Models Theories and Laws in Human Geography

Application of Scientific Principle

1. Identification of problem statement
2. Hypothesis a hypothesis is the potential answer to a problem
3, Information collection and measurement
4. Testing hypothesis in real world and law formulation
5. Combine number of laws to form a theory

Models idealised and structured representation of real world

model- broad meaning, it can be used to describe hypothesis, law, theory etc
R Chorley & P Hagget-
it is a simplified structuring of reality which presents supposedly significant features or relationships in a generalised form

Types

Iconic Models & Scale Models Simply scale is changed [eg model of town, globe, map etc]

Analogue analogy is made for actual reality

real world depicted by other properties
[eg, Retzel comparing state as living organism, Davis Normal cycle of erosion, gravity models analogy to physics]

Symbolic Models further intensified abstraction n real world depicted by symbols particularly mathematical symbols.

Conceptual Models abstract representation [w diagrams/words to describe]- difficult to correlate

Concentric Ring Model

Mathematical Models A. Emperical Statistical [channel ordering laws of Horton]

B. Deductive Deterministic [deduce new laws from existing eg Gravity Model from Newton
use equations to show relations bw system components
Deterministic Models eliminate human behaviour due to irrationality
economic rational man - they are not close to reality
eg CPT, Industrial Location Theory, Land rent, Distance decay, least effort etc

Probablistic/Stochastic Models stochastic[random] simulation models used

Monte Carlo Models- chance alone determine outcome of event
Markov Chain Model- outcomes are partially determined by previous events
eg- spatial diffusion model

Descriptive and Normative model

Normative Model of Decision Making- Victor Vroom

System's Analysis in Human Geography

it is mathematical approach
it is a tool or method
framework for geographers to analyse complex geographical phenomena
eg ecosystem

A system is a unit/whole which is made up of several elements which are interrelated thru meaningful relationships in such a manner that system
System works as a whole

Ludwig Von Bertalanffy General System Theory-it is a approach

attempted to create a meta theory which explained all phenomena doctrine of principles
about similarities of all systems regardless of type n scale

Berry and chorley General System Theory to create high levels of generalisation
geography was in ideal position to create 'meta-theory' as it simulataneously dealt with many phenomena
Berry--tried to develop similarities bw hierarchy of rivers and central places systems usefulness of systems analysis in HG
hard and soft systems

Structure of system
a set of elements
a set of links
a set of links bw system and environment
Geogrphcal Sys open in nature
all have one element of Space compulsarily
types---Regional System and Systematic (topical) Systems

System Types Isolated [no energy no matr]

Closed [no mtter]-
Open Sys

controlled particulary useful in planning when objective is known and inputs are defined
partially controlled mostly used as controlling all inputs is difficult

hard systems [problems well defined -- SA]

soft systems [not well d]

basis of components morphological [element based] first level analysis is done n elements are determined
eg- slope n its elements [physical sys]
human sys- politico economic sys >> capitalist/labor

cascading [process based)---- talks about process n their relationships

eg slope n process [weathering, MW ..] capitalist n labors [related by production sys]

process response sys [interrelation based] hybrid of morph n cascading -- have capacity to self regulate -
- operating processes determine morph charactersticcs
eg LtG --?
Examples- Von Thunen -- closed controlled System
Davis - closed system [not in human]
Limits to growth - controlled system
CPT - closed controlled system

Feedback Mechanism Positive feedback--

change in element of system affects the env in such a manner that it further leads to changes in elements in the same direction
eg.-global warming cause ice to melt reducing albedo which in turn accelerate GW
marxist theory-- --labour produced more labor---demand decrease---wages fall---produce further more labor or capitalist--exploits more--
-reduce wages-- -labor produce more to get more total income---wages further reduce--profit increse

Negative Feedback--
-changes in env create such changes in system which tries to limit the impact of env
eg more immigration in cities would increaase cost of living, traffic, problem and cause counter migration away from cities
thermohaline circulation -- slowing will not expost moreco2 n reduce GW
Homeostatis Mechanism [-ve feedback] --makes natural sys to maintain state of dynamic equilibrium

Types of Relationships
1--Series relatn--one way(eg deteminism, sun to planets--planets donot affect sun)
2--Parallel--when 2ormore affects 3rd or when 1 affects 2ormore w/o feedback
3--Feedback---positive or neg
4---simple compound--series+parallel w/o feedback
5---complex compound--sereies+parallel+feedback (most widely found in nature)

diagram
Major Works
Chorley attempted to formulate structural systems in geomorphology in terms of open system
Leopold and Langbein used entropy and steady state in study of fluvial systems
Berry attempted to provide basis for study of ''cities as a system within systems of cities''
Wolderberg and Berry used system concept to analyse central place and river patterns
Lund developed time space model

Positives -simplification of complex problesms

-model building/ theories
-made geo scientific
-very useful in current functionalist [planning identifying probles of bkwrd regionsetc]

Critic antihumanistic
oversimplification
as scale varies results varies [eg schumm [cycle/graded/steady]

Malthusian Theory

1798- 'An Essay on the Principle of Population''

emperical approach, based on Western Europe
initiated thinking on economic approach to demography
deterministic

Statement population tends to increase faster than means of subsistence, thus absorbing economic gains,
unless controlled by Positive checks or Preventive Checks

Assumption Postulates
food is necessary for existence of population
passion between two sexes is necessary and will remain nearly in this present stage

Details power to population to produce is indefinitely more than earth's power to produce subsistence
 unchecked population grows exponentially and means of subsistence arithmetically
population doubles every 25 years
unchecked growth will lead to positive checks

