universal values shared by all cultures:

1. Caring for the young

2. Murder is wrong
3. Tell the truth
- the theoretical point here is that “there are some moral rules that all
societies will have in common, because those rules are necessary for society to
survive”
 Lesson 4:
The Filipino Way
Factors where strengths and weaknesses of
Filipino characters were rooted:
1. Home Environment
- Filipino children are taught to value family and give it primary importance.

2. Social Environment
- The Filipino social environment is characterized by depending on one another to
survive. This dependence on relationships and the struggle for survival make
Filipinos group oriented.
3. Culture and Language
- depict openness to foreign elements with no basic
consciousness of our cultural core (Licuanan, 1994). The Filipino
colonial mentality such as the importance of the English Language
in our educational system, the wider following of Hollywood
movies, foreign soap operas, TV shows, and foreign songs/singers
over Filipino movies, shows and music is a manifestation of our
attachment to foreign elements.
4. History
- is regarded as the culprit behind our colonial
mentality. Unfortunately, most Filipino elite are of no help
in setting an example of overcoming colonial mentality
because they are even more westernized in their ways.
Present day media on the other hand reinforced these
colonial influences (1994).
5. Educational System
- is also instrumental in molding the strengths and weaknesses of the
Filipino character. Schools are highly authoritarian. Early on, children learn that
well-behaved and obedient students are praised and rewarded. This teaches
passivity and conformity.
6. Religion

- The Filipinos are also religious. Religion taught us

optimism and resilience. However, it also instilled in us a
fatalistic attitude. Since religious communities are also
highly authoritarian, this further reinforced our being
passive and conformist (Licuanan, 1994)
7. Economic Environment
- the hard life drove Filipinos to work hard and take risks, such as
leaving our families to work abroad. This further developed our ability to
survive.
8. Political Environment
- Unfortunately our Political environment and government structures
and systems are fraught with problems.
Example: The fact that political power is mainly in the hands of the elite and the
absence of a strong government presence enhanced by the Filipinos already
extreme family centeredness (Licuanan, 1994)
Economic and Political environments – are among the elements that developed
the culture of corruption in the Philippines.
.
9. Mass Media
- How did mass media reinforce our colonial mentality? What did
you notice with the ads, the music, movies, fashion, etc. shown on TV,
aired over the radio, printed in newspapers or magazines, or went viral
online?
- these were greatly based on American pop culture. The emphasis
on the superiority of an imported brand or product through mass
media is, in fact, part of a Filipinos daily life
10. Leaders and Role Models
- Filipinos highly respect authority. Any person with
authority is looked up to, thus when our leaders violate the
law and when there is lack of accountability for leaders
who break the law, the Filipino mindset is hugely affected
in a negatively way (Licuanan, 1994).
Strengths of the
Filipino
Characters
 The Strong Aspects of the Filipino Characters:

1. Pakikipagkapwa-tao
- is demonstrated in Filipino’s openness, helpfulness and
generosity; in the practice of bayanihan or mutual assistance, and
the famous Filipino hospitality (Licuanan, 1994; Guevarra &
Gripaldo 2005).
2. Family orientation
Genuine love of family - This love is not just for one’s spouse and
children but also to parents, grand parents, aunts, uncles, cousins
(even very distant relatives) and even to ceremonial’s relatives.
- this love is shown through giving honor and respect to parents
and elders, care for the children, generosity towards kin, and the
personal sacrifice that a Filipino endures for the welfare of the family.
This strong family orientation gave Filipinos a sense of belonging and
security.
3. Joy and Humor
- are demonstrated in our various fiestas and social
gatherings. We can laugh at those we love and hate and can
make joke about our good or bad fortune. Even in the most
trying times, Filipinos will always find a reason to smile or
laugh. This pleasant disposition contributed to our ability to
overcome life’s challenges.
4. Flexibility, Adaptability, and Creativity
- Filipinos are tremendous in adjusting and adapting to any
circumstances. We can improvize and make use of whatever is at hand
to create and produce.
- are the reasons why many Filipinos thrive in various parts of the
world.
5. Hard work and Industry
- these traits are most noticeable in our willingness to take risk and
work in other countries.

