CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The technology behind solar power has been around for more than 100 years, but it is

only in recent decades that it has become a viable and affordable option for providing

electricity to homes, businesses, and communities. The basic principle behind solar

power is the photovoltaic effect, which was first discovered in 1839 by French physicist

Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel. These effects occurs when certain materials, such as

silicon, are exposed to sunlight and generate a flow of electrons, creating a direct current

(DC) that can be harnessed to power electrical devices. The first solar cell, which was

made of selenium, was developed in 1883 by American inventor Charles Fritts. However,

it was not until the 1950s that silicon solar cells were first produced, paving the way for

the modern solar industry. Since then, solar technology has advanced rapidly, with

improvements in efficiency, durability, and cost-effectiveness.

Today, solar panels are made of silicon wafers that are layered with metal contacts and

covered with a protective layer of glass or plastic. These panels can be mounted on

rooftops, poles, or other structures to capture sunlight and convert it into electricity. Solar

power systems can be connected to the electrical grid, allowing excess electricity to be

sold back to the utility company, or they can be designed as stand-alone systems, which

are often used in remote areas where grid power is not available. Stand-alone solar

systems typically include batteries to store excess energy for use during periods of low

sunlight. According to a report, the world energy consumption in 2015 was 17.4 TW

altogether. There has been a minimal increase in energy consumption every year,

approximately 11.5% annual growth. According to the U.S Energy Information

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Administration in 2013 the world’s total energy consumption is expected to grow by 56%

by the year 2040. Comparing current consumption, projected growth in two decades, and

the amount of solar radiation received in an hour one can just imagine the potential solar

energy holds. The total energy consumed is a small fraction of what is being received in

an hour. In a densely populated, poverty country with a population of over 200 million

people in the case of Nigeria, it is unarguable that the epileptic state of power supply is an

issue of great concern to Nigerians, Citizens find it very difficult to make use of power

like other developing and developed nations. The use of solar as a source of energy is a

way out for the Nigerian people.

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

The existing installation in head of Department Office have seven (7) numbers of

200W panel, four (4) numbers of 250W panel, 3.5kv inverter and 80Amp charge

controller. To ensure the optimal functionality, reliability, and efficiency of the solar

power system installed, we realise that there is difference in panel ratting which 7

panel ratting 200W and 4 ratting 250W. Because of different open circuit and short

circuit voltage which causes mismatch, we now replace 7 numbers of 200W with 4

numbers of 250W panels so that they can have the same open circuit and short circuit

voltage to give effective output.

1.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVES

Aim:

The aim of this project is assessment, maintenance and upgrade of solar installation in

Head of department office, Electrical Engineering Kaduna Polytechnic.

Objective:

i. To do load assessment

ii. To do existing solar panel assessment

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 iii. To replace seven (7) numbers of 200W with four (4) numbers of 250W panels.

iv. To ensure the safety and compliance of the system with relevant electrical

standards and regulations.

v. To evaluate the performance of the system and identify opportunities for

optimization and improvement.

1.4 METHODOLOGY

A study of the previous installation was carried out so as to understand the design

method and study of related works was also carried out. A load analysis was carried

out on the installation at Head of Department office to determine the design

specifications. A study of various components, module, charge controller, deep cycle

battery was done. The installation and replacement was also carried out according to

the block diagram shown

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 250W 250W

Pv Pv
250W
250W 250W

pv pv

250W 250W

pv pv
250W 250W
MAINS
pv pv

-
MPPT CHARGE INVERTER
CONTROLLER 3.5KVA/48V LOAD
- (80A)

+ - + - + - +-
Battery Battery Battery Battery

(220AH) (220AH) (220AH) (220AH)

Fig 1:1 Block Diagram of Methodological Breakdown of a Solar Power A typical solar

power supply device is comprised of a solar panel (Photovoltaic or PV panels), a charge

controller, and a power inverter having a meter or monitoring system which is capable of

monitoring voltages and system conditions and the electrical distribution system.

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Solar Panel: the solar panel is a device that receives energy from the sun ray in form

of solar energy and converts it to electrical energy.

Charge Controller: The charge controller is an electrical device that prevents over

charging of the batteries. Proper charging will prevent damage and increase the life

span and performance rate of the batteries.

Inverter (DC to AC): The inverter is a device that also charges the batteries if

connected to a generator or any auxiliary source. It is the heart of the system. It makes

230VAC from 48V DC stored in the batteries.

Batteries: the battery is a device that stores the electrical power in form of a chemical

reaction without storage power will only be obtained when the sun shining or

generator is running.

Change Over Switch: It is the device that serves as a switch between on-grid power

provider and the inverter system.

1.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

Solar power system has proven to be clean and available source of energy. Grid

connected solar power supply is done here. It covers the installation of solar powered

system in academic setting (office). In this project, the installation of the power

supply contain 3 modules array, charge controller and the battery which has the

capacity of 12V 220Ah. This project centre on solar power system, in the process of

doing this project several researches were done on the related projects. Therefore,

there is need to Assess the existing installation in the Head of Department Office and

make it more Effective, Efficient and Reliable for usage by replacing 4 numbers of

250W/30V Panel.

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 1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Due to the research carried out on the previous work on the solar installation to Head

of Department Offices in Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department, the

work consists of replacement of 4 numbers of 200W panels, with 4 numbers of

250W/30V panels. The batteries cells of the system are in good working condition,

the panels have different Wattage and different open circuit voltages that make it

unsuitable to connect in any configuration. Therefore, these lapses reduce the

efficiency of the whole installation which is causing underutilization of the available

PV power.

1.7 REPORT OUTLINE

The project is written in six chapters. Chapter one contains the following, Introduction,

Statement of problem, Aim and Objective of the project, Methodology, Scope, and

Report Outline. Chapter two contain, Literature Review, in this we discuss the area of

application, advantages, the components used, review of related work and the research

gap. In chapter three, contains the maintenance problem, troubleshooting and

maintenance approach to be used, and lastly the circuit diagram and the principle of

operation. Chapter four contains the construction and packaging process. Chapter five

contains the testing process and the result. And chapter six talks about the conclusion

and recommendation.

