Chapter 1 Resource and Development

Resources
A "Resource" is everything in our surroundings that can be used to meet our requirements
and is both economically and culturally feasible as well as technologically accessible. The
human race itself is a vital component of resources. They employ the materials found in the
environment to change them into resources.

Classification of Resources
Resources can be classified in the following ways:
(a) On the basis of origin – biotic and abiotic
(b) On the basis of exhaustibility – renewable and non-renewable
(c) On the basis of ownership – individual, community, national and international
(d) On the basis of the status of development – potential, developed stock and reserves
(a) On the Basis of Origin – Biotic and Abiotic
Biotic resources are living things that come from the biosphere.
For instance: People, animals, fisheries, plants, and so forth
Abiotic Resources: Anything made up of nonliving things is referred to as an abiotic
resource such as metals and rocks.
(b) On the Basis of Exhaustibility – Renewable and Non-Renewable
Renewable or replenishable resources are those that can be replenished through
chemical, mechanical, or physical processes. One can further categorize renewable
resources as either continuous or flowing.
For instance, water, forests, wildlife, solar and wind energy, etc.
Over an extended period of geological time, non-renewable resources occur. The creation
of these resources takes millions of years. Certain resources, like metals, can be recycled,
whereas others, like fossil fuels, cannot and run out of supply after being used.
Minerals and fossil fuels, for instance.
(c) On the Basis of Ownership – Individual, Community, National and International
Individuals own individual resources in their exclusive possession. People own lands in
villages, houses, plots, and other properties in urban areas.
For instance: Ponds, pasture areas, plantations, water in wells, etc.
All community members have access to community-owned resources.
For instance, public parks, playgrounds, picnic areas, grazing areas, and graveyards.
A nation or countries own national resources. All minerals, water resources, forests, wildlife,
land inside political boundaries, and marine areas up to 12 nautical miles (22.2 km) from the
shore are considered territorial water. Every resource within is owned by the country.
such as railroads, canals, and roads.
International organisations oversee international resources. Ocean resources that are
located outside of the Exclusive Economic Zone's 200 nautical miles belong to the open
ocean, and no nation may use them without the approval of international organisations.
(d) On the Basis of the Status of Development – Potential, Developed Stock and
Reserves
The resources that are there in an area but have not yet been used are known as potential
resources.
For instance, wind and solar energy have a lot of potential but haven't been effectively
developed yet in Rajasthan and Gujarat.
Developed Resources: Resources that have been analysed and their amount and quality
assessed for use. Resources are developed based on technology and how feasible they are
Stocks are natural materials that have the capacity to meet human requirements but are
inaccessible to humans due to a lack of necessary technologies.
Eg: Hydrogen can be used as a rich source of energy. But we do not have advanced
technology to use it.
Reserves are the portion of the stock that hasn't yet been used but can be with the
assistance of current technical "know-how." These can be applied to fulfil demands in the
future.
For instance, water stored in dams, forests, etc., serves as a reserve that may be needed
later.

Development of Resources
Resources have been used by human beings indiscriminately and this has led to the
following major problems.
● Depletion of resources to satisfy the greed of a few individuals.
● Accumulation of resources in a few hands, which, in turn, divided the society into two
segments i.e., rich and poor.
● It has led to global ecological crises such as global warming, ozone layer depletion,
environmental pollution and land degradation.
Resource planning is essential for the sustainable existence of all forms of life. Sustainable
Economic Development means “development should take place without damaging the
environment, and development in the present should not compromise with the needs of
future generations.”

Resource Planning
In India, there are some regions which can be considered self-sufficient in terms of the
availability of resources and there are some regions which have an acute shortage of some
vital resources. This calls for balanced resource planning at the national, state, regional and
local levels.
Resource Planning in India
Resource planning is a complex process which involves:
(i) Identification and inventory of resources across the regions of the country. This involves
surveying, mapping and qualitative and quantitative estimation and measurement of the
resources.
(ii) Evolving a planning structure endowed with appropriate technology, skill and institutional
set-up for implementing resource development plans.
(iii) Matching the resource development plans with overall national development plans
Resources can contribute to development only when they are accompanied by appropriate
technological development and institutional changes. India has made concerted efforts
towards achieving the goals of resource planning right from the First Five Year Plan
launched after Independence.
To overcome irrational consumption and over-utilization of resources, resource conservation
at various levels is important.

Land Resources
Land is a natural resource of utmost importance. It supports natural vegetation, wildlife,
human life, economic activities, transport and communication systems. India has land under
a variety of relief features, namely, mountains, plateaus, plains and islands as shown below:
Land Utilisation
Land resources are used for the following purposes:
● Forests
● Land not available for cultivation.
● a) Barren and wastelandb) Land put to non-agricultural uses
● Fallow lands
● Other uncultivated lands (excluding fallow land)
● Net sown area
Land Use Pattern in India
The use of land is determined.
●Physical factors: such as topography, climate, soil types
●Human factors: such as population density, technological capability and culture and
traditions etc.
Waste land is the land put to other non-agricultural uses which include rocky, arid and
desert areas, roads, railways, industry etc. Continuous use of land over a long period of time
without taking appropriate measures to conserve and manage it, has resulted in land
degradation.

Land Degradation and Conservation Measures

Human activities such as deforestation, overgrazing, mining and quarrying have contributed
significantly to land degradation. Mining sites leave deep scars and traces of overburdening
the land. In recent years, industrial effluents as waste have become a major source of land
and water pollution in many parts of the country.
Some of the ways through which we can solve the problems of land degradation are:
● Afforestation and proper management of grazing.
● Planting of shelter belts of plants.
● Stabilisation of sand dunes by growing thorny bushes.
● Proper management of wastelands.
● Control of mining activities.
● Proper discharge and disposal of industrial effluents and wastes after treatment.

Soil as a Resource
Soil is the most important renewable natural resource. It is the medium of plant growth and
supports different types of living organisms on the earth.
● It takes millions of years to form soil up to a few cms in depth. Various forces of
nature, such as changes in temperature, actions of running water, wind and glaciers,
activities of decomposers, etc., contribute to the formation of soil.
● Parent rock or bedrock, climate, vegetation and other forms of life and time are
important factors in the formation of soil.
● Chemical and organic changes which take place in the soil play an important role.
● Soil also consists of organic (humus) and inorganic materials.
Classification of Soils
On the basis of the factors responsible for soil formation, colour, thickness, texture, age, and
chemical and physical properties, the soils of India are classified into different types, as
mentioned below.