6. Faith and Religiosity

- this can be related to our “bahala na” mindset. There is actually a positive to this
fatalistic trait. For Filipinos the “bahala na” attitude could serve as a “kickstarter” or a
“pampalakas loob” to move him or her into action ( Gripaldo, 2005).
7. Ability to survive
- the salawikain or proverb “Matutong mamaluktot habang
maikli ang kumot” aptly depicts our survival instinct. We can endure,
make, do, and get by on so little while looking forward to the coming
of better days
- this trait is the reason why Filipinos continue to carry on even
through our harsh economic and social circumstances (Tianco &
Gripaldo, 2005; Licuanan, 1994).
Weaknesses of the
Filipino Characters
 Importance of pointing out weaknesses

▪ This enables the Filipino to identify the areas that need

improvement in order to grow and develop as a person.
▪ An informed and improved Filipino will also result in
stronger and more progressive nation.
1. Extreme Personalism
• This is where the “palakasan” system spring from. Filipinos want to get special
treatment and will always look for “inside connections” in most (if not all) of
his or her transactions.
• It is another element that leads to the prevalence of graft and corruption in the
country.
• Example: family and friends are given preference in hiring; in the delivery of
service; and even in voting. Since personal contact are involved, request of thus
nature become difficult to turn down.
2. Extreme Family-Centeredness
• The family may be a source of strength for Filipinos
• Family is valued above anything and everyone else. Thus concern for the rest
of the community and for the common good is less important.
• Is manifested in our political system where political dynasties lord over our
elected government posts starting from the barangay level all the way up to the
national position (McCoy, 1994; Licuanan, 1994).
 3. Lack of Discipline
• Is characterized by our idiomatic expression “ningas cogon”. Project
was started with full enthusiasm and interest, but no sooner was it
finished when the enthusiasm and interest just as soon died down.
• Another related characteristic is “Filipino Time”. Filipinos are known
to be always late - we arrive late or we start late. Since global trends
strictly follow schedules, this trait that disregard the importance of time
is adversely affecting Filipino productivity ( Tan, 2016).
 4. Passivity and Lack of Initiative
• Filipinos have a very high respect for authority. For instance, there is a strong
reliance on leaders and government to solve the nations problem but ordinary
Filipino’s also do not feel the need to initiate or contribute to the solution.
• This trait is also related to our lack of discipline. Look at our traffic problem.
We expect the government to solve the monstrous traffic jam; traffic rules and
regulations are also blatantly ignored everyday.
 5. Colonial Mentality
• Is connected to our general feelings of inferiority, where
we think foreigners, especially westerners, are superior
(1994).
• Filipinos love anything foreign.
• Foreign elements are adapted and incorporated into our
image. In the process, we are losing our cultural identity.
 6. Kanya-kanya Syndrome
• Is related to the Filipino traits of extreme personalism and extreme
family centeredness. Personal and in-group interests are supreme and
the drive to fulfill this interest is completely insensitive to the common
good.
• Dampened our sense of community and cooperation and we trample
on each others rights as a result.
• Crab mentality – an expression where we tend to pull others down to
climb up, exemplify the kanya-kanya syndrome.
 7. Lack of self-analysis and self-reflection
• Filipinos also have the tendency to be superficial and flighty.
• The manifestation of this lack of self analysis and self reflection is
the expression that Filipinos are “madaling makalimot” or have a
short memory.
• This means as a nation we easily forget the mistakes we made; hence
we make the same mistakes again. This is one reason that traditional
politician or “trapos” are always re-elected into office.
 Lesson 5:
How is Moral
Character Developed?
• Moral – is concerned with the principles of
right and wrong
behavior or goodness and badness of human character”
(Meriam Webster 2017)
• Character – is defined as the mental and moral qualities
distinct to an individual (Meriam Webster 2017). But in
philosophy, character usually denotes the moral dimension
of a person (Timpe, 2007)
• Moral character – refers to the “existence (or lack) of
virtue such as integrity, courage, fortitude, honesty and
loyalty” (Merriam Webster 2017).
 Moral character as disposition
Moral characters – are dispositions or tendency to act
or think in a particular way for which a person can be held
morally responsible. Moral character traits are rational,
informed, stable and reliable dispositions. (Internet
Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2017)
 Philosophical
views on moral
character
 Confucian Tradition
• Moral development was attributed to “four beginnings” of the human
personality ( Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2017). These “four
beginnings” were considered as seeds of human personality that will naturally
unfold to become human activities.
• Personality
- a given human condition (Western Understanding).
- an achieved state of moral excellence (Confucian Perception)
The four beginnings of Confucian tradition are:

1. The heart of compassion , which leads to Jen.

2. The heart of righteousness, which leads to Yi.
3. The heart of propriety, which leads to Li.
4. The heart of wisdom, which leads to Zhi.
• Jen - means goodwill, sympathy towards others, and
generosity.
• Yi - means righteousness and the respect of duty, that is,
respect your position as guardian towards nature and
humanity
• Li - leads with outward behavior such as etiquette, custom
and rituals.
• Zhi - means wisdom; and the wisdom is the product of
practicing Jen, Yi, and Li in one’s life (Liu, 2002)
Aristotle and Virtue Ethics
Aristotle and
Virtue Ethics
 Virtue Ethics
• Is an approach that reduces the emphasis on rules,
consequence and particular acts. Instead, it focuses on the
quality of the person.
• Although action and consequences are significant, it does not
focus on whether an action is right or wrong; nor on whether
the consequences are good or bad.
• It is more concerned with whether the person is acting as a
virtuous person should act in the situation.
 What does it mean to be a good person?

Proper functioning – a human essence where everything has a

function and the thing that performs as intended is called
good when it is able to fulfill this function.
Example:
• A pair of scissors is good when it can cut
• A motorcycle or car is good if it runs and takes you to your
destination
• A person is good if he or she fulfills what nature expect him
or her. Hence, a person needs to sleep, to grow healthy, and
develop as nature intended.
• However, aside from its natural instincts, a person according
to Aristotle is also a “rational animal” and a “social animal.”
therefore, using reason to live and get along other people is
also human persons action.
• A “good person” is one who fulfills all these functions.
 What does it mean to be virtuous?

Virtue – according to the Greek means excellence.

➢A person of virtue is someone who performs the distinctive activity
of being human well.
Doctrine of Golden Mean – the principle of being virtuous.
➢ That moral behavior is one that is in the middle of two extreme
behaviors (or what he called vices)
Extreme behavior - means the act was either excessive or deficient.
Example: DOCTRINE OF THE GOLDEN MEAN
EATING
Starvation Temperance Gluttony

To eat just a right

amount at all
A person who When a person
times to keep
diets too much over eats
your body well-
nourished.
 Aristotle’s Doctrine of the Mean
➢ Does not claim that you behave in moderately at all times; such as
when you get angry, you should only ever be moderately angry. In
Aristotle’s philosophy, you should be as angry as the situation
demands which can be very angry or only slightly irritated.
➢ He concluded that VIRTUE is a choice of behaving the right way, at
the right time, with the right people and that this choice is determined
by rational principle and practical wisdom.
 Virtuous Man

➢ Is the kind of man (note: the term “man” in Aristotle’s writing is

equated with person and not just as opposite to woman) who is able
to satisfy both inclination and rational desires because his or her
inclinations and desires are aligned.
➢ A person who wants to do what is good and does it because
he/she derives pleasure from choosing and doing what is moral.
 Why do we have to be virtuous?
➢ The reason according to virtue ethics is “Eudaimonia”
Eudaimonia – can be translated as “happiness”, “well-being”
or the “good life” and that is the goal of human life.
Aristotle believed that to achieve Eudaimonia you need to practice the
virtues in your everyday activities all through your life.