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 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter deals with the background knowledge related to the proposed work &

similar research works carried out. This review aims to synthesize existing knowledge

on the practices and challenges associated with maintaining and upgrading solar

installation, highlighting the critical need for ongoing research in these areas.

2.2 REVIEW OF FUNDAMENTAL COMPONENTS

The solar power system comprises of several components, the following are

components that are use in solar power system which will be highlighted and

discussed in details, the types, the merits and Demerits of each component will also be

discussed where necessary.

2.2.1 Solar Panel

Solar panels are the main component of a solar power system. They are made up of

photovoltaic cells that convert sunlight into direct current (DC) electricity. When

sunlight hits the solar panels, the electrons in the photovoltaic cells are excited,

creating an electrical current.

2.2.2 Types of Solar Panel

There are several types of solar panels but there are three major types commonly use

Nigeria which are: monocrystalline, polycrystalline, and thin-film solar panels. Each

of these types of solar cells is made in a unique way and has a different aesthetic

appearance.

i. Monocrystalline solar panels are the oldest type of solar panel and the most

developed. These monocrystalline solar panels are made from about 40 of the

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monocrystalline solar cells. These solar cells are made from pure silicon. In the

manufacturing process (called the Czochralski method), a silicon crystal is placed in a

vat of molten silicon. The crystal is then pulled up out of the vat very slowly, allowing

for the molten silicon to form a solid crystal shell around it called an ingot. The ingot

is then sliced thinly into silicon wafers. The wafer is made into the cell, and then the

cells are assembled together to form a solar panel. The monocrystalline solar panels

were used in this project because of its efficiency which is higher than that of

polycrystalline panels.

Fig. 2.1:Monocrystalline solar panel

ii.Polycrystalline solar panels are a newer development, but they are rising quickly in

popularity and efficiency like monocrystalline solar panels, polycrystalline cells are

made from silicon. But polycrystalline cells are made from fragments of the silicon

crystal melted together. During the manufacturing process, the silicon crystal is

placed in a vat of molten silicon. Instead of pulling it out slowly, this crystal is

allowed to fragment and then cool. Then once the new crystal is cooled in its mold,

the fragmented silicon is thinly sliced into polycrystalline solar wafers. These wafers

are assembled together to form a polycrystalline panel. Polycrystalline cells are blue

in color because of the way sunlight reflects on the crystals.

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 Fig. 2.2:Polycrystalline solar panel

iii. Thin-film solar panels are an extremely new development in the solar panel

industry. The most distinguishing feature of thin-film panels is that they aren’t always

made from silicon. They can be made from a variety of materials, including cadmium

telluride (CdTe), amorphous silicon (a-Si) and Copper Indium Gallium Selenide

(CIGS). These solar cells are created by placing the main material between thin sheets

of conductive material with a layer of glass on top for protection. The a-Si panels do

use silicon, but they use non-crystalline silicon and are also topped with glass. As

their name suggests, thin-film panels are easy to identify by their thin appearance.

These panels are approximately 350 times thinner than those that use silicon wafers.

But thin-film frames can be large sometimes, and that can make the appearance of the

entire solar system comparable to that of a monocrystalline or polycrystalline system.

Thin-film cells can be black or blue, depending on the material they were made from.

Fig. 2.3: Thin-Film solar panel

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Table 2.1: Merit and Demerits of the Three Types of Solar Cell

Types of Solar Cell Merit Demerit

Mono-crystalline High Efficiency Higher cost

and Performance

Polycrystalline Lower cost Low efficiency and performance

Thin-film Portable and flexible Low efficiency and performance

2.2.3 Performance of Solar Cells

Many factors affect or contribute to the performance of the solar cells. For good

performance, solar cell needs a maximum solar radiation from sun; this depends on

the solar constant (ISC) and solar irradiance (isolation Io).

Solar constant (ISC): - is the average radiation intensity fallen on an imaginary

surface perpendicular to the sun rays and at the edge of the earth atmosphere.

Isolation (Io): - is the solar radiation intensity fallen on a surface and is measured in

w/m2 or km/m2.

2.2.4 Solar Panel Efficiency

2.2.5 Factors Affecting Solar Panel Efficiency as Well as Module Output

(a) Estimating Solar Panel Output

(b) Standard Test Conditions
(c) Temperature
(d) Dirt and Dust
(e) Mismatch and Wiring losses

Estimating Solar Panel Output- The PV system produces power in proportion to the

intensity of sunlight striking the solar array surface and this varied throughout the day,

so the actual power of the solar power system varied substantially. There other factors

that affected the output of the solar panel. These factors needed to be understood so

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that there will be realistic expectation of overall system output and its economic

benefit under variable weather conditions over time.

Standard Test Conditions- The Solar modules produced DC electricity. The DC

output of the solar modules was rated by the manufacturers under standard test

conditions (STC). These conditions were easily recreated in the factory, and allowed

for constant comparisons of products, under common outdoor operating conditions.

Solar cell temperature = 250C, solar irradiance (intensity) = 1000W/m2 often referred

to as peak sunlight intensity, comparable to clear summer noon time intensity.

Temperature- Module output power reduces as module temperature increases. When

operated on the roof, a solar module will be heated up substantially, reaching

temperatures of 50-75oc. For crystalline modules, the typical temperature reduction

factor, recommended by the STC was 89% or 0.89. So, the 200W module would be

operated at about 85W (200 W × 0.89 = 178W) in the middle of a spring or fall day,

under full sunlight conditions.

Dirt and Dust- Dirt and dust would accumulate on the solar module surface, blocking

some of the sunlight and reducing output. Although typical dirt and dust would have

cleaned off during rainy season. The typical annual dust reduction factor was 93% or

0.93, so the 200W module, operated with some accumulated dust may operate on

average of 166 W (178 W × 0.93 = 166 W).

Mismatch and Wiring losses - The maximum power output of the total PV array was

less than the sum of the maximum output of the individual modules. This difference

was the result of slight inconsistency in the performance of one module to the next

and was called module mismatch and amounts to at least 2% loss in system power.

Power was also lost to resistance in system wiring.