Alluvial Soils
● The entire northern plains are made of alluvial soil.
● The Alluvial Soil is deposited by 3 important Himalayan river systems – the Indus, the
Ganga and the Brahmaputra.
● It is also found in Rajasthan, Gujarat and eastern coastal plains, particularly in the
deltas of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri rivers.
● The alluvial soil consists of various proportions of sand, silt and clay. As we move
inland towards the river valleys, soil particles appear to be bigger in size whereas in
the upper side of the river valley, the soils are coarse.
● Based on age, Alluvial soils can be classified as:
●Old Alluvial (Bangar): The Bangar soil has a higher concentration of kanker nodules
than the Khadar.
●New Alluvial (Khadar): It has more fine particles and is more fertile than the Bangar.
● Alluvial soils are very fertile. These soils contain an adequate proportion of potash,
phosphoric acid and lime, which are ideal for the growth of sugarcane, paddy, wheat
and other cereal and pulse crops.

Black Soil
● This soil is black in colour and is also known as regur soil. Climatic conditions, along
with the parent rock material are the important factors for the formation of black soil.
● The soil is ideal for growing cotton and is also known as black cotton soil.
● This type of soil is typical of the Deccan trap (Basalt) region spread over the
northwest Deccan plateau and is made up of lava flows.
● The soil covers the plateaus of Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa, Madhya Pradesh
and Chhattisgarh and extends in the southeast direction along the Godavari and the
Krishna valleys.
● The black soils are made up of extremely fine i.e. clayey material and are well-known
for their capacity to hold moisture.
● Black soil is nutrients rich and contains calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash and
lime.
● The soil is sticky when wet and difficult to work on unless tilled immediately after the
first shower or during the pre-monsoon period.

Red and Yellow Soils

● This type of soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks in areas of low rainfall in the
eastern and southern parts of the Deccan plateau.
● These soils develop a reddish colour due to the diffusion of iron in crystalline and
metamorphic rocks. It looks yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form.
● Found in parts of Odisha, Chhattisgarh, southern parts of the middle Ganga plain and
along the Piedmont zone of the Western Ghats.

Laterite Soil
● The laterite soil develops under tropical and subtropical climates with the alternate
wet and dry season.
● This soil is the result of intense leaching due to heavy rain.
● Lateritic soils are acidic (pH<6.0) in nature and generally deficient in plant nutrients.
This type of soil is found mostly in Southern states, Western Ghats region of
Maharashtra, Odisha, some parts of West Bengal and the northeast regions.
● The soil supports deciduous and evergreen forests but humus poor.
● This soil is very useful for growing tea and coffee.
Arid Soils
● Arid soils range from red to brown in colour.
● This soil is generally sandy in texture and saline in nature. In some areas, the salt
content is very high and common salt is obtained by evaporating the water.
● Arid soil lacks humus and moisture.
● The lower horizons of the soil are occupied by Kankar because of the increasing
calcium content downwards. The Kankar layer formations in the bottom horizons
restrict the infiltration of water.
Forest Soils
● These soils are found in the hilly and mountainous areas.
● The soil texture is loamy and silty on the valley sides and coarse-grained on the
upper slopes.
● In the snow-covered areas of the Himalayas, these soils experience denudation and
are acidic with low humus content. The soil is fertile on the river terraces and alluvial
fans.

Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation

Soil erosion is defined as the depletion of the soil cover and the ensuing washing down.
Human activities including mining, overgrazing, construction, and deforestation are to blame
for soil erosion.
Moreover, soil erosion is caused by a few natural phenomena like wind, glaciers, and water.
Farming practices that are not up to par might also lead to soil erosion.
The clayey soils are sliced through by the flowing water, creating gullies and other deep
channels. The area is referred to as "bad land" after it is unsuitable for farming.
Sheet erosion is the process of large-scale, topsoil-eroding streams of water flowing down a
slope in a sheet form. Wind erosion occurs when the wind carries loose soil off a sloping or
level terrain.
Different Ways for Soil Conservation
● Water flow down slopes is slowed by ploughing along contour lines. We refer to this
as contour ploughing.
● Erosion is limited through terrace cultivation. The Western and Central Himalayas are
home to this kind of agriculture.
● when a sizable field is split into strips and grass is allowed to grow in between the
rows of crops. The wind's force is then reduced as a result. We call this technique
"Strip Cropping."
● Stabilising the desert in western India and stabilising sand dunes are achieved
through the planting of rows of trees to provide shade. These tree rows are referred
to as "Shelter Belts.
 Chapter 2 Forest and Wildlife Resources

We humans along with all living organism form a complex web of ecological system in which
we are only a part and very much dependent on this system for our own existence. For
example, the plants, animals and microorganism recreate the quality of the air we breathe.
Flora And Fauna in India:
1. India is one of the world’s richest countries in terms of its vast array of biological diversity
and has nearly 8 per cent of the total number of species in the world.
2. This is possibly twice or twice or thrice the number yet to be discovered.
3. These diverse flora and fauna are so well integrated into our daily life that we take these
for granted.
4. They are under great stress mainly due to insensitivity to our environment.
5. That at least 10 per cent of India’s recorded wild flora and 20 per cent of its mammals are
on the threatened list.

Categorisation of Species

Normal Species: Species whose population levels are considered to be normal for their

survival, such as cattle, Sal, pine, rodents, etc.,

Endangered Species: These are species which are in danger of extinction the survival of

such species is difficult if the negative factor that has led to a decline in their population

continue to operate.

Vulnerable Species: These are species whose population has declined to levels from where

it is likely to move into the endangered category in the near future if the negative factors

continue to operate.

Rare Species: Species with a small population may move into the endangered or vulnerable

category if the negative factors affecting them continue to operate.

Endemic Species: These are species which are only found in some particular areas usually

isolated by natural or geographical barriers.

Extinct Species: These are species which are not found after searches of known or likely
areas where they may occur.
Conservation: Protection of the natural environment to prevent it from further
deterioration.
IUCN: The International Union for Conservation of nature and natural resources is the
worlds oldest and largest global environmental organisation, founded in1948. it is also called
the world conservation union.