Positive Checks wars, diseases, droughts, floods, poverty, famine

Preventive Checks moral restraint [postponement of marriage], vice [adultry, birth control, abortion]

did not advocate contraceptive methods

asserted poors should be paid better and educated to prevent fertility

Criticism
passive/negative view for preventive check
too deterministic
mixed biological need of sex to need for having children which is social
did not give due regard to technology
population rarely doubles in 25y and rate varies from country to country based on DT stage
positive checks have occured in underpopulated regions as well [eg Africa] Robert Kaplan
Marx- poverty is due to unjustice of capitalism and not population growth
no country confirms with his theory [only Ireland possibly]
Static view of resources [ Zimmerman take dynamic view ]
Resources = Just food resources [ narrow ]

Population cannot grow beyond a point - Limit of Fecundity

Marx- refuted that there is universal law of population [ but every method of production has its own law ]
Saddler - gave an opposite perspective

Positives first to appeciate relation bw population growth and other demographic n socio economic changes
intiated theory building in population geography
Limits to growth concept evolved dueto his efforts
Emperical studies
Welfare approach- human welfare was linked to demography due to his efforts [ eg he advocated for more salary ]
Emphasis on Population Control
Neo Malthusians evolved Mathematical Min wages concept
raise of marriage age of girls [ preventive check ]
Application health, education free --- pronatalist policy-- sggested by malthus
Robert Kaplan- positive checks in Africa visible recent pandemic -- positive check
W Africa - anarchy and conflicts are visible is manifestation of posivtive checks

William Ophuls Africa is classical scenrio of our common future

there is growth of authoritarianism in africa
more resources >>> more liberal democracy and vice versa
overpopulated >> authoritarianism

Carrying Capacity of Earth

Population policy- burden of child raising [on govt/on people = pro/anti natalist respectively]

Preventive Checks NPP 2000 - focus on contraceptions

Limits to growth based on his concept

NeoMalthusian Idea
First used in 1877 by Dr Samuel Van Houten

Similarity static view of resources

limit to population growth [ carrying capacity ]
limited belief on role of technology
concept of positive and preventive checks
concept of malthusian catastrophe probable in both
somewhat mathematical emperical
limits to growth in both
 Differences explicity classifies working class as overpopulated
explicity stresses on birth control [ preventive checks ]
expanded view of resources beyond just food resources
malthus is more deterministic
malthus is more rigid in approach

Marxian Theory
did not gave special theory on population
was a reaction to capitalist mode of production
division of people in classes led to beginning of class struggle

Overpopulation is result of-

Capitalist structure of society
Maldistribution of resources
Class Struggle
Poverty

Approach Historical Materialism

Classes Employers vs employed

Exploiters vs exploited
Have vs not Haves

Variables Used
Capital Accumulation
Wage Rate
Demographic rates [ eg Fertility Rate, BR, DR etc ]
Percent of Surplus Population
Labour Demand

Basic Feudal/Capitalist society have

two economic classes; Rich and Poor
Rich- posses mode of production [land, factories etc]
they earned profit by exploiting- labourers and environment [resources- water, air, mineral]
profit earned leads to capital accumulation
consequently poors try to accumulate labor, their only commodity n population rise
in capitalist society, labor supply grows way faster than opportunities of employment
Technology Improvement in technology and rapid population growth leads to surplus labor [Industrial reserve army] n unemployment
causes misery in society
innovations and tech further intensifies class struggle
class struggle and poverty are main reason for population growth

Solution misery, growth and poverty can dissappeat if social order is replaced by communism
disagreed with malthus
growth pattern and dynamics of population change with mode of production
each mode has its own economic and demographic laws

BR n DR n Size of family has inverse relation with means of subsistence

Criticism World population has grown due to development of health facilities and reduction in DRs
wages are not only defined by population size but also various political economic factors
ignored effects of religion on BR
ignored education, technology, social norms in determining pop growth
physical env also plays vital role in BR DR [Spencer- deterministic view]
Dumont- social capillary reduces family size

Overemphasied on economic factors only

Application
Slums of Urban Areas - High Fertility
Agricultural Areas - try to accumulate more labour - fragmentation
Comparison Malthus Marx

Both focussed on relation bw fertility and wages [ more explicit in Marx ]

Both can be regarded as Economic Theories of Population ---???
Both did not gave due regard to role of technology
Both emphasized need for population conrol
Static view of resource

Nature Deterministic Possibilistic

Emperical Non Emperical / Theoretical

Ideology Capitalistic Non Capitalistic [ communist ]

Type Natural Law Socio Economic

Demographic Problems Space Dependent Time dependent [ Historical Materialsm ]

Solution Positive Checks, Preventive Communist structure

Exclusive Population Theeory No specific theory

Philosophy Positivism Radicalism

Demographic Transition Models

Thompson [1929] and Notestein [1945]
emperical based on Europe, AngloAmerica and Australia
based on data and statistics of recent past

man is able to see demographic catastrophe and control the population

Possibilist

Hypotheses the decline in mortality comes before decline in fertility

the fertility eventually declines to match mortality
the socio economic transformation takes place simultaneously with demographic transformation

Features shows spatial variability [different countries at different stages]

this is due to dual nature of man [same biologically but different culturally]

Characterstic Stage I Stage II Stage III Stage IV / V

BR v high high declining low
DR high fluctuating declining low low
Population Growth slow rapid declining slow / zero growth [V]
Fertility [ BR ] above 35/1000 over 30 [reduces in late II ] 20/1000 12/ 1000
Mortality [ DR ] above 35/1000 over 15 [ IMR ] - Infants 10/1000 10 / 1000
Economy pre industrial n premodern stage Ind,Urb becomes prominent Urban and Industrial Highly Industrialised n Urbanised
Population Density low high
Family Size large reduce small
Life expectancy low improving high
Literacy low high
Technlogy level primitive advanced
Rostow agrarian Society age of high mass consumption
Examples Tribes- Jarawa, Pygmies etc developing world [Pak. Bhutan.. ] China, India [just] Aus, NZ, W Europe. AngloAm

Criticism Aus, Europe and AgloAm are socio economically different than developing ones
Loschky n Wildcose- neither predictive nor the stage are sequential eg China bypassed second stage with One child policy
mans' technical innovations cannot be undermined
covid like crises
domgraphic reversals?
extension of second stage?? islamic realm
structure??? marx
economics - ricardo ??