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 2.2.6 Charge Controller

A controller is a device or system that monitors a process and takes action to keep the

process within a desired range. In electrical applications, controllers are used to

control a wide variety of devices, including motors, heaters, and valves etc.

In a solar power system, the charge controller is responsible for managing the flow of

electricity from the solar panels to the battery and load. The controller ensures that the

battery is not overcharged or over discharged, and that the load does not draw more

power than the solar panels can provide.

Solar charge controller typically has three main components: A solar input, a battery

input, and a load output. The controller uses these inputs to determine the optimal

amount of power to send to the battery and load. For example, if the battery is not

fully charged, the controller will send more power to the battery. If the load is

drawing more power than the solar panels can provide, the controller will reduce the

amount of power that is supplied to the load. They are used in off-grid and hybrid off-

grid applications to regulate power input from PV arrays to deliver optimal power

output to run electrical loads and charge batteries. It maintains batteries at their

highest state of charge without overcharging them to avoid gassing and battery

damage. A typical solar charge controller circuit diagram is shown in fig. 2.5 below.

The design consists of four states which include current booster, battery level

indicator, battery charge controller and power supply unit. The two major types of

solar charge controllers are:

i. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) controllers.

ii. Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) controllers

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 Pulse Width Modulation Controller-Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) comes into

play when the battery bank is full. During charging, the controller allows as much

current as the PV panel/array can generate.

Fig. 2.5: PWM Solar Charge Controller

Maximum Power Point Tracking Charge controller (MPPT)-Maximum Power

Point Tracking charge controller features is an indirect connection between the PV

array and the battery bank. The indirect connection includes a DC/DC voltage

converter that can take excess PV voltage and convert it into extra current at a lower

voltage without losing power. MPPT controllers do this via an adaptive algorithm that

follows the maximum power point of the PV array and then adjusts the incoming

voltage to maintain the most efficient amount of power for the system.

Fig. 2.6: MPPT Solar Charge Controller Fig. 2.7: Characteristics of MPPT Charge Controller

2.2.7. Solar Inverter

In any solar system, inverter plays an essential role like a brain. The main function of

this is convert direct current energy which is generated from the solar array into

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usable alternating current energy. After the PV panels, inverters are the most important

equipment in the solar power system. These inverters have some functions with PV

arrays like tracking of utmost PowerPoint & protection of anti-islanding. So, an inverter

is an essential device in the solar power system. The working principle of the inverter is

to use the power from a DC Source such as the solar panel and convert it into AC

power. This conversion process can be done with the help of a set of IGBTs (Insulated

Gate Bipolar Transistors). When these solid-state devices are connected in the form

of H-Bridge, then it oscillates from the DC power to AC power.

2.2.8 Classification of Inverter

Inverter can be classified into many types based on output, source, type of load etc.

According to the output characteristic of an inverter, there can be three different types

of inverters.

i. Square Wave Inverter.

ii. Sine Wave Inverter.

iii. Modified Sine Wave Inverter

i. Square wave inverter: The output waveform of the voltage for this inverter is a

square wave. This type of inverter is least used among all other types of

inverters because all appliances are designed for sine wave supply. If we

supply square wave to sine wave-based appliance, it may get damaged or

losses are very high. The cost of this inverter is very low but the application is

very rare. It can be used in simple tools with a universal motor.

ii. Sine wave inverter: The output waveform of the voltage is a sine wave and it

gives us a very similar output to the utility supply. This is the major advantage

of this inverter because all the appliances we are using are designed for the

sine wave. So, this is the perfect output and gives guarantee that equipment

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 will work properly. This type of inverters is more expensive but widely used

in residential and commercial applications.

iii. Modified sine wave: The construction of this type of inverter is complex than

simple square wave inverter but easier compared to the pure sine wave

inverter.The output of this inverter is neither pure sine wave nor the square

wave.

Fig. 2.9: Inverter wave form

2.2.10 Inverter Sizing

An inverter uses the (DC) direct current power supply and creates an alternating

current (AC) supply usually at the voltage similar to that of a normal mains power

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 supply. In other words, it enabled the running household appliances from a low

voltage DC supply such as a solar battery as the heart of the system. In the sizing of

an inverter two factors are to be considered.

1. The continuous wattage output

2. The surge capacity

2.2.11 Solar Battery

Solar battery is an energy storage device that can be paired with an off-grid

and Hybrid So The battery stores the charges of electrical power within the form of

chemical reaction. This helps to always have electrical power even when there is no

sunlight. The runtime of an inverter is dependent on the battery power and the amount

of power being drawn from the inverter at a given time. As the amount of equipment

using the inverter increases, the runtime will decrease. In order to prolong the runtime

of an inverter, additional batteries can be added to the inverter. The battery that was

used in this project is a solar battery, without the battery, the system could only be

powered when the sun is shining. The power would interrupt each time the cloud

passes, the system would become very frustrating. The solar battery provides constant

electricity and the load discharges 80% of its charge depends on the DOD of the

battery and inverter

2.2.12 Types of Solar Batteries

There are four main types of battery technologies that pair with residential solar

systems:

i. Lead acid batteries

ii. Lithium-ion batteries

iii. Nickel based batteries

iv. Flow batteries

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Each of these battery backup power technologies has its own set of unique

characteristics.

i. Lead acid batteries are the cheapest energy storage option, making them the

most

ii. cost effective. They are reliable can be easily disposed of and recycled. The

reliability of lead-acid batteries is great for off-grid solar systems, or for

emergency backup storage in case of a power outage. Tall Tubular battery

which is a type of lead acid batteries was used in this project because of the

durability and has a longer service life for long power backup needs.

Fig. 2.6: Tall Tubular Battery

ii. Lithium-ion batteries have a longer life cycle or lifespan, this longer lifespan

has to do with lithium-ion batteries having a higher depth of discharge, so you

can use more of the energy stored within the battery before it has to be

recharged. One of the biggest disadvantages of lithium-ion batteries is that

they are more expensive than other energy storage technologies.