What are the negative factors that cause such fearful depletion of the flora and fauna:
1. We have transformed nature into a resource obtaining directly and indirectly from the
forest and wildlife.
2. It is we ourselves who have depleted our forest and wildlife.
3. The major causes of depletion of forest resources between 1951 and 1980 accordingly to
the forest survey of India over 26,200sqq.km
4. The Large scale development project has also contributed significantly to the loss of forest.
5. 1951, over 5,000 sq km forest was cleared for river valley project.
6. Narmada Sagar project in Madhya Pradesh which would inundate 40,000 hectares of
forest.
7. These protected areas thus mean different things to different people and therein lies the
fertile ground for conflicts.
8. Habitat destruction, hunting, poaching over – exploitation, environmental pollution
poisoning and forest fires are factors.
9. Over population in third world countries is often cited as the cause of environmental
degradation.
10. American consumes 40 times more resources than an average Somalian.
11. The richest five per cent of India society probably cause more ecological damage because
of the amount they consume than the poorest 25 per cent.
12. The biological loss is strongly correlated with the loss of cultural diversity.
13. Women bear the major responsibility for collection of fuel, fodder, water and other basic
subsistence needs.
14. Poverty, in this case, is a direct outcome of environmental destruction.
15. This is imperative to adapt to sound forest and wildlife conservation strategies.

Conservation of Forest and Wildlife in India:

1. Conservation in the background of a rapid decline in wildlife population and forestry has
become essential.
2. In the 1960s and 1070s conservation demanded a national wildlife protection programme.
3. The Indian Wildlife Act was implemented in 1972 with various provision for protecting
habitats.
4. The central government also announced several projects for protecting specific animals
which were gravely threatened, including the tiger.
5. We have been given full or partial legal protection against hunting and trade throughout
India.

Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act:

1. An act for the conservation of biodiversity of India.
2. Passed in 1972.
3. Contains a list of protected species in the country.
4. The ban on hunting was imposed.
5. Legal protection was provided to the habitats of endangered species.
6. Restriction on trade in wildlife.
7. Established national parks and wildlife sanctuaries throughout the country.
8. Projects such as Project Tiger, Project Elephant etc. that were specific to a particular
species were formulated
9. Project Tiger, Initiated in 1973.
10. Tiger population has dwindled to about 1800 from 55000 in the early 20th century.

Project Tiger:
1. It was launched by the government of India in 1973.
2. To save the endangered species of tiger in the country.
3. The major threats to tiger population are poaching for the trade of tiger skins and bones
which are traditionally used in medicines in Asian Countries.
4. Others threats are a) shrinking habitat b) depletion of prey base species and growing
human population.
5. India and Nepal Became the prime targets for poaching and illegal trading because they
provide natural habitat for two-thirds of the surviving tiger populations.
Major tiger reserve of India are:
1. Corbett national park - Uttarakhand
2. Bandhavgarh National Park - Madhya Pradesh
3. Sunderbans National Parks - West Bengal
4. Sariska wildlife sanctuary - Rajasthan
5. Manas tiger reserve - Assam
6. Periyar tiger reserve - Kerala
7. Nagarjuna Sagar Srigailam Andhra Pradesh tiger reserve ( largest in India)

Types and Distribution of Forest and Wildlife Resources:

Even if we want to conserve our vast forest and wildlife resources, it is rather difficult to
manage, control and regulate them.
1. Reserved Forest: More than half of the total forest land has declared reserved forest are
regarded as the most valuable as far as the conservation of forest and wildlife resources are
concerned.
2. Protected forest: Almost one – third of the total forest of the total forest area is protected
forest, as declared by the Forest Department. This land is protected from any further
depletion.
3. Unclassed Forest: These are other forest and waste lands belonging to both government
and private individuals and communities.

Community and Conservation:

In Sariska Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan, villagers have fought against mining by
citing declared 1200 hectares of forest as the Bhairodev Dakav 8Sonchuri9. They don9t
the Wildlife Protection Act.
● In five villages located in the Alwar district of Rajasthan, the inhabitants have
allow hunting in these regions and hence protect the wildlife from an outside
harm.
● Sacred groves are not has religious sentiments attached but also saves a wealth
of rare species. These beliefs have preserved several virgin forests in pristine
form called Sacred Groves (the forests of God and Goddesses).
● Mahua is worshipped by the the Mundas and the Santhal of Chota Nagpur
region while tamarind and mango is worshiped by the tribes of Odisha and
Bihar during weddings. In Indian Hindu society, peepal tress is considered
sacred.
● Blackbuck, peacocks and nilgai are seen as an integral part of the Bishnoi
villages in Rajasthan and aren9t harmed or killed.
● The Chipko moment has successful helped in saving the flora but has also
brought people together to save the environment.
● Beej Bachao Andolan in Tehri and Navdanya has promoted people to stop
using synthetic chemicals as sufficient crop harvest can be produced even
without the use of chemical fertilizers.
● Joint forest management (JFM) programme involves local people and
communities to restore forests. It was frist started in Odisha in 1988.
Chipko Movement
1. Started in the 1970s in Garhwal in Uttarakhand.
2. Trees were prevented from being cut by forming a human circle around them.
3. It spread across the country.

Beej Bachao Andolan

1. Started in the 1980s in Tehri region of Uttarakhand.

2. Led by the farmer and social activist Vijay Jardhari.
3. Started in 1988 by the Government of India.
4. First launched in Orissa.
5. Involves local communities for conserving wildlife and restoring degraded forests.

Joint Forest Management:

1. It is launched by various states government.
2. In this programme, village communities are entrusted with the protection and
management of the nearby forest.
3. Areas concerned are usually degraded or even deforested areas.
4. The first state to start this programme was Odisha in 1988.
5. The communities are required to organise forest protection committees, development
societies etc.
6. Each body has an executive committee that manages the day to day affairs.
 Water Resources
Water is a renewable resource
Freshwater is mainly obtained from surface runoff and groundwater that is continually being
renewed and rechanged through the hydrological cycle. All water moves within the hydrological
cycle ensuring that water is a renewable resource.
The availability of water resources varies over space and time, mainly due to the variations in
seasonal and annual precipitation.
Water Scarcity and the Need for Water Conservation and Management:
Water Scarcity is the lack of freshwater resources to meet the demands of water usage within a
region.
Main causes of water scarcity:
• Water scarcity in most cases is caused by over-exploitation, excessive use, and unequal
access to water among different social groups.
• Water scarcity may be an outcome of a large and growing population and consequent
greater demands for water and unequal access to it.
• To facilitate higher food-grain production, water resources are being over-exploited to
expand irrigated areas for dry-season agriculture.
• Intensive industrialization and urbanization exerted pressure on existing freshwater
resources.
• Even if water is sufficiently available to meet the needs of the people, much of it is
maybe polluted by domestic and industrial wastes, chemicals, pesticides, and fertilizers
used in agriculture, thus causing water scarcity.
Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM)
The Goal of JJM is to enable every rural household to get an assured supply of potable piped
water at a service level of 55 liters per capita per day regularly on a long-term basis by ensuring
the functionality of the tap water connections.
Need for Water Conservation
1. Sustainable Resource Management: Conserving water ensures its availability for future
generations and sustains ecosystems.
2. Mitigating Water Scarcity: Many regions face water scarcity, and conservation helps
balance supply and demand.
 3. Preserving Aquatic Ecosystems: Conserved water supports healthy habitats for aquatic
plants and animals.
4. Reducing Energy Consumption: Water treatment and distribution consume energy, and
conserving water lowers energy demands.
5. Agricultural Efficiency: Efficient irrigation practices save water and optimize
agricultural productivity.
6. Economic Benefits: Water conservation lowers costs for individuals, businesses, and
governments.
7. Addressing Climate Change: Reduced water wastage contributes to climate change
mitigation.
8. Minimizing Water Pollution: Conservation reduces the need for pollutant removal from
water sources.
Multi-purpose River Projects and Integrated Water Resources Management:
A dam is a barrier across flowing water that obstructs, directs, or retards the flow, often creating
a reservoir, lake, or impoundment. “Dam” refers to the reservoir rather than the structure.
Jawaharlal Nehru proclaimed the dams as the ‘Temples of modern India’ because
• They integrate the development of agriculture and the village economy with rapid
industrialization and growth of the urban economy.
• They provide water for irrigation.
• They provide water for electricity generation
• Provide water supply for domestic and industrial uses.
• Helps in flood control.
• Provide recreation
• Helps in inland navigation.
• Useful for fish breeding.
Hence, dams are now referred to as multi-purpose projects where the many uses of the
impounded water are integrated with one another.
In recent years, multi-purpose projects and large dams have come under great scrutiny
and opposition for a variety of reasons
• Regulating and damming of rivers affect their natural flow causing poor sediment flow
and excessive sedimentation at the bottom of the reservoir, resulting in rockier stream
beds and poorer habitats for the rivers’ aquatic life.
 • Dams also fragment rivers making it difficult for aquatic fauna to migrate, especially for
spawning.
• The dams have triggered floods due to sedimentation in the reservoir and the release of
excess water during heavy rains.
• Multipurpose projects induced earthquakes, caused water-borne diseases, and pests, and
lead to pollution resulting from excessive use of water.
• Irrigation has changed the cropping pattern of many regions with farmers shifting to
water-intensive and commercial crops. This has great ecological consequences like
salinization of the soil.
• The dams increase the social gap between the richer landowners and the landless poor.
• The dams create inter-state water disputes with regard to sharing the costs and benefits of
the multi-purpose project.
Most of the objections to the projects arose due to their failure to achieve the purposes for
which they were built.
• Ironically, the dams that were constructed to control floods have triggered floods due to
sedimentation in the reservoir.
• Moreover, the big dams have mostly been unsuccessful in controlling floods at the time
of excessive rainfall. The floods have not only devastated life and property but also
caused extensive soil erosion.
• Sedimentation also meant that the flood plains were deprived of silt, a natural fertilizer,
further adding to the problem of land degradation.
• It was also observed that the multi-purpose projects induced earthquakes, causing water-
borne diseases and pests, and pollution resulting from excessive use of water.
Narmada Bachao Andolan or Save Narmada Movement
• It is a Non-Governmental Organisation (NGO) that mobilized tribal people, farmers,
environmentalists, and human rights activists against the Sardar Sarovar Dam being built
across the Narmada River in Gujarat.
• It originally focused on the environmental issues related to trees that would be submerged
under the dam water.
• Recently it has re-focused the aim to enable poor citizens, especially the oustees
(displaced people) to get full rehabilitation facilities from the government.

Rainwater Harvesting
The need for rainwater harvesting are:
 • Rainwater harvesting is needed to provide it for agriculture, collect drinking water,
irrigate the fields, and to moisten the soil.
• Rainwater harvesting is a viable alternative, both socio-economically and
environmentally to multipurpose projects.

Traditional methods of rainwater harvesting:

• In hill and mountainous regions, people built diversion channels like the ‘guls’ or ‘kuls’
of the Western Himalayas for agriculture.
• ‘Rooftop rainwater harvesting’ was commonly practiced to store drinking water,
particularly in Rajasthan.
• In the flood plains of Bengal, people developed inundation channels to irrigate their
fields.
• In semi-arid and arid regions, agricultural fields were converted into rain-fed storage
structures that allowed the water to stand and moisten the soil like the ‘khadins’ in
Jaisalmer and ‘Johads’ in other parts of Rajasthan.
Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting
Rainwater is commonly referred to as Palar Pani in the arid and semi-arid regions of Rajasthan.
• In the semi-arid and arid regions of Rajasthan, particularly in Bikaner, Phalodi, and
Barmer, almost all the houses traditionally had underground tanks for storing drinking
water.
• The tanks could be as large as a big room.
• The tanks were part of the well-developed rooftop rainwater harvesting system.
• They were connected to the sloping roofs of the houses through a pipe.
• Rain falling on the rooftops would travel down the pipe and be stored in these
underground tanks.
• The first spell of rain was usually not collected as this would clean the roofs and the
pipes.
• The rainwater from the subsequent showers was then collected.
Tamil Nadu is the first state in India that has made rooftop rainwater harvesting structures
compulsory for all houses across the state.
Importance of rooftop rainwater harvesting in Rajasthan:
• It was commonly practiced to store drinking water.
 • The rainwater can be stored in the tanks till the next rainfall, making it an extremely
reliable source of drinking water when all other sources are dried up, particularly in the
summers.
• Rainwater (Palar Pani) is considered the purest form of natural water.
• Many houses construct underground rooms adjoining the ‘tanks’ to beat the summer heat
as it would keep the room cool.
• Some houses still maintain the tanks since they do not like the taste of tap water.
Bamboo Drip Irrigation system
It is a 200-year-old system of tapping stream and spring water by using bamboo pipes and
transporting water from higher to lower regions with the help of gravity.
Features:
• 18-20 liters of water enter the bamboo pipe system, gets transported over hundreds of
meters, and finally reduces to 20-80 drops per minute at the site of the plant.
• The flow of water into the pipes is controlled by manipulating the pipe positions.
• If the pipes pass a road, they are taken high above the land.
 Agriculture

Agriculture is the mainstay of India due to the following reasons:

• Two-thirds of the population is engaged in agricultural activities.