Application
Varies in Space
Biologically humans are same but not culturally

First World followed more or less DTT and completed by beginning of 20th century

Second World began in beginning of 20th century but happended very fast
completed by 1940s -- fertility decline came very fast
because chruch and government both supported population control

ThirdWorld Mortality decline very fast due to import of technologies

Fertility decline very slow due to slower socio economic development
Population Explosion

China - faster progression due to One Child Policy

Islamic Realm -- Slow DT due to less Secularization

Extension of Second Stage eg Islamic Realm due to Religious reasons

SE development not in pace

Mortality Reversals Africa - returning to first stages

Corona - questions health sector development

Central Place Theory

Christaller
Walther Christaller [1933]
system analysis
emperical, based on South Germany [ deductive ]
normative, based on idealised assumptions n laws
concerned with the way in which settlements evolve n are spaced out
ie spatio temporal model
marketing [service] is a dominant function
positivistic approach
analyses relationship bw lower and higher level CPs

Fundamental Concepts principle of centralization not geometrical concept

concerned with relation bw central settlement and peripheral settlements
core periphery relation present in all natural phenomena
 principle of hierarchy most phenomena are arranged in hierarchical fashion

Derivative Concepts
concept of central place settlement with relatively more functionalty -focal point of dependent settlements
some tertiary activity catering the needs of surrounding villages is must
high centripetal pull

concept of complementary area area upto which centripetal pull is present

it is collection of places of lesser importance around a CP

central goods n services essentially tertiary activities

different places offer diff G&S, which differ in significance and frequency of use -
thus create hierarchies

concept of range of goods distance consumer willing to travel for a good n service
follows distance decay, number of consumers seeking any good declines away from CP
for basic - only travel short ------ for luxuries - travel longer
each GnS has its own Range

concept of threshold minimum number of customers needed for a good to be offered

Measures Population Threshold
Distance Threshold

concept of centrality importance of centre as a focal point

diagrams

Assumptions isotropic surface

uniform distribution of settlements
population distribution n their income is same
rational and economic men
no area is left unserved or overlap

Efficiency Principles

Shape of complimentary area Hexagon

to serve all areas and no double serving

Number of Central Place for efficient delivery of G&S - minimum no. of central places
Solution hexagonal CP
maximum functions at single CP [ multifunctional CP ]

Hierarchical Levels for efficieny - number of hierachical levels should also be minimised
Solution accomodating max functions at single CP
higher order CP should also have functions of Lower order CP

Pattern of Nesting
 for each level of CP there is corresponding network of hexagonal complementary areas
lower order CPs are nested within that hexagon
suggested 3 ways of hierarchical spatial structure [ 3 services ]

k=3 [Markeing Principle] minimize number of centres

k=4 [Transport Principle] CP at edges to minimize length of roads to join adjacent CPs
admin efficiency n necessity demands CA boundary
k=7 [Administrative Principle]
of lower order CP lies entirely within CA of higher order

Application Overall Theory since normative - no real world can follow

India Case Study Parameters

value of k
Spacing - theoretical distance bw 2 central places and immmediately below CPs

Marketing Principle
Value of k [ doe not satisfy ] [ Class II serves more than 60 Class III Cities ]
Spacing - Theoretical [ 1 : 1.732 ] Actual [ 1 : 1.41 to 1.83 ] [ somewhat similar ]
Primate Cities stand apart

Transport Principle
totally inapplicable

Administrative Principle
Total Levels - 6
K Value [ Theoretical 1:7 ] Actual varies Cetre to State Capital 1 :29 -- State Capital to Districts ~ 1 : 21
not applicable
District to Tehsil 1 : 6+ ~ similar to 7 approx
Spacing [ Th 1 : 2.6 ] -- much larger in reality
Here also District to Tehsil is near theoretical

Principles Applicability

Concept of Central Places eg Growth Poles, State Capitals

Centrality and CA Delhi Mumbai etc

0 Map

Administrative Centrality more strong k =7

eg Delhi - Supreme Court serves all India

Hierarchy Centre > State Capital > Districts > Taluka > Village

Range of G&S Range of International Airport Services / Railway Stations

Threshold of GS eg Losses of Hambantota Airport

Planning Floating city

RP misra

Criticism man is boundedly rational [satisfier] - Theory of decision making

isotropic surface --?
hexagons -- ?
 supply side considerations -- ? Loschian Criticism
primarily applicable in agricutural regions
technology, transport, ICT etc has changed dynamics
fixed value of k shows poor approximation
no real world settlement satisfies

Losch 1940
attempt to create general theory of location
based on demand
sought to explain size and shape of market area within which a location would command largest revenue
based on Urban places of entire Germany
150 commodities and services were studied inc manufacturing and industries

Assumptions same
Supply to be constant
demand for produce decrease with price
if transport increase price then demand decrease away from production centre
whenever feasible, functions can be clustered in same settlement else specialised CP is also possible

he treated each function having a diferent range, threshold and hexagonal hinterland
all CP with a particular threshold need not contain examples of all functions with smaller thresholds
by rotating demand curves around production point, shape of market area is seen circular
competition increases as other producers develop and shape becomes hexagonal to avoid overlap
each product would have a different market area depending on relative impo of transport cost in its price and
each product would have different pattern of production centres
some of patterns when rotated around common production centre --
will coincide forming points of maximum demand which should develop as concentration of industry