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 Fig. 2.7: Lithium Battery

iii. Nickel cadmium (Ni-Cd) batteries aren’t as widely used as lead acid or

lithium-ion batteries. The main benefit of Ni-Cd batteries is that they are

durable. They also have the ability to operate at extreme temperatures.

Additionally, they don’t require complex battery management systems and are

basically maintenance-free.

Fig. 2.8: Nickel cadmium Battery

iv. Flow batteries are an emerging technology in the energy storage sector. They

contain a water-based electrolyte liquid that flows between two separate

chambers or tanks within the battery. When charged, chemical reactions occur

which allow the energy to be stored and subsequently discharged. Their larger

size makes them more expensive than the other battery types. The high price,

combined with the large size makes it hard to adapt them to residential use.

One of the best things about flow batteries is that they have a 100% depth of

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 discharge. This means you can use all of the energy stored in the battery

without damaging the battery’s health and is mostly used for large-scale

battery storage.

Fig. 2.9: Flow Battery

Batteries

The battery stores the charges of electrical power within the form of chemical

reaction. This helps to always have electrical power even when there is no sunlight.

The runtime of an inverter is dependent on the battery power and the amount of power

being drawn from the inverter at a given time. As the amount of equipment using the

inverter increases, the runtime will decrease. In order to prolong the runtime of an

inverter, additional batteries can be added to the inverter. The battery that was used in

this project is a solar battery, without the battery, the system could only be powered

when the sun is shining. The power would interrupt each time the cloud passes, the

system would become very frustrating. The solar battery provides constant electricity

and the load discharges 80% of its charge depends on the DOD of the battery and

inver

These are the batteries that utilize lead peroxide and sponge lead to convert chemical

energy into electrical energy. These are mostly employed in substations and power

19
systems due to the reason they havebattery is made up of a stack of alternating lead

oxide electrodes, isolated from each other by layers of porous separators. All these

parts are placed in a concentrated solution of sulphuric acid Inter-cell connectors

connect the positive end of one cell to the negative end of the next cell hence the six

cells are in series.

Construction-In the lead ac which are placed on the top to eliminate any kind of

electrolyte discharge. Whereas in the container bottom section, there exist four ribs

where two are placed on the positive plate and the others on the negative plate.

Here, the prism acts as a base for both the plates and additionally it safeguards the

plates from short-circuit. The components that are utilized for the construction of the

container should be free from sulphuric acid, they should not bend or permeable and

do not hold any kinds of impurities which leads to electrolyte damage.

Plates-The plates in lead acid battery are constructed in a different way and all are

made up of similar types of the grid which is constructed of active components and

lead. The grid is crucial to establish conductivity of current and for spreading equal

amounts of currents to the active components. If there is uneven distribution, then

there will be loosening of the active component. The plates in this battery are of two

kinds. Those are of plant/formed plates and Faure/pasted plates.

The formed plates are mainly employed for static batteries and they have heavyweight

and expensive too. But they have long durability and these are not easily prone to lose

their active components even in continuous charging and discharging processes.

These have minimal capacity to weight proportion and discharging processes.

Active Component-The component which actively involves in the chemical reaction

processes that happen in the battery mainly at the time of charging and discharging is

termed as an active component. The active components are:

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Lead peroxide – It forms a positive active component.

Sponge lead – This material forms the negative active component

Diluted sulphuric acid – This is mainly utilized as an electrolyte

Separators-These are of thin sheets that are constructed of porous rubber, coated

lead-wood, and glass fiber. The separators are positioned in between the plates to

provide active insulation. They have a grooved shape on one side and a smooth finish

on other edges.

Battery Edges-It has positive and negative edges having diameters of 17.5 mm and

16 mm.

2.2.13 Lead Acid Battery Working Principle

As Sulphuric acid is used as an electrolyte in the battery, when it gets dissolved, the

molecules in it are dispersed as SO4– (negative ions) and 2H+ (positive ions) and

these will have free movement. When these electrodes are dipped in the solutions and

provide a DC supply, then the positive ions will have a movement and move towards

the direction of the negative edge of the battery. In the same way, the negative ions

will have a movement and move towards the direction of the positive edge of the

battery.

Every hydrogen and sulfate ions collect one and two-electron and negative ions from

the cathode and anode and they have a reaction with water. This forms hydrogen and

sulphuric acid. Whereas the developed from the above reactions react with lead oxide

and forms lead peroxide. This means at the time of the charging process; the lead

cathode element stays as lead itself whereas the lead anode is formed as lead peroxide

which is dark brown in color.

When there is no DC supply and then at the time when a voltmeter is connected in

between the electrodes, it displays the potential difference between electrodes. When

there is a connection of wire between the electrodes, there will be the passage of

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current from the negative to the positive plate via an external circuit which signifies

that the cell holds the ability to provide an electric form of energy.

The lead–acid battery consists of two electrodes submerged in an electrolyte of

sulfuric acid. The positive electrode is made of grains of metallic lead oxide, while the

negative electrode is attached to a grid of metallic lead. Lead–acid batteries are

classified into two types: flooded and valve-regulated.

2.2.14 Types of Lead-acid Battery

The lead acid battery types are mainly categorized into five types and they are

explained in detail in the below section.

Flooded Type – This is the conventional engine ignition type and has a traction kind

of battery. The electrolyte has free movement in the cell section. People who are using

this type can have accessibility for each cell and they can add water to the cells when

the battery gets dried up.

Sealed Type – this kind of lead-acid battery is just a minor change to the flooded type

of battery. Even though people hold no access to each cell in the battery, the internal

design is almost similar to that flooded type one. The main variation in this type is

that there exists enough amount of acid which withstands for the happening of smooth

flow of chemical reactions throughout the battery life.

VRLA Type – These are called Valve Regulated Lead Acid batteries which are also

termed as a sealed type of battery. The value controlling procedure permits for the

safe evolution of O2 and H2 gases at the time of charging.

AGM Type – This is the Absorbed Glass Matte type of battery that permits the

electrolyte to get stopped near to the plate’s material. This kind of battery augments

the performance of the discharge and charging processes. These are especially utilized

in the power sports and engine initiation applications.