• An age-old economic activity of India.
• Agriculture is a primary activity, which produces most of the food that we
consume.
• Besides food grains, it also produces raw materials for various industries.
• Some agricultural products like tea, coffee, spices, etc., are also exported.
•
Types of Farming

1. Primitive Subsistence Farming

The characteristics of primitive subsistence farming are:

• In this type of farming, farmers grow crops for self-consumption.

• It is practiced on small patches of land.
• Farmers use primitive tools like hoe, dao, digging sticks, etc.
• Completely depends upon monsoon, natural fertility of the soil, and suitability of
other environmental conditions for the crops grown.
• Only family labor is used for farming.
• Land productivity is low.
• It is also known as slash-and-burn agriculture.

Slash and Burn Agriculture: Farmers clear a patch of land and produce cereals and other food
crops to sustain their families. When the soil fertility decreases, the farmers shift and clear a
fresh patch of land for cultivation. This type of shifting allows nature to replenish the fertility of
the soil through natural processes. Land productivity in this type of agriculture is low as the
farmer does not use fertilizers or other modern inputs.
It is known by different names in different parts of India:

• Jhumming in north-eastern states like Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and

Nagaland.
• Pamlou in Manipur
• Dipa in Bastar district of Chattishgarh and in Andaman and Nicobar islands.

Slash-and-burn farming or shifting agriculture is known by different names in different

countries

• Mexico and Central America – Milpa

• Venzuela – Conuco
• Brazil – Roca
 • Vietnam – Ray
• Central Africa – Masole.

2. Intensive Subsistence Farming

This type of farming is practiced in areas of high population pressure on land. It is labor-
intensive farming, where high doses of biochemical inputs and irrigation are used to obtain
higher production.

The ‘right of inheritance’ leading to the division of land among successive generations has
rendered land-holding size uneconomical.

3. Commercial Farming

The main characteristic of this type of farming is the use of higher doses of modern inputs, e.g.
high yielding variety (HYV) seeds, chemical fertilizers, insecticides, and pesticides in order to
obtain higher productivity.

Plantation: The plantation is a type of commercial farming. In this type of farming, a single crop
is grown on a large area using capital-intensive inputs, with the help of migrant laborers.
Examples: Tea, coffee, rubber, sugarcane, etc.

Characteristics of plantation farming:

• Plantations have very large areas.

• Capital-intensive inputs are used.
• Migrant labor is used.
• It is done mainly for the market. The sole aim is to earn profit.
• It has an interface between agriculture and industry.
• All the produce is used as raw material in respective industries.
Cropping Pattern

India has three cropping seasons — Rabi, Kharif, and Zaid.

• Rabi crops are sown in winter from October to December and harvested in
summer from April to June. Wheat, barley, peas, gram, etc. are the main rabi
crops.
• Kharif crops are sown with the onset of monsoon in June-July and harvested in
September-October. Rice, maize, jowar, bajra, tur, moong, cotton, jute,
groundnut, etc. are the main kharif crops.
• In between the rabi and the kharif seasons, there is a short season during the
summer months known as the Zaid season. Some of the crops of this season are
watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber, vegetables, and fodder crops.
Major Crops

Food Crops Non-food Crops

Rice, Wheat, Millets, Maize, Pulses, Sugarcane, Rubber, Cotton,

Oilseeds, Tea, Coffee, Horticulture Crops Jute

1. Rice

Rice is the staple food crop of a majority of people in India.

Growing conditions required for rice are:

• Temperature: High temperature (above 25°C).

• Rainfall: High humidity with annual rainfall above 100 cm.
• Agricultural season: Kharif crop
• Major producing areas: West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Punjab,
Haryana, Uttar Pradesh.

2. Wheat

Wheat is the second staple food crop of a majority of people in India.

Growing conditions required for wheat are:

• Temperature: It requires a cool growing season and bright sunshine at the time of
ripening.
• Rainfall: 50-75 cm of annual rainfall evenly distributed over the growing season.
• Agricultural season: Rabi crop
• Major producing areas: Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar,
and Rajasthan.
There are two important wheat-growing zones in the country – the Ganga-Satluj plains in the
north-west and the black soil region of the Deccan.

3. Millets

Jowar, bajra, and ragi are the important millets grown in India. Though these are known as
coarse grains, they have very high nutritional value.
Jowar: Jowar is the third most important food crop with respect to area and production. It is a
rain-fed crop mostly grown in moist areas which hardly needs irrigation. The major Jowar-
producing States are Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh.

Bajra: Bajra grows well on sandy soils and shallow black soil. Major Bajra-producing States are
Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Haryana.

Ragi: Ragi is a crop of dry regions and grows well on red, black, sandy, loamy, and shallow
black soils. Major ragi-producing states are Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Jharkhand, and Arunachal Pradesh. Ragi is very rich in iron, calcium, other
micronutrients, and roughage.

4. Maize

It is a crop which is used both as food and fodder. It is a kharif crop that requires a temperature
between 21°C to 27°C and grows well in old alluvial soil.

Major maize-producing states are Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra
Pradesh and Telangana.

5. Pulses

• A major source of protein in a vegetarian diet.

• Pulses need less moisture and survive even in dry conditions.
• Pulses are mostly grown in rotation with other crops because pulses being
leguminous crops help restore soil fertility (except arhar) by fixing nitrogen from
the air.
• Major pulse-producing states are Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Uttar
Pradesh, and Karnataka.
•
6. Sugarcane

• Sugarcane grows well in a hot and humid climate

• Requires a temperature of 21°C to 27°C
• Needs annual rainfall between 75cm and 100cm
• Irrigation is required in regions of low rainfall.
• It can be grown on a variety of soils and needs manual labor from sowing to
harvesting. All these conditions are available in Uttar Pradesh.
• It is the main source of sugar, gur (jaggary), khandsari, and molasses.
• The major sugarcane-producing states are Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Bihar, Punjab and Haryana.
7. Oil Seeds

Major oil seeds produced in India are :

 • Groundnut
• Mustard
• Coconut
• Sesamum (til)
• Soyabean
• Castor seeds
•
The importance of oilseeds are:

• Most of the oilseeds are edible and used as cooking mediums.

• Used as raw materials in the production of soap, cosmetics, and ointments.
•
The importance of groundnut are:

• Most of the oilseeds are edible and used as cooking mediums.