MUltifunctional CP whenever demand is less

Specialised high demand

Rotated Demand curve around production point

found sectors of specialised and multifunctional CPs emerged
sp = high demand rich areas
multi fn = low demand poorer areas
Criticism abstract nature
complex
overemphasis on demand fails to account for supply side
overlapping creates problem of cartographic represenation

Application
Transport Cost Principle

Optimum Maximum Demand Location

Agglomeration areas

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polder

Floating cities

Comparison Christaller Losch

Boveria [S Germany] full Germany [ more emperical validity ]
based on consumers and seller's behaviour, transport n admin services based on 150 commodities and services
based on supply side based on demand side

more restrictive less restrictive

each function to have separate range, threshold n hexagonal hinterland allowed various hexagonal systems to coexist n overlap
separate k=3 ,4, 7 overlapping k=3, 4, 7

higher order CP has all functions of lower order not necessary

only services incorporates manufacturing and industries

stepped hierarchy of city population size consistent with continuous distribution of population size
ie all places in an order have same population size more close to theoretical rank size rule

more applicable in developing agrarian societies more applicable in developed

development declines uniformly feom CP divided thresholds into sectors of rich and poor

less dynamic more dynamic

multifunctional CPs also had spacialised CPs

Similarities both try to formulate universal law for hierarchy

nesting patter same
shape of complementary areas same
concept of GnS and threshold same
Basic assumptions same
 both positivistic , emperical
both based on germany
both included services
emphasis on distance minimising pattern of consumer's shopping choice
both functional regions demarcation??

Von Thunen's model of Agricultural Location

emperical, bsed on data from Maclenberg, Germany

to show how agricultural landuse changes away from market

Postulates the intensity of production of a particular crop declines with distance from market
Intensity of production= money, labor, fertilizer etc
more intensity, more production

the type of landuse will vary with distance from market

Assumptions
an isolated estate
only one market at centre
only one supplier area
all farmers receive same price for a crop
isotropic surface - same terrain, topography and climate
farmers are economically rational
farmers have full knowledge of market and its needs
only one form of transport

Details
based on concept of Rent [Ricardo]
farmers will produce only those crops which provide highest rent
transport cost is taken as only variable

when rent curves are rotated about the market- zonation is found

zone 1 perishables grown, fertility maintained, high input intensity- fertilizers, manures
 zone 2 wood production, due to bulkiness of wood n high transport cost
zone 3 high intensity rye production no fallowing
zone 4 less productive land, less intensive agriculture, seven year crop rotation
zone 5 three field system [1/3 each- crop fallow pasture]
zone 6 livestock ranching, butter cheese, slaughter

Application Europe Intensity of Agriculture- Samuel Van Valkenberg n Colbert Held

V high intensity and dairying - N Germany, Neatherland, Denmark, SE England

High Agri Intensity- N Germany, Denmark, Switzerland, France England

Regions of USA Stutz and A de Souza

Indian Conditions
villages of great plains of india
M Shami in Koli Tehsil UP
 model cannot be applied in original manner due to variations due to
Punjab- Prof Jhujar Singh
irrigation facilities and dense roads
due to introduction of tubewells in great plains- rich farmers are able to produce perishables for longer distances
consolidation of landholdings has also affected patterns -
transport, communication and HYV seeds has made model almost irrelevant
overall intensity reduces away from market

Criticism
oversimplified
unreal assumptions

Transport modern transport- cheaper for longer distances [tonne/km]

Technology ROle of technology- refrigeration, speed

Demand factor of demand is ignored which influence cropping patterns

Structural Factors Role of Political authority - structure's role- eg MSP, Russia China
Land Reforms

Physcial role of environmental factors [determinism]

advantages of physical factors --? [soil fertility, climate, drainage etc]
Lqand capability

Behaviouralism element of risk and uncertainity ignored [Game theory n Wolpret]

Complete information to farmers not possible in reality ( pred ) Agro industries, Storage etc also affect agri supply

Land Holdin Size Amartya Sen - role of land fragmentation in inducing intensity

Weber's Model of Industrial Location 1909

regional economist
Least Cost Location Theory
elaborated as Locational Triangle
supply based

Objectives
to ascertain minimum cost location of an industry
to establish that transport cost play a vital role in selection of industrial location
to prove irrespective of political and socio economic conditions,
location of industry depend on transport cost [ie its involvement is universal]

Assumptions
self supporting economy [no imports]
isotropic surface
perfect competition in market
labor is static and wages are uniform
uniform and stable political n socioeconomic situation
industrialists n labors are economic rational men
transport cost increase uniformly according to weight in all directions
uniform demand [ie uniform price everywhere]

Classification of Raw Materials

Ubiquitous Raw Materials found everywhere [air, water, land, soil, sun etc]
Fixed Raw Materials confined to particular areas [iron ore, copper etc]

Pure RM same [cotton, wool etc]

Impure RM weight losing

Material Index Input/Output

Activities using ubiquitous raw materials, such as water, tend to locate close to markets.
To assess this issue, Weber developed a material index which is simply the weight of the inputs
divided by the weight of the final product (output).
If the material index is higher than 1, location tends to be toward material sources.
If it is less than 1, location tends to be toward the market.
(Example cotton textile industries tend to be toward market as transport of raw material is not an costly )

Postulations
Factors controlling location od an industry are-
 General Factors Transport Cost
Labor cost

Local/Special factor Industrial Agglomeration

Possible locations of Industries

1. Influence of Transport Cost

Linear Location at market weight gaining RM or ubiquitous
at source of raw material weight losing MI > 1
any intermediate location pure

Non Linear location

at market
at RM1
at RM2
intermediate location bw these three

Weber's locational triangle

2. Influence of Labor Cost

location would change if savings on labor cost > additional cost of transportation from cheapest labor location