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Gel Type – This is the wet kind of lead-acid battery where the electrolyte in this cell

is with silica-related which makes stiffening of the material. The recharge voltage

values of the cell ate minimal when compared with other types and it has more

sensitivity too.

2.2.15 Lead Acid Battery Chemical Reaction

The chemical reaction in the battery happens mainly during discharging and

recharging methods and in the discharge process it is explained as follows:

When the battery is completely discharged, then the anode and cathodes are pbo2 and

Pb. When these are connected using resistance, the battery gets discharged and the

electrons have the opposite path at the time of charging. The H2 ions have a

movement towards the anode and they become an atom. It comes in reach with PbO2,

thus forming PbSO4 which is white in color.

In the same way, the sulfate ion has a movement towards the cathode and after

reaching, the ion is formed into SO4. It reacts with lead cathode thus forming lead

sulfate.

PbSO4 + 2H = PbO + H2O

PbO + H2SO4 = PbSO4 + 2H2O

PbO2 + H2SO4 + 2H = PbSO4 + 2H2O

Chemical Reactions-During the recharging process, the cathode and anodes are in

connection with the negative and positive edges of the DC supply. The positive H2

ions move in the direction of the cathode and they gain two electrons and forms as H2

atom. It undergoes a chemical reaction with lead sulfate and forms lead and sulphuric

acid.

PbSO4 + 2H2O + 2H = PbSO4 + 2H2SO4

The combined equation for both the processes is represented as

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 Discharge and Recharge Process-Here, the downward arrow indicates discharge and

an upward arrow indicates the recharge process.

Life-The optimum functional temperature for lead acid battery is 250C which means

770F. The increase in the range of temperature shortens longevity. A per the rule, for

every 80C increase in temperature, it reduces the half-life of the battery. While a value

regulated battery that functions at 250C has a lead acid battery life of 10 years. And

when this is operated at 330C, it has a life period of 5 years only. Lead Acid Tubular

Batteries are Available Amperes are 75Ah, 100Ah, 120Ah, 180Ah, 200Ah and220Ah

2.2.16 Battery voltage

Voltage meters are used to indicate battery state of charge; they are relatively

inexpensive and easy to use. In this PV system it was usually charging or discharging

or doing the both at the same time. As the battery was charged the indicator lit up and

while it discharges, another lit to show the level of its discharge. A good, accurate

digital meter with a tenth of a voltage calibration was used with success.

2.2.17 Types of Solar Power System

The basic three types of solar power system are been discussed in details below.

i. On-grid Solar System

The on-grid solar system is a photovoltaic power system connected to an electricity

generating system which is linked to the utility gird. This photovoltaic system

contains solar panel, inverter and the equipment to provide connection to the grid.

Usually On-grid connected system does not need battery backup, because when

system generate the energy more than the load it will automatically transfer to the

linked utility gird

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 Fig. 2.9: On-grid Solar System
ii. Off-grid Solar System.

The off-grid system term states the system not relating to the gird facility. Primarily,

the system which is not electrification connected to the main electrical grid is term as

off-grid PV system. Off-grid system also called standalone system or mini grid which

can generate the power and run the appliances by itself. Off-grid systems are suitable

for the small community.[2].

Fig. 2.10: Off Grid Solar System

iii. Hybrid Solar System.

A solar system can be combined with another source of power - a biomass generator,

a wind turbine or diesel generator - to ensure a consistent supply of electricity. A

hybrid system can be grid connected, stand alone or grid support

Fig. 2.11: Hybrid Solar System

25
 2.3 REVIEW OF RELATED WORKS

A literature review is an assessment of a previous task done by some authors and a

collection of information or data from research papers published in journals to progress

one task. It is a way through which we can find new ideas and, concepts. There are

many pieces of literature published before on the same tasks using different

approaches, some papers are taken into consideration from which ideas of the project

are taken. Designed and implemented a 3.5 kVA pure sine wave inverter using a

microcontroller (PIC18F2550) programmed to carry out all the control functions

including producing a multi level pulse width modulation. In their work, a MOSFET

driver (IR2112) which steps up the current and voltage of the pulse width to drive to

MOSFET, an H-bridge MOSFET network for sine wave production, a transformer

with three taps on the secondary winding, a relay network, filter to remove noise

components from the generated waveform. The outlined in the energy policy of

Nigeria in 2003 by the federal executive council provisions were made for coordinated

development, illumination, and management of all energy resources. The policy

document admits that the grid extension through conventional petroleum products, gas,

coal, and electricity alone will not meet the rural electrification coverage cost-

effectiveness within a reasonable time frame and thus make adequate allowance,

particularly for rural energy supply with non-conventional and renewable energy such

as solar, wind, small scale hydro, biomass, fuel wood etc. The role of the inverter

system in the national energy mix cannot be overemphasized. The global search and

the rise in the cost of conventional fossil fuels are making supply demands of

electricity products almost impossible, especially in some remote areas. Generators

which are often used as an alternative to conventional power supply systems are known

to be run only during certain hours of the day, and the cost of fuelling them is

increasingly becoming difficult work on the methodology of off grid systems/stand-

26
alone systems and how it can help to reduce the dependency of grid and allow humans

to live in self-sufficient manners without reliance on one or more public utilities. A

project on the design and construction of 2kW 230V solar panel inverter at a frequency

of 50Hz. This project offers a better alternative to Public Power Supply, Generators as

well as UPS considering it is cost effective, noiseless and easy maintainability. Daniel

Joseph carried a study aimed at developing a standard procedure for the design of

large-scale (5MW) grid-connected solar PV systems using the PVSYST Software. The

performance of the 5MW grid-connected solar PV system was also simulated over the

guaranteed life of the system using PV system software. Mobile photovoltaic (PV) is a

technology that can address these needs by leveraging emerging. In this project, the

development and production of a semi-rigid, lightweight, efficient solar blanket with

the ability to mount on, or stow in, a backpack and recharge a high-capacity

rechargeable lithium-ion battery was undertaken. This paper was aimed at developing a

standard procedure for the design and analysis of a mini-grid connected solar PV

systems using PV modules connected in an array field The standard procedure

developed was validated in the design of a 20 kVA mini-grid-connected solar PV

system for Nanyuki town in Laikipia County, Kenya. The analysis and evaluation of

the load capacity requirements for the solar mini-grid were done. A literature review

was carried out, to determine the condition of the solar power supply; a thorough load

analysis was conducted at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in

Head of Department Office and the nearby associated Offices. It was discovered that

there is need to expand the PV module’s capacity, the cable’s size and the overall

power requirement. Additionally, it was determined through analysis that the system

would be in a better state by Replacement of the existing 7 number of 200W solar

panel with 4 numbers of 250W solar panel.