• Used as raw materials in the production of soap, cosmetics, and ointments.

8. Tea

Geographical conditions needed for the cultivation of tea are:

• Tea grows well in tropical and sub-tropical climates endowed with deep and
fertile well-drained soil, rich in humus and organic matter.
• Tea bushes require a warm and moist frost-free climate all through the year.
• Frequent showers evenly distributed over the year ensure continuous growth of
tender leaves.
Two major tea-producing states are Assam and West Bengal (hills of Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri
districts).

9. Coffee

The Arabica variety initially brought from Yemen is produced in the country. This variety is in
great demand all over the world.

Initially, its cultivation was introduced in the Baba Budan Hills and even today its cultivation is
confined to the Nilgiri in Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu.

10. Horticulture Crops

In 2018, India was the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world after China.
India is a producer of tropical as well as temperate fruits.

11. Rubber
 • Rubber is an important raw material for industries.
• Geographical conditions: It is an equatorial crop. It requires a moist and humid
climate with rainfall of more than 200 cm and temperature above 25°C.
• Two rubber-producing states are Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, etc.

Fiber Crops

• Cotton, jute, hemp, and natural silk are the four major fiber crops grown in India.
• The first three are derived from the crops grown in the soil, the latter is obtained
from cocoons of the silkworms fed on green leaves, especially mulberry.
• The rearing of silkworms for the production of silk fiber is known as sericulture.

1. Cotton

The geographical conditions required to grow cotton are:

• Cotton grows well in drier parts of the black cotton soil of the Deccan plateau.
• It requires high temperature, light rainfall or irrigation, 210 frost-free days, and
bright sun-shine for its growth.
• It is a kharif crop and requires 6 to 8 months to mature.
• Major cotton-producing states are – Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, etc.
2. Jute

The geographical conditions required to grow jute (also known as golden fiber) are:

• Grows well on well-drained fertile soils in the flood plains where soils are
renewed every year.
• High temperature is required during the time of growth.
It is used in making:

• Gunny bags
• Mats
• Ropes
• Yarn
• Carpets, etc.

Technological and Institutional Reforms

We need technical and institutional reforms in agriculture because:

1. Sustained uses of land without compatible techno-institutional changes have

hindered the pace of agricultural development.
 2. In spite of the development of sources of irrigation, most of the farmers still
depend upon monsoons and natural fertility in order to carry on their agriculture.
3. Agriculture which provides a livelihood for more than 60 % of its population,
needs some serious technical and institutional reforms.

Institutional reforms

1. Collectivization, consolidation of holdings, cooperation, and abolition of

zamindari, etc. were given priority to bring about institutional reforms after
Independence.
2. Laws of land reforms were enacted.
3. Provision of crop insurance against drought, flood, cyclone, fire, and disease.
4. Establishment of Grameen banks, cooperative societies, and banks for providing
loan facilities to the farmers at lower rates of interest.
5. Introduction of Kissan Credit Card (KCC) and Personal Accident Insurance
Scheme (PAIS).
Technological reforms

1. Green revolution and white revolution (operation flood)

2. HYV seeds, chemical fertilizers, and pesticides were provided.
3. Methods of irrigation modernized.
4. Latest agricultural equipment introduced.
5. Special weather bulletins and agricultural programs for farmers were introduced
on Radio and Television.
6. Announcement of minimum support price (MSP), remunerative, and procurement
prices for important crops.

Bhoodan and Gramdan

It is called a bloodless revolution because some zamindars, owners of many villages offered to
distribute some villages among the landless, and many landowners chose to provide some part of
their land to the poor farmers due to the fear of the Land Ceiling Act.
 Minerals and Energy Resources Notes

Minerals
• A mineral is a homogenous, naturally occurring substance with a definable internal structure.

• Minerals are found in varied forms in nature, ranging from the hardest diamond to the so est
talc.

Mode of Occurrence of Minerals

Factors that make mineral extrac ons commercially viable are:

• The concentra on of minerals in the ore.

• The ease of extrac on

• Closeness to the market

Minerals generally occur in these forms:

1. In igneous and metamorphic rocks minerals may occur in the cracks, crevices, faults, or joints. The
smaller occurrences are called veins and the larger are called lodes.

Major metallic minerals like n, copper, zinc lead, etc. are obtained from veins and lodes.

2. In sedimentary rocks a number of minerals occur in beds or layers. They have been formed as a result
of deposi on, accumula on, and concentra on in horizontal strata.

Another group of sedimentary minerals include gypsum, potash salt, and sodium salt. These are formed
as a result of evapora on, especially in arid regions.

3. Decomposi on of surface rocks, and the removal of soluble cons tuents, leaving a residual mass of
weathered material containing ores. Bauxite is formed this way.

4. Certain minerals may occur as alluvial deposits in the sands of valley floors and the base of hills. These
deposits are called placer deposits.

Gold, silver, n, and pla num are the most important among such minerals.

5. The ocean waters contain vast quan es of minerals. Common salt, magnesium, and bromine are
largely derived from ocean waters.

Ferrous Minerals
Iron Ore
• Magne te: Finest iron ore, has up to 70% iron content.

• Hema te: Has a slightly lower iron content (50-60%).

The major iron ore belts in India are:
• Odisha-Jharkhand belt: In Odisha high-grade hema te ore is found in Badampahar mines in the
Mayurbhanj and Kendujhar districts.

• Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur belt: It lies in Chha;sgarh and Maharashtra. Very high-grade hema tes
are found in the famous Bailadila range of hills in the Bastar district of Chha;sgarh. It has the
best physical proper es needed for steel making.

• Ballari-Chitradurga-ChikkamagaluruTumakuru belt in Karnataka has large reserves of iron ore.

Kudremukh deposits are known to be one of the largest in the world.

• Maharashtra-Goa belt includes the state of Goa and Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra.

Manganese

Uses of Manganese ore are:

• It is used in the manufacturing of steel and ferromanganese alloys.

• To manufacture bleaching powder.

• To manufacture insec cides.

• To manufacture paints.

Non-Ferrous Minerals
Copper

• Being malleable, duc le, and a good conductor, copper is mainly used in electrical cables,
electronics, and chemical industries.
• The Balaghat mines in Madhya Pradesh, the Khetri mines in Rajasthan, and the Singhbhum
district of Jharkhand are leading producers of copper.

Bauxite

Forma on: Bauxite deposits are formed by the decomposi on of a wide variety of rocks rich in
aluminium silicates.