Isotimes line joining the points of additional equal transport costs of to cheap labor location
Separate for RM or Finished good
 it is the line joining the points of equal additional transportation cost of
Isodapane
the two materials and delivering the product to the market
it is formed by intersection of isotimes [ RM istime and Finished good isotime in below figure ]

it is the isoline where this increase in transport cost is exactly offset by the savings from cheaper labour
critical isodapane
or agglomeration benefits

Note- the lines intesecting in above figure are ISOTIMS

3. Influence of Agglomeration
agglomeration benefits only when savings is more than additional transport cost incurred
[ie location is within respective critical isodapane]
Criticism too abstract
ignored the role of demand and focussed too much on supply
overemphasized transport cost
transport of RM is cheaper
long distance transport is cheaper
critcise assumptions
space, agglomeration diseconomies, land rent ignored
historical factors ignored
physical consideration eg ports ignored

Austin Robinson has regarded to division of raw materials made by Weber as artificial and unnatural.

Applications
Economic geography notes

Application---transport [in bulky industries]--> Moscow Tula region [tula--coal; moscow--market; ural--iron]
labor--LPG--critical isdapane expanded--China India BPO services
Agglomeration--Mumbai Pune [ textile--financial services--other services]--map major indus agglo

Rostows Model of stages of growth 1971

ye AYEGA 5 stage sequence of economic and social development [ BOTH ]

America based
against Historical Materialism of Marx
teleological [as 5th end stage is known] and mechanical [underlying mode of change is not explained]
based on data of 15 countries n outline data of some [ emperical ?? ]
Assumes - Capitalism as uderlying structure [ people are free to utilise the resources ]
 Traditional Society Preconditions to take off Take off || DTM Age of high mass consumption
transition stage short ||
Technology Primitive ||

Society Hierarchical Individualistic / Free

Culture tradition bound ||

Innovation min ||
Production per capita low ||

Exports RM based || Finished

Imports Finished goods || fall RM based

Investment rises due to outside stimuli rise || high

Infrastructure low begins to develop developed

Economy primitive agriculture agri + industry develops manuf develops || services imp Service
Urb+ Induszn || Ind diversify
resource based knowledge based economy
Luxury [ Qualtiy of life ] minimum high

Demographic Transition Stage I Stage lV/ V

PCI low high

Literacy low high

Life Expectancy low high

Spread effects In DTM stage

Mobility Tansition

Take off - great watershed in the life of modern socities

Criticism assumes underlying structure to be capitalistic

can be applied to even communist eg china
stages of growth are unrealistic as can be applied everywhere n at anytime
his logic is that capitalism is a necessary consequence of development
Marxists criticism
India- many stages coexisting
vague terminology
no specific demarcation of stages
no quantification -- no set parameters [ eg at what PCI take off is considered ]
Middle East paradox- high economic parameters but low social
India bypassed manufacturing

Anglo centricism based on Britian and US

Narrow emperical base Britain and US only

Simon Kuznets no distinction between PTO and TO stages

criticizes Rostows view that take off is self sustaining
as no economy today is self sustaining
criticizes his view by showing that Traditional societies
can be poverty ridden using Denmark, Punjab state

Application
Development of airways questions
Any temporal development question

Heartland Theory of Mackinder

London University
Deterministic theory
interpreted history as essential struggle bw land and sea power

1904- Geographical Pivot of History

formula of 'geographical causation in history''
World Island - Asia, Europe, Africa N of Sahara
interpreted history as essential struggle bw land and sea power - with land power being ultimate victor

Landmass of the world arranged in 3 tiers-

 Pivot area [later Heartland] huge area in interior of arctic drainage
3 sides mountains - arctic ice in north east
Volga in west to Siberia
not accessible by sea power
only vulnerable from SW via Steppe grasslands

Inner or Marginal Crescent arch of coasland and navigable sea

whole eurasia outside heartland
Spatial- Europe [west of Ural], SW Asia, SE Asia and most China

Outer or Insular Crescent insularity from mainland Eurasia

~~ insular = relating to island N/S America, Japan, Africa S of Sahara, Island regions of Britain

control over world island >> dominate entire globe

1919- The democratic Ideals and Reality

renamed pivot area as Heartland

Heartland defined heartland as region to which sea power can be denied access

included Baltic sea, lower Denube, Black Sea, Asia minor,

Strategic Heartland
Armenia, Persia, Tibet, Mongolia

World Island included whole of Africa

Idea
Heartland is strongest fortess in the world - any power which can organize it effectively will dominate

'who rules east europe commands heartland

 who rules heartland commands the World Island
who rules world islands commands the world'

1943- The Round World and the Winning of Peace

two sides of N Atlantic were bound together but mutually supporting links of sea n air communications
high combined industrial n military strength [W Europe and US]

Midland Basin E USA and N Atlantic and W Europe

regarded it as effective counterbalance of Eurasian Heartland

Lenaland region east of Yenisei River

rugged topography n forest
1943, excluded it from Heartland

Visualised emergence of two great centres of power in the world-

The Heartland The Midland Basin

Criticism He interpreted history as only deterministic based on struggle between land and sea power
Heartland has climatic extremities
Heartland is not resourceful and not capable of supporting large population
Ignored the power of airways [ Seversky ]
He explained global strategy based in Mercator projection which showed arctic to be huge but instead it was
easy to connect N America to heartland via arctic
Technology has changed the dynamics (missiles, nuclear tech, airways)
After Second World War geopolitics has shifted from Germany to North America
Ignore power of Rimland [ Spykeman ]

Application Heartland vs midland basin

US vs russia
NATO vs Ussr

Cold War
Cold war seems similar to Heartland Vs Midland Basin [as per 1943]
Control Afica- world islabd
China France UK NATO
Establishment of NATO can be traced to concept of Midland Basin