27
2.4 PRESENT RESEARCH WORK

This research focuses on evaluating the current state, maintenance practices,

andpotential upgrades of solar installations by replacement of four (7) numbers

200w solar panels with four (4) numbers of 250W panels Head of department Office.

The work was done to upgrade the previous installation compared to previous

specifications.

2.5 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS

A solar based power supply can be improved by upgrading the components that makes

up the system. For instance, panels of 200W ratings can be replaced with 250W

ratings. This is not done ordinarily but a load estimate with additional load can be used

to determine the new components ratings.

28
 CHAPTER THREE

DESIGN METHODOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter deals with detailed maintenance problems, troubleshooting method,

maintenance approach, circuit diagram and design procedures that ensure realization of

the set goals. They are carried out in stages as itemized below;

3.2 MAINTENANCE PROBLEMS

The nature of the problem of this project is that, there is shortage in current due to the

installation of different wattage of solar panels and of the already installed solar

installation that power’s the Head of Department office and the other four offices

connected to it. As a result of this problem, it shows that there is need for maintenance.

3.2.1. Maintenance

The technical meaning of maintenance involves functionality checks, servicing,

repairing or replacing of necessary devices or equipment and residential installations.

Over time, this has come to include multiple wordings that describe various cost-

effective practices to keep equipment operational; these activities occur either before

or after a failure.

3.2.2. Types of Maintenance

i. Preventive Maintenance.

ii. Corrective Maintenance.

i. Preventive maintenance (PM) is a routine for periodically inspection with the goal

of noticing small problems and fixing them before major ones develop. Ideally,

nothing breaks down.

ii. Corrective maintenance (CM) is a type of maintenance after equipment break

down or malfunction is often most expensive not only can worn equipment damage

29
other parts and cause multiple damage, but consequential repair and replacement costs

and loss of revenues due to down time during overhaul can be significant. As a result

of this definition, it shows that the maintenance problem will be categorize under the

Corrective Maintenance, because the project consists of replacement of components.

3.3 TROUBLESHOOTING METHOD

The troubleshooting methods adopted were to ascertain the nature of the problem and

select the best ways to solve the office of the Head of Department office and other

staff offices connected. Troubleshooting the solar system supply can be done using

the following method:

• Check the weather conditions to see if there is any cloud cover or other factors

that may be affecting the performance of the system.

• Inspect the solar panels and wiring to ensure that there are no physical damages or

obstructions that could be causing the issue.

▪ Check the batteries and inverters to see if they are properly functioning.

▪ Test the voltage and current of the system to see if there are any abnormalities.

▪ Ensuring that the system is properly grounded and there are no grounding issues.

▪ Checking the connection between the solar panels and the inverter to ensure there

are no loose connections.

▪ Testing the system for any short circuits or open circuits.

▪ Testing the solar panels to see if they are generating the expected amount of

power.

▪ Checking the fuses or circuit breakers to ensure they are not tripped.

▪ Checking the battery distilled water level.

It's important to note that solar system troubleshooting is a complex process and

should be done by a qualified technician. Therefore, it was adopted to make a suitable

replacement to fit in the capacity of the existing loads.

30
3.4 MAINTENANCE APPROACH

A maintenance approach is a systematic way of ensuring equipment functionality in an

industrial or manufacturing setting.

3.4.1. Design Specification

The following are the detailed solar panel specifications used in the work

a. New panels (Mono-crystalline)

i. 8 Numbers of 250W /24V

ii. Isc = 9.58A,

iii. Imp = 8.33A,

iv. Voc = 37.2V,

v. Vmp = 30.3V.

3.4.2 Interconnection Diagram

Fig. 3.1: Interconnection Diagram

3.4.3 Design Assumption

After a careful study of the various loads in the Head of Department office most

especially, the installation is intended to be a hybrid solar system. From the total

available PV wattage, 2 series and 4 parallel connections of the following were used.

The following assumptions were made:

31
• System loss of 1.3

• Efficiency of 90% were adopted (assumed).

• The Peak sun hour (P.S.H) for northern part of the country ranges from 4.5 to

6.5,for southern 4.0 to 5.5.but this installation was carried out in the North.

3.4.4. Design Analysis

The design analysis of this project work was first, the existing system evaluation and

load assessment, follow by review of solar panels, inverters, batteries and wiring that

will suit the load analysis of the entire system.

3.4.5. Load Estimation and Assessments

Determines the number of loads connected to the solar panel and the load estimation

are shown in the table below.

32
 Table 3.1 Load Estimation and Assessments

Location Loads Qty. Wattage Total Wattage Operating hours Total Energy

UPS 1 660 660 0.25 165.00

HoD’s
LED Bulb 4 10 40 9 360.00
OFFICE
LED Bulb 3 18 54 9 486.00
Desktop Computer 1 100 100 3 300.00
Phone Charger 1 7 7 4 28.00
Printer 1 1 1200 1200 0.08 96.00
Printer 2 1 1540 1540 0.08 123.20
TOTAL 3601 1,558.20
Printer 1 1540 1540 0.08 123.20
SECRETARY Desktop Computer 1 100 100 1 100.00
OFFICE Phone Charger 2 7 14 4 56.00
LED Bulb 2 10 20 9 180.00
Ceiling Fan 1 70 70 9 630.00
TOTAL 1744 1,089.20
Printer 1 1540 1540 0.083 127.82
Office Laptop 1 65 65 1 65.00
1 LED Bulb 2 10 20 3 60.00
Phone Charger 1 7 7 1 7.00
Wall Fan 1 25 25 1 25.00
TOTAL 1657 284.82
Laptop 1 65 65 2 130.00
Office Printer 1 1540 1540 0.083 127.82
2 Ceiling Fan 1 70 70 1 70.00
LED Bulb 2 10 20 5 100.00
Phone Charger 1 7 7 1 7.00
TOTAL 1702 434.82
Laptop 1 65 65 2 130.00
Printer 1 1540 1540 0.083 127.82
Office Ceiling Fan 1 70 70 1 70.00
3 LED Bulb 2 10 20 9 180.00
Phone Charger 1 7 7 2 14.00
TOTAL 1702 521.82
Ceiling Fan 1 70 70 1 70.00
Office 4 LED Bulb 2 20 40 9 360.00
Phone Charger 2 7 14 2 28.00
TOTAL 124 458.00
GRAND
21,060.00 8,693.72 Wh/d
TOTAL
The total energy requirement = 8,693.72Wh/day
33
 (Assuming system loss of 1.3)