Uses:

• Bauxite is a clay-like substance from which alumina and later aluminium are obtained.
• Aluminium is an important metal because it combines the strength of metals such as iron with
extreme lightness and also with good conduc vity and great malleability.
Distribu on:

• Bauxite is found in the Amarkantak Plateau, Maikal Hills, and the plateau region of Bilaspur-
Katni.
• Odisha is the largest bauxite-producing state in India.
Non-Metallic Minerals
Mica

Mica is a mineral made up of a series of plates or leaves. It splits easily into thin sheets.

Mica is considered the most important mineral in electrical and electronic industries because:

• Excellent dielectric strength

• Low power loss factor

• Insula ng proper es

• Resistance to high voltage.

Rock Minerals

Limestone

• It is found in associa on with rocks composed of calcium carbonates or calcium and magnesium
carbonates.

• It is found in sedimentary rocks of most geological forma ons.

• Limestone is the basic raw material for the cement industry and is essen al for smel ng iron ore
in the blast furnace.

Hazards of Mining
Problems for miners:

• The miners have to work under tough condi ons where no natural light is available.

• There is always a risk of collapse of the mine roof, inunda on with water, and fire.

• Miners are at great risk of ge;ng afflicted with pulmonary disorders.

Environmental Damage:

• The water sources in the region get contaminated due to mining.

• Dumping of waste and slurry leads to the degrada on of land, and soil, and an increase in
stream and river pollu on.

Conserva on of Minerals

We need to conserve minerals because:

• The strong dependence of industry and agriculture upon mineral deposits and the substances
manufactured from them.
 • The geological processes of mineral forma on are very slow.

• Mineral resources are finite and non-renewable.

• Con nued extrac on of ores leads to increasing costs as mineral extrac on comes from greater
depths along with a decrease in quality.

Ways to conserve minerals:

• A concerted effort has to be made in order to use mineral resources in a planned and sustainable
manner.

• Improved technologies need to be constantly evolved to allow the use of low-grade ores at low
costs.

• Recycling of metals, using scrap metals and other subs tutes.

Energy Resources

Conven onal source of energy Non-conven onal source of energy

1. These are the tradi onal sources of energy 1. These are the sources of energy developed
produced from coal, petroleum, and natural gas. recently from the sun, wind, de, etc.

2. They are non-renewable. 2. They are renewable.

3. Their genera on is expensive. 3. Their genera on is cheaper.

4. They are pollu on-free/less pollu on

4. They pollute the atmosphere on a large scale.
sources.

5. Example: Solar energy, wind energy, dal

5. Example: coal, petroleum, natural gas, etc.
power, etc.

• Firewood and caGle dung cake are most common in rural India. More than 70% energy
requirement of rural households is met by these two.

• Con nual use of firewood is increasingly becoming difficult due to decreasing forest area. Using
dung cake is discouraged because it consumes the most valuable manure which could be used in
agriculture.
Conven onal Sources of Energy
1. Coal

The most abundantly available fossil fuel in India is coal.

Forms of Coal:

• Peat: It has low carbon and high moisture content and low hea ng capacity.

• Lignite: It is low-grade brown coal that is so with high moisture content. It is used for
genera ng electricity.

• Bituminous: It is the most popular coal for commercial use. It has a special value for smel ng
iron in blast furnaces.

• Anthracite: It is the highest quality hard coal.

2. Petroleum

Importance of petroleum:

• It provides fuel for heat and ligh ng

• It provides lubricants for machinery

• It provides raw materials for a number of manufacturing industries.

• Petroleum refineries act as a ‘nodal industry’ for synthe c tex le, fer lizer, and numerous
chemical industries.

Occurrence of petroleum:

• Most of the petroleum occurrences in India are associated with an clines and fault traps in the
rock forma ons of the ter ary age.

• In regions of folding, an cline, or domes, it occurs where oil is trapped in the crest of the upfold.

• Petroleum is also found in fault traps between porous and non-porous rocks.

3.Natural Gas

Natural Gas is found in petroleum deposits and is released when crude oil is brought to the surface.
Electricity

Two main ways of genera ng electricity:

• Hydroelectricity
• Thermal electricity.
Thermal Electricity Hydro Electricity

1. It is obtained by using coal, petroleum, and natural

1. It is produced from water.
gas.

2. It is a non-renewable resource. 2. It is renewable.

3. It does not cause

3. It causes pollu on.
pollu on.

4. It is cheaper in the long

4. It is expensive in the long run.
run.

Non-Conven onal Sources of Energy

1. Nuclear or Atomic Energy

Uranium and Thorium are used to obtain nuclear energy.

Nuclear energy is obtained by altering the structure of atoms. When such an altera on is made, much
energy is released in the form of heat and this is used to generate electric power.

2. Solar Energy

Solar energy can solve the energy problems to some extent in India:

• India is a tropical country therefore it receives sunlight in abundance throughout the year.

• Solar plants can be easily established in rural and remote areas.

• It will minimize the dependence of rural households on firewood and dung cakes which in turn
will contribute to environmental conserva on and adequate quan ty of manure.

Ways to improve usage of solar energy:

1. Reducing the cost of solar panels.

2. Use of efficient solar panel models.

 3. Crea ng awareness about the importance of renewable energy.

4. Easy installa on process.

5. Avoid installing solar panels in shaded areas.

3. Wind Power

India has great poten al for wind power. The largest wind farm cluster is located in Tamil Nadu from
Nagarcoil to Madurai.

Nagarcoil and Jaisalmer are well known for the effec ve use of wind energy in the country.

Biogas

• Shrubs, farm waste, animal and human waste are used to produce biogas for domes c
consump on in rural areas.

• High thermal efficiency in comparison to kerosene, dung cake, and charcoal.

• It burns without smoke, causing no pollu on.

• The plants using caGle dung are known as ‘Gobar gas plants’ in rural India.

• These provide twin benefits to the farmer in the form of energy and improved quality of
manure.

• Biogas is by far the most efficient use of caGle dung.

• Provision of energy

• Improved quality of manure.

4. Tidal Energy

Floodgate dams are built across inlets. The water flows into the inlet during high de and gets trapped
when the gate is closed. Once the de recedes, the gates are opened so that water can flow back to the
sea/ocean. The flow of water is used to run the turbine to generate electricity.

Geo-Thermal Energy

Geothermal energy refers to the heat and electricity produced by using the heat from the interior of the
Earth. Geothermal energy exists because the Earth grows progressively hoGer with increasing depth.