Russia attempting to develop far east

Lenaland develoment as it was removed from HL

Arctic Council
Rising interests of global powers in Arctic which was envisioned as Mediterranean of North by Mackinder
Resources - Transport routes - Climate change benefits

China- Belt n Road Initiative with Polar Silk Route aims to encircle heartland
 String of Pearls aim to control Insular crescent of Mackinder

Development of Far East Russia [ Lena land ]

to reineforce dominance of land power [ Mackinder ]

China’s debt traps

To control world island upto Africa

Russian policy in Crimea and Eastern Europe, Ukraine Is based on strategic heartland
Eg EEU

Extended- Concept of Geographical Pivot

India- market pivot
Space- becoming new pivot area
China/US- technology pivot

Rimland Theory of Spykeman

1944- The Geography of Peace
was developed in opposition to Heartland theory

Rimland Innter/Marginal Crescent of Mackinder

he believed geographical factors [topography, terrain, climate] as important determinants of foreign policy
because of its emphasis on spatial variations
 developed from the point of view of USA
emphasized on maritime mobility as the basis of new type of geopolitical structure
sea power governs the relationship bw new world and old world
land + sea poer > power of RImland

One who controld Rimland, rules Eurasia

One who rules Eurasia control the destinies of the world

advocated that allied powers must prevent consolidation of RImland as a policy measure

Criticism
advancement of war technology and nuclear deterrent deteministic
underestimated role of world community n UNO airpower??
Retzels concept of lebensraum is no longer valid -
economic imperailism prevails today and not political colonization

Application
USA Cold War
policy of containment of communism and prevent Domino Effect
Vietnam, Korea, SE Asia, Middle East etc
Even India
NATO, CENTO, SE Asian Territorial Organisation

China- Belt n Road Initiative

integration of Rimland via connecting routes
access to stretigic rimland ports via ring of pearls
Debt trap diplomacy

~Mandal Theory
Necklace of Diamond

Extended- Importance of India for US

India lies on the Rimland of China

Japan India - RImland Nations

China and Taiwan
Concept of Indo Pacific - focus on Naval power Russia called its ambassadors from nato nations
nato vs warsaw pact
India's neighbourhood first policy NATO integration of Rimland
 EEU by Russia

Chinese Perspective - Model of Indian Rimland diagram

SE Asia - RCEP
Afganisatan USA
USA and Vietnam

British Policy to Divide India'

Perroux and Boudeville https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/geography/the-growth-pole-theory-of-francois-perroux-and-boudeville/42241

1955- Perroux [French]

growth is not ubiquitous, rather it occurs at poles, centres and points

Description Nature of Growth
with variable intensities
development does not appear everywhere all at once
growth spreads thru numerous channels n with variable final effects
Spill over / Trickle Down Effects
for the economy as a whole
growth pole is capable of rapid economic growth n
Inequalities
helps in reduction of regional inequalities
it has capacity to diffuse process of industrialization in the
Diffusion
neighbouring n distant areas
they have sustained impacts on economy of surrounding areas

External Economies Externalities

Positive
electric circuits benefitted due to silicon industry

Negative
eg pollution due to coal industry harm others

Types
Economies Internal to Firm eg Management expertise
Economies External to Firm but Internal to Industry eg Benefits of Fordism
Economies External to Industry but Internal to Urban Area eg devt of cheap labour market

Agglomerations one industry attracts another

benefits due to close proximity
eg- easy availability of skilled labours due to many industries

Schumpeter's idea of Propulsive firm and leading industry

high tech, high linkages, highly developed, highly dynamic,
high innovation, high income, profits
cause multiplier effect

Backward linkages these industry helps in development of previous stage of production process
by increasing demands for intermediate goods

Investment - helps in increasing investment in subsequent

Forward Linkages
stages due to availability of products
 Innovation cause reduction in prices -- increases demand

Further Development 1966- Boudeville in ''Problems of Regional Economic planning''

Buttler in ''Growth Pole Theory n Economic Development''
Mridal Commulative Causation Theory
RP Misra Growth Focii Model

1966- Boudeville in ''Problems of Regional Economic planning''

regional growth pole =
set of expanding industries located in an urban area n including further development of economic activity
throughout its zone of influence.

Geographical manifestation of Growth Pole as Growth Centre

Propulsive Firms
Uneven development
Spread Effects

Criticism Selection of pole cannot be arbitrary but based on some resource advantage, location etc
Many fainled in diminshing regional inequalities [eg in Jh, Orissa CG]
Problem of social acceptibility [Naxal Areas, Agricultural areas]
Problems of monitoring n management Agglomeration Diseconomies emerging
May lead to new socio ecological problems [eg Barauni] Urban Shadow
Slow spread effects [political will diminishes due to delays]

Application
India: after Independence
Jamshedpur, Rourkela, Bhilai, Durgapur, Dhanbad, Bokaro

Failure of Growth Poles

Barauni and Bongaigaon- created socio ecological problems - politically motivated selection of GPs
Bhilai, Rourkela- failed to reduce inequalities

Differentiate Between Perroux and boudeville

Similar Both said about propulsive firm and leading industry

Both talk of growth poles as concentration of growth
both talk of forward and backward linkage
both talk of spread effects

Difference Perroux Boudeville

Growth Pole Growth Centre -- ??

economic concept geographic concept

narrower broad

no physical existence physical extistenxe

spread effects geographic trickle down effects

eg Jameshepur
P = economies of Iron and Steel B = full geography of Jamshedpur

Economies of industry Location also plays important role

plays major role along with economy and sector

Reduce economic disparities Reduce regional disparities

Laws of International Boundaries and Frontiers

Boundaries n Frontiers

Boundaries demarcate outer boundary of sovereign jurisdiction of a nation state

 separates economies n societies

Types Physical Rivers - US Mexico Rio Grande

Manmade Geometric- Latitude [US Canada- 49th Parallel]