Effective Load Demand = 8,693.72Wh/day x 1.3 = 11301.84Wh

ELD/D (WH/D) = 11301.84Wh/day

Applying system efficiency of 90% = 0.9

Taking PSH as 6.25

Imp = 8.33A

𝐸𝐿𝐷
Effective Load Demand/Day = (1)
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

11301.84
= 12557.6Wh/d
0.9
𝐸𝐿𝐷/𝐷
Effective Load Demand (Ah/d) = (2)
𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

12557.6
= 261.62Ah/d
48
𝐸𝐿𝐷(𝐴ℎ/𝑑)
Array Current = (3)
𝑃𝑆𝐻
261.62
= 41.9𝐴
6.25
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
Module in parallel = (4)
𝐼𝑚𝑝

41.9
= 5 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
8.33
𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
Module in series = (5)
𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

48
= 2 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
24

Module in Parallel = 4 numbers of panels

Modules in series = 2 number of panels
Total number modules = Number of Modules in Series × Number Modules
connectionin parallel

Total Number of Modules = 2 × 5

Total Number of Modules = 10
34
3.4.2 Determination of Battery Size
Day of Autonomy = 3days

DOD = 50% = 0.5

𝐸𝐿𝐷(𝐴ℎ/𝑑)𝑋𝐷𝑂𝐴
Battery Capacity = (6)
𝐷𝑂𝐷
261.62𝑋3
= 784.9𝐴ℎ
0.5

Selected Battery Capacity = 12V/220Ah

𝐵𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Number of Battery in Parallel = (7)
𝐵𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 (𝐴ℎ)
784.9
=4
220
𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
Number of batteries in series = (8)
𝐵𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
48
=4
12

4 Batteries 12V/220Ah are Recommended

3.4.3 Inverter Sizing

From above load analysis
• Inductive load (fridge) = 1 x 126 = 126W
• Inductive load (ceiling fan)= 4 x 70 = 280W
• Inductive load (Wall fan) = 4 x 25 = 100W
• Inductive load (Printer 1) = 1 x 1200 = 1200W
• Inductive load (Printer 2) = 6 x 1540 = 9240W
INDUCTIVE LOAD TOTAL = 10946W
• Non inductive load = 488W
Total connected load = 10946W
30% of total connected load = 488 × 0.3= 146.4W
To take care of the losses
Total load = 10946 + 146.4 =11092.4W
15kVA/48V of inverter system is recommended for better performance.
But 3.5kVA inverter was installed based on the fact that not all loads are put into use at
a time of operation.

35
3.4.4 Charge Controller

From the total array current from panel which is 72.3A. Therefore, 80A, 24V charge

controller was recommended.

3.4.5. Cable Sizing

Available from array Power =3770W

System voltage = 48V

P = V×I

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Current (I) = (9)
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
3770
= 78.5𝐴
48
Therefore, the recommended cable size according to IEEE table for current carrying

capacity is 16mm

3.5. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig: 3.3 Circuit Diagram of Solar Panel Array

3.6 CONCLUSION
Size of cable, batteries, inverters, charge controller and cable are all calculated using

appropriate equation.

36
 CHAPTER FOUR

INSTALLATION AND PACKAGING

4.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter deals with the project Construction, Upgrade, installation and

implementation carried out on the installation of solar power supply in Head of

Department office and four other staff offices.

4.2 INSTALLATION

The installation of the system involves the use of the following

i. Plan view of offices involved

ii. Support structure

iii. Inverter rack

iv. Positioning

4.2.1 Layout Design Diagram

Fig 4.1 Pictorial View of Solar Panel

4.3 STRUCTURE

This is the metal structure that supports the panel lifted at an angle to face the direction

of the sun. This structure also provides safety of the panel against strong winds and

storms.

37
Enclosure: This is a form of casing that houses some of the unit such as charge

controller, distribution box and batteries rack. This provides safety of this unit from

being tempered by unauthorized person.

Cooling System: The system was positioned closed to the door to provide adequate

cooling for the installation and to keep the temperature of the area where the inverter,

charge controller, batteries were kept is greatly reduced to ensure maximum efficiency

from the inverter and batteries.

4.4 PACKAGING

This aspect of the project talks about how the project was packaged. During the

designing time, climatic factors and the environment where the panels, batteries and

inverter was kept were put in to consideration because it was seen that the panels

should be exposed rightly to sunlight or tilted to an angle where sun is captured

without stress against sun shed and the enclosure or inverter rack was constructed for

proper and adequate safety of the inverter. The connections were properly terminated

to ensure proper insulation.

38
Fig. 4.2: Wiring Connection of the Solar PV Cells

Fig. 4.3: Mounting of the Solar Panel Modules

39
 Fig 4.4: Installed Solar PV Modules

4.5 BATTERY INSTALLATION

The battery was properly spaced during installation so as to allow for proper

ventilation, as heat could reduce the efficiency of the battery and cause eventual

damage to the battery. During installation, we took into proper consideration, the

battery cable used for the connection was ensured that it was suited for the purpose.