Two experimental projects have been set up in India to harness geothermal energy:

• One is located in the Parva valley near Manikarn in Himachal Pradesh.

• The other is located in the Puga Valley, Ladakh.

Conserva on of Energy Resources
Ways to conserve energy resources are:

• We have to adopt a cau ous approach to the judicious use of our limited energy resources.
• Using public transport systems instead of individual vehicles.
• Switching off electricity when not in use.
• Using power-saving devices
• Using non-conven onal sources of energy
Manufacturing Industries

Importance of Manufacturing

The manufacturing sector is considered the backbone of general and economic development
because:

• Manufacturing industries help in modernizing agriculture.

• It helps in reducing the heavy dependence of people on agricultural income by
providing them with jobs in secondary and tertiary sectors.
• It helps eradicate unemployment and poverty in our country.
• It helps in reducing regional disparities by establishing industries in tribal and
backward areas.
• The export of manufactured goods expands trade and commerce and helps in
bringing foreign exchange.
• Countries with large numbers of manufacturing industries are prosperous.

Agricultural sector and manufacturing sector move hand in hand

• The given statement means that agricultural and manufacturing industries are not
exclusive of each other and are quite interconnected.
• Agro-industries in India have given a major boost to agriculture by raising its
productivity and efficiency.
• Agro-industries are units that add value to agricultural produce, intermediates,
and/or residues by processing or improving storability or by providing links from
the farm to the market or part thereof.
• Industries depend on agriculture for raw materials and sell their products such as
irrigation pumps, fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides, PVC pipes, machines, tools,
etc to farmers.
• So, the development and competitiveness of manufacturing industries have not
only assisted agriculturalists and farmers in increasing their production but also
made the production processes very efficient and far better.
•
Factors responsible for the location of industries

Physical factors:

• Availability of raw materials – This factor is more important for heavy industries
like iron and steel, cement industry, etc.
• Availability of power resources – Proximity to power resources like coal, and
electricity will attract more industries.
• Availability of water – Almost all industries require a huge quantity of water.
• Availability of favorable climate.
Human factors:

• The availability of skilled and unskilled laborers attracts more industries.

• Proximity to market – This reduces transport costs and delays.
• Infrastructural facilities – Like banking, transport, communication, etc. attract
more industries.
• Government policy – Tax benefits and subsidies on inputs play an important role
in industrial location.
•
Classification of Industries

Based on the source of raw materials

• Agro-based industries (eg. Cotton, woolen, jute, silk, etc.)
• Mineral-based industries (eg. Iron and steel, cement, aluminium, etc.)
Based on the main role
• Basic or key industries: These industries supply their products as raw materials to
manufacture other goods. Examples: iron and steel industry, copper smelting,
aluminium smelting.
• Consumer industries: These industries produce goods for direct use by consumers.
Examples: sugar, paper, toothpaste, fans, etc.
Based on capital investment
• Small scale industry: Maximum investment allowed on the assets of a unit is ₹ 1
Crore.
• Large scale industry: When investment in the assets of a unit is more than ₹ 1
Crore.
Based on ownership
• Public sector industries: Public sector industries are owned and operated by
government agencies. For example BHEL, SAIL, etc.
• Private sector industries: Private sector industries are owned and operated by
individuals or a group of individuals. For example TISCO, Bajaj Auto Ltd., Dabur
industries, etc.
• Joint sector industries: Joint sector industries are jointly run by the state and
individuals or a group of individuals. For example Oil India Limited (OIL).
• Cooperative sector industries: Cooperative sector industries are owned and
operated by the producers or suppliers of raw materials, workers, or both. They
pool the resources and share the profits or losses proportionately. For example
Sugar industry, coir industry, etc.
Based on the bulk and weight of raw material and finished goods:
• Heavy industries such as iron and steel
• Light industries that use light raw materials and produce light goods such as
electrical goods industries.

Cotton Textile Industry

In the early years, the cotton textile industry was concentrated in the cotton-growing belt of
Maharashtra and Gujarat because of availability of
 • raw cotton,
• market,
• transport including accessible port facilities,
• labor,
• moist climate, etc.

Jute Textiles

Factors responsible for their location in the Hugli basin are:

• proximity of the jute-producing areas,

• inexpensive water transport,
• supported by a good network of railways, roadways, and waterways to facilitate
the movement of raw materials to the mills,
• abundant water for processing raw jute,
• cheap labor from West Bengal and adjoining states of Bihar, Odisha, and Uttar
Pradesh.
• Kolkata as a large urban center provides banking, insurance, and port facilities for
the export of jute goods.

Sugar Industries

In recent years, there has been a tendency for the mills to shift and concentrate in the southern
and western states, especially in Maharashtra. This is because

• The cane produced here has a higher sucrose content.

• The cooler climate also ensures a longer crushing season.
• The cooperatives are more successful in these states.

Iron and Steel Industry

Iron ore, coking coal, and limestone are required in a ratio of approximately 4 : 2 : 1. Some
quantities of manganese, are also required to harden the steel.

Chhotanagpur plateau region has the maximum concentration of iron and steel industries
because of:

• low cost of iron ore,

• high-grade raw materials in proximity,
• cheap labor
• vast growth potential in the home market.
Industrial Pollution and Environmental Degradation

Industries cause environmental degradation in the following ways:

• Air pollution: High proportion of carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, and carbon
monoxide create air pollution. Suspended particulate matters also create
problems.
• Water pollution: Organic and inorganic industrial wastes and effluents cause
water pollution. Paper, pulp, chemicals, textiles, dyeing, petroleum refineries, etc.
are the main culprits of water pollution.
• Thermal pollution: Hot water from factories and thermal plants is drained into
rivers and ponds before cooling.
• Radioactive waste: wastes from nuclear power plants cause cancer, birth defects,
miscarriages, etc.
• Noise pollution: Results in irritation, hypertension, and hearing impairment.
•
Control of Environmental Degradation

Ways to prevent environmental degradation by industries:

• Water should be reused and recycled in the industry. This will help in minimizing
the use of fresh water.
• Rainwater harvesting should be promoted.
• Hot water and effluents should be treated before being released into rivers and
ponds.
• Overdrawing of groundwater needs to be regulated legally.
• Particulate matter in the air can be reduced by fitting smoke stacks into factories
with electrostatic precipitators, fabric filters, etc.
• Smoke can be reduced by using oil or gas instead of coal in factories.
• Machinery and generators should be fitted with silencers.