Longitude [Botswana Namibia]

Antecedent demarcate territories before they are settled or colonised

eg 49th parallel US Canada; African countries at Congress of Berlin 1884

Subsequent evolove together with society they encompass

eg India China

Frontiers

political - geographical area lying beyond defined borders of a political entity

it is an area to which expansion could take place
if ecumen grows - frontiers are occupied

that part of boundary which lies on the limit of settled area

separate ecumenes of a given pair of states
ecumene = fully developed n politically n economically integrated parts
varying width
unhabitated or sparsely populated areas of marginal utility at current tech
hence sates on either side donot feel need to precisely demarcate
leads to boundary disputes
zone of transition bw way of life of one to another

Historical states were demarcated by frontiers and not boundaries

function of intervening area was to prevent direct contact bw states

Lapradelle Stages of Evolution of Frontiers

Designated Zone of Influence of Different Geographical Phenomena

Anthropological- Geographical Concept

Political frontier

When we expand into frontier and natural limit is reached >> we reach boundary
eg USA expanded in west desert praries and reached west coast >> limit
today that is the boundary of usa

Borderlands generally to define the frontier zone

Types
WRT Sovereignity of State Settlement Frontier marks farthest advance of settlement within a state
Primary SF first time colonised
Secondary SF colonised, left and again colonied
Hollow SF colonied, exhaustion of resources >> decoloniesd

Political Frontier where limit of state coincides with limit of settlement

limit of culture may not reach frontier eg china and tibet, soviet expansion in kazakhastan

WRT Indigenous Population Frontiers of Inclusion assimilation of indigenous population over which frontier passes
eg Arab peninsula Sanskritization of tribes ???

Frontiers of Exclusion segregation of indigenous population

eg USA Australia
In relation to Pace of Frontier Advancement
Dynamic Frontiers continuously changing and expanding
eg white taking over USA

Static Frontiers when expansion is checked by indigenous population, natural barrier

eg Applachains prevented US expansoin to west for long
Antactica
Based of Degree of Transfrontier Contact
Contact frontiers facilitate peacefule intercourse bw nations
eg Antartica [ Ant Treaty ]

Separation Frontiers minimize risk of war by separating political entities

eg post WWI - buffer was created bw Germany and France [ Rhineland ]

Others Physical eg Himalaya

Linguistic eg-
Religious eg-
Ethinic eg- Kurdish ??

Distinctions [ According to Kirchoff ]

Frontiers Boundaries

Orientation outer oriented - the motherland is seldom the directing force inner oriented- created n maintained at the will of central govt

Forces mainfestation of centrifugal force centripetal force

integrating factor bw states on either sides separating factor

Nature geographical in nature political in nature

can have its own cuture, physical features physical features can act as bundary but overal the concept is political

Extent areal linear

Genetics natural + cultural artificial/man made

Timeline phenomenon of past present

Changability cannot be moved is movable [redrawl of boundaries is continuous]

situation of ''pause'' associated generally not
people may attach a meaning to it
 1. A boundary is oriented inwards.
It is a manifestation of integration, and is a centripetal force; a frontier is oriented outwards and
is a manifestation of the spontaneous tendency to grow, of ecumene, and is a centrifugal force.

2. A boundary is created and maintained by the will of the government. It has no life of its own,
not even a material existence; a frontier is a ‘fact of life’ and exists physically on ground as a dynamic entity.

3. A boundary is well-defined and regulated by law. It possesses uniform characteristics.

A frontier is a phenomenon of history and, like history, it is unique.

4. A boundary is a separating factor whereas a frontier provides scope for mutual interaction and exchange

Classification of International Boundaries

Physical or genetic classification based on the nature of relationship the boundary line shared with the cultural landscape of state whose
sovereignity it defines, delimits and separates at the time of its demarcation
By Hartshorne

Antecedent Boundaries predates evolution of cultural landscape

eg US Canada

Subsequent Boundaries definition n demarcation has followed the evolution of cultural landscape
confirm to ehinic-cultural division of the landscape esp language n religion'
eg Eastern Europe, India china

Superimposed Boundaries special type of subsequent boundaries

also drawn after cultural landscape evolution
however, unlike subsequent boundaries, they do not confirm to socio-cultural division
imposed by outside powers
eg colonial boundaries of Africa, India Pak Punjab

Relict Boundaries they have lost political function but may be still visible in cultural landscape
when small state is absorbed by large one
or when boundaries are redrawn
eg- Goa, Poland Germany, E W Germany, Spanish n Angloamerican former border
eg Maratha Empire and Marathi Culture --- Nizam of hyderabad -- Kashmir

Morphological Classification their demarcation n fixation on ground

Based on Form

Physiographic Boundaries
Mountain Argentina-Chile; MacMohan LIne [India Tibet]
problem of demarcation n absence of highest crest in many areas
causes disputes eg Arunachal

Rivers linear, marked

drainge however tend to exert unifying than separating influence
eg IndiaPak, Indo Bangladesh
generally mid stream is defined as internatioanl boundary
admin, crime problems
eg Rio grande
changing courses of river
eg Rio grande

Lakes n Straits drawn at equal distance from base of respective countries

[eg hence caspian sea was not considered sea]
Lake- US Canada
Strait- Yemen-Djibouti; India SL

Forest, Swamps, Deserts act as cultural divide

Desert- Sahara separated Europe n Africa
 Forest- Finland Russia Poland Lithunia
Marshes- Belarus n Poland

Geometrical Boundaries Latitude [US Canada- 49th Parallel]

Longitude [Botswana Namibia]

Anthropogeographic
drawn to separate political communities
based on language, religion or any cultural factor creating differences in nationalism
eg India Pak 1947