The battery cable between positive and negative terminal points were also properly

finished, being fitted with cable lugs to ensure neat, proper, easy and professional

termination. During termination, the battery cable was also properly fastened to the

battery terminals to avoid arching resulting from loose contact or partial contact, which

could damage the battery and entire system. During the battery installation, all effort

was made to ensure that the batteries were not placed directly on each other. The

pictorial view of tubular batteries is shown below in fig. 4.5

40
 Fig. 4.5: Installed Solar System Battery

4.6 INVERTER INSTALLATION

Inverter installation needs a very professional approach to achieve a very standard and

working system. The steps approach on inverter installation are discussed below:

i. Choosing a Location: A suitable location was selected to mount the inverter. It was

very close to the battery bank or the DC power source to minimize cable length and

power loss. The location was well-ventilated and protected from moisture, dust, and

excessive heat.

ii. Power Disconnection: It was ensured that the power source (e.g., batteries) was

disconnected and that there is no voltage present before starting the installation.

iii. Mounting the Inverter: Appropriate brackets was used or screws to securely mount

the inverter in the chosen location.

Iv. DC Power Connection: The positive (+) and negative (-) terminals of the DC power

source (e.g., batteries) was connected to the corresponding terminals on the inverter.

And a proper gauge battery cable was use to minimize voltage drop and ensure secured

connections.

i. AC Loads Connection: The AC outlets or terminals was identified on the inverter and

the AC loads (appliances, electronics, etc.) was connected using standard power cords

or wiring, depending on the inverter's configuration.

41
ii. Grounding: It was Ensured that the inverter is properly grounded according to the

manufacturer's guidelines and local electrical codes.

iii. Double-Check Connections: All the connections were verified to make sure they are

tight and secure to avoid loose or exposed wires.

iv. System Testing: Once the installation was completed, the power source (e.g.,

batteries) was reconnected and the inverter was turned On. Testing the system by

running various AC loads to ensure everything is functioning correctly.

Fig. 4.6: Plan View of Inverter System

4.7 CHARGE CONTROLLER INSTALLATION

Charge controller installation needs a very professional approach to achieve it

effective function in the solar system installation.

4.8 TOOLS AND MATERIALS USED IN THE INSTALLATION

i. Testing Screw Driver: Tester is a hand-held tool used to determine whether

electric current is flowing through a circuit.

Fig. 4.8: Screw Driver

42
ii. Spanner: A hand held tool used fo r loosening a tightening of bolts and nuts.

Fig. 4.9: Spanner

iii. Multi-meter: This is a device used in measuring current and voltage, both AC

and DC.

Fig. 4.10:Multi-meter

iv. Battery Cable: This cable is used in connecting the battery to the inverter.

Fig. 4.11: Battery Cable

v. Pliers: A hand held tool used for cutting, twisting and pealing cables.

Figure 4.12: Pliers

4.9 CONCLUSION

The project was duly implemented and has been working according to plan.

43
 CHAPTER FIVE
TESTING AND RESULT

5.1 INTRODUCTION

It is very important for a system designer to have first-hand information on the solar panel

performance before embarking on its installation for power supply.

This chapter talks about the tests carried out and results obtained from use of solar panels

under different condition.

5.2 TESTING

A number of tests were conducted to determine both the efficiency of the solar panel and also

some other components. The specification stated by the manufacturer of the solar panel is

usually for standard conditions. Hence their performance will vary with the location of where

it used and the environmental condition of where they are installed and also determine their

performance and effectiveness.

5.3 RESULT

This deals with how the readings were obtained and tabulated. A graph of VOC (V) against

time (Hrs.) and ISC (A) against times (Hrs.) was plotted to show variations of voltage as the

sun’s ray intensifies with respect to time.

44
Table: 5.1 Data for System Efficiency.

Input DC Power Output DC Power Efficiency (%)

𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓
Ii (A) Vi (V) Pi (W) Io (A) Vo (V) Po (W) 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓

4.15 49.8 206.67 0.4 220 88 43

5.85 49.4 288.99 0.7 220 154 53

9.85 48.2 474.77 1.5 218.7 328.05 69

13.75 47.6 654.5 2.4 219.0 525.6 80

18.35 47.0 862.45 3.5 214.6 751.1 87

25.5 46.2 1178.1 5.0 212.5 1062.5 90

Table 5.2 Data for Photovoltaic Cell (PV)

S/N Time (Hrs) Panel Voc Panel Isc Panel Vmax Panel Imax

(V) (A) (Voc x 0.81) (Isc x 0.92)

1 11:02am 32.2 8.22 26.1 7.6

2 11:22am 31.6 8.33 25.6 7.7

3 11:42am 31.5 8.75 25.5 8.1

4 12:02pm 31.6 8.78 25.6 8.1

5 12.22pm 31.4 8.82 25.4 8.1

6 12:42pm 31.3 8.90 25.4 8.2

7 1:02pm 31.0 8.81 25.1 8.1

8 1:22pm 31.1 8.37 25.2 7.7

9 1:42pm 31.5 8.12 25.5 7.5

10 2:02pm 31.1 7.93 25.2 7.3

11 2:22pm 31.5 7.46 25.5 6.9

12 2:42pm 31.5 7.11 25.5 6.5

13 3:02pm 30.56 6.35 24.8 5.8

45
5.4 CONCLUSION

This chapter presents the testing carried out on the installation work and also the

result obtained. The result obtained shows that the overall performance of the system is

satisfactory.

46
 CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

6.1 CONCLUSION

Due to the inconsistent power supply in the country, many sectors have been

compelled to seek for an alternative means to the conventional source of energy.

Therefore, researchers have shown that solar energy constitutes the largest and most

reliable source of energy not only in Nigeria but throughout the world.

The installation of solar electricity system was carried out in this project which was

subjected to various tests and found to be working within the chosen specification. The

upgrade was based on the need to give sufficient power outputs able to carry the loads

at Head of department at Electrical and Electronics Engineering department. The need

for replacement of 7 numbers 200W with 4 numbers of 250W solar panel eliminates

disparity in solar panel arrays. This system is reliable and cost effective.

6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

I recommend that future work on this project should be upgraded to accommodate

much larger loads. Also, for best performance of the system, it should be properly

maintained and should not be overloaded,

47
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49