Maritime International Boundaries

UNCLOS 1 - 1956
UNCLOS 2- 1960

UNCLOS 3 - 1973-1982

6 Zones
It is impermissible to claim EEZ around small, uninhabitable rocks

UNCLOS
Principles Oceans are common heritage of mankind and its resources belong to whole humanity
Parts of ocean have greater impact on certain states
due to which they have exclusive rights over these parts

Types od States coastal states--which has coastline

flag states--where vessel is registered

Demarcations [6] 1. Internal waters--complete sovereignity

2. Territorial waters upto 12nmiles--
innocent passage [ submarines should rise above to show flag] + laws can be formulated
 3. Contiguous/ pursuit zone 24 n m
laws can be made on --
Customs ; Taxation ; Immigation ; Pollution
criminals can be pursed till here
4. EEZ 200 n m--resources can be exploited
foreign nations can lay submarine pipes and cables here
free passage
5. Continental Shelf--
natural extension of continent or upto 200nm whichever is greater
6. Fishing- upto 200nm
HIgh seas- everything except these 6 - complete freedom of movement

Part 12 UNCLOS--marine pollution and protection---upto EEZ responsibility of coastal state---

beyond---flag state and international communtiy
International Seabed Authority---
mngmt and regulation of exploitation of deep sea resources[invites bids] +
conservation n env protection [oceanic EIA] +
allocating benefits derived to humanity

Article 123--states bordering enclosed or partially enclosed sea should coordinate to protect
marine env as spillover effects can be caused to
connected seas

Why frontiers are disseapearing in recent times?

Social Homogenisation adn globalisation

Population expansion to newer unhabitated frontiers malthus vs land graph

Political / Institutional Exploration creation of political frontiers = almost like borders

Securitizing
Assesrtion and consolidation

Economic Resource Exploration

Trade

Technological Land, Mapping, Space Satellite

Infrastructure ICT , Road has linked the frontier societies

IR Role of UN in definng nation states, border resolutions, recognising counties

RUles based
eg UNCLOS defined sea frontiers

Security Terrorism
States want to secure their areas
Military campaignsm mapping

Limits to Growth
1972- Club of Rome
on global resources n pollution trends

deductive
deterministic
systems' analysis
closed controlled system

Philosophy neo Malthusian viewpoint

Malthus- limited supply of food resources >> positive checks
neoMalthus- Club of Rome extended concept of resource to other natural resources n earth's capacity to absorb pollution

Factors considered
population growth
economic development including agriculture n industry
 environment degradation
impact of renewable resources depletion

Outcomes
revealed a complete gloomy picture of future world
agri development would not be able to keep pace with food demand
most of the mineral resources [Fe Cu Mn Sn Fossil fuel] would be depleted or exhausted within 50y
tech development will stagnate
mankind will fail to develop substitute resources

Forrester Meadows Model

Modelling based on computer modelling done by JW Forrester n DH Meadows

they developed concept of 'System Dynamics'-
to find extent n nature of global resource depletion and how it will affect growth n prosperityof human civilisation
data from 1900-1970 was used and extrapolated
projected results till 2100

Background Condition

Overshoot Condition

Reduction in Ultimate carrying capacity

Variables taken Population
Pollution
Natural Resources
Industrial Output per capita
Food per capita

Assumptions
finite stock of non renewable resources
finite amount of land for growing food
finite capacity of environment to absorb pollutants
finite yield of food that can be obtained from a land
exponential growth of populationm industrial output as long as system permits
forms of technological change [birth control, crop yield etc] are built into model provided
there is money for them n env tech [recycing, pollution control] is also developed

Projections
found factors are interrelated
often changes to single factor merely pushed problems on to others
technological development- can slow but not halt the crises, which could only be prevented by actual halt in growth

First Run [Standard Run]

Criteria continued growth on 1900-70 line

Results overshoot and collapse

resources decline

Second Run
Criteria technological development will double resources

Results unabsorbable levels of pollution is caused due to industrial devt

Third Run
Criteria tech development doubles resources n their usage is quatered to present levels

Results unsustainable pollution

other variables' life is elongated but they collapse eventually due to pollution

Fourth Run
assumes technical solution to pollution- nuclear power n recycling which controls some pollution
Criteria
+ extra resource

Results previous problems are averted

but exhaustion of arable land occurs and food crises
Fifth Run
Criteria extra resource + population control + land yields are doubled

Results population tends to rise despite control due to high industrial n agri output

Sixth Run
Criteria assumes voluntary birth control + previous

Results only slows population growth + only postpones food crises

Seventh Run
combination of all solutions so far
Criteria
Resource + pollution control + food production + population control

Results still overshoot n collapse

Criticism
model is crude n uses educated guesses
oversimplified
considers world as one unit but each country is different [socio eco population]
large multivariate systems are lumped into a single variable
[eg- all different Non renewable resources which have different depletion time are taken together]
does not account for dynamics of resources [the Zimmerman's idea]
crises time predicted around 2100 is criticised by many environmentalists
pessimism of report is heavily criticised
excludes human's technological n political capacity to adapt
System's dynamics n computer modelling methods have inherent disadvantages [simplified, ignores variables not picked
small errors gets magnified when extrpolation is done along exponential lines [rather linear]
inadequate data n analysis
biased view of 'haves' - poors are more benifited by development n LtG advocates against it
insensitive to regional differences n specific situation of less developed countries
some types of growth [eg health n education] may not be env'lly problematic [which is ignored]
why exponential pop growth taken??
7 billion population reached 10years after as predicted by LTG
By 2032, Population of 15billion is next to impossible
GDP 1960 - 17billion --- now 160 billion [ world ]
PC food available has increase since 1960s

1992 Beyond the Limits argued that in many areas we have overshoot the limits

Evidences
10-20cm rise in sea level since 1900
FAO - 75% of world fishing zones are overexploitated
38% of global agriculture land is degraded