Social

1. Social Beliefs and Judgements (Ch4.pdf & LECTURE 4.pdf)

Main Theme: This section explores how we form perceptions, make judgements, and develop
beliefs about ourselves and the social world, often highlighting the inaccuracies and biases
inherent in these processes.
Key Ideas and Facts:
● Preconceptions and Interpretation: Our existing beliefs and preconceptions significantly
influence how we interpret ambiguous social information. As noted, "Striking research
reveals the extent to which our assumptions and prejudgements govern what information
we attend to, interpret, and recall." (Ch4.pdf). The Rothbart & Birrell (1977) study
demonstrated how the same face could be interpreted very differently based on whether
the person was described as a Gestapo leader or a resistance leader (LECTURE 4.pdf).
● Belief Perseverance: Once formed, beliefs tend to persist even in the face of
contradictory evidence. "Imagine a grandparent who decides, during an evening with a
crying infant, that the baby is colicky and has a slight fever... This is belief perseverance at
work: beliefs survive discrediting evidence." (Ch4.pdf).
● Reconstructing Past Attitudes: We often reconstruct our past attitudes to align with our
present feelings and behaviours, leading to biased recall. "The construction of positive
memories brightens our recollections of the past... But they later recalled such
experiences even more fondly, minimizing the negative aspects." (Ch4.pdf).
● Automatic Processing and Intuitive Judgements: A significant portion of our social
cognition occurs automatically, without conscious deliberation. "Although conscious
decisions are slower than automatic processes-this does not mean that they are less
important." (Ch4.pdf). While efficient, these intuitive judgements can lead to errors if
situations or people are miscategorized (LECTURE 4.pdf).
● Social Schemas: We use mental frameworks or schemas to organize and interpret
information, which can influence our memory and lead to distortions. Social Schema
theory suggests that "People use mental frameworks - 'schemas' to organize and interpret
information based on their prior knowledge and experiences." (LECTURE 4.pdf).
● Overconfidence: We tend to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements, a
phenomenon linked to the Dunning-Kruger effect, where those with limited competence
are often the most overconfident. "Tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one’s belief."
(LECTURE 4.pdf).
● Attribution Theory: This explores how we explain people's behaviour, attributing it either
to internal (dispositional) factors or external (situational) factors. Kelley's Covariation
Model (Consistency, Distinctiveness, Consensus) is presented as a framework for making
these attributions (LECTURE 4.pdf).
● Fundamental Attribution Error: We often underestimate the impact of situational
influences and overestimate the role of personal dispositions when explaining others'
behaviour.
● Ultimate Attribution Error: This bias extends to group attributions, where we attribute
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positive ingroup behaviour and negative outgroup behaviour to internal factors, and vice
versa.
● Heuristics: Mental shortcuts are frequently used to make quick judgements and
explanations. Examples include the availability heuristic ("a cognitive rule that judges the
likelihood of things in terms of their availability in memory" - Ch4.pdf) and the anchoring
effect ("People rely too much on the first piece of information they receive when making
decisions" - LECTURE 4.pdf).
● Illusory Thinking: We can perceive correlations between events where none exist, often
forming the basis of stereotypes. "Seeing correlation where none (or very weak one)
exists!" (LECTURE 4.pdf).
● Mood: Our current emotional state can significantly influence our social judgements.
2. Attitudes and Behaviour (Ch5.pdf & LECTURE 5.pdf)
Main Theme: This section examines the nature of attitudes, how they are formed, and the
complex relationship between attitudes and behaviour.
Key Ideas and Facts:
● Definition of Attitudes: Attitudes are defined as "Evaluative reaction towards something
or someone. Positive or negative evaluation based on one’s beliefs that influence one’s
feelings and tendency to act." (LECTURE 5.pdf).
● ABC Model of Attitudes: Attitudes comprise Affect (feelings), Behaviour (tendency to
act), and Cognition (thoughts and beliefs).
● Formation of Attitudes: Attitudes can be formed through direct experience (including the
mere exposure effect), classical and instrumental conditioning, observational learning, and
cognitive processes.
● Functions of Attitudes: Attitudes serve various functions, including knowledge, utilitarian
(instrumentality), ego-defensive (self-esteem), value-expressive (self-expression), and
social-adjustive (impression motivation).
● Attitudes as Poor Predictors of Behaviour (Initially): The excerpt highlights early
research (e.g., LaPiere's study) suggesting that expressed attitudes do not always align
with actual behaviour.
● Factors Influencing Attitude-Behaviour Consistency: Several factors can strengthen the
link between attitudes and behaviour:
● Principle of Aggregation: Attitudes are better predictors of average behaviour over time
rather than single instances.
● Specificity of Attitudes: Specific attitudes are more likely to predict specific behaviours
than general attitudes.
● Potency of Attitudes: Attitudes that are strong, personally relevant, and accessible are
more likely to influence behaviour. Self-awareness can increase attitude potency.
● Theoretical Models of Attitude-Behaviour Relationship:Theory of Reasoned Action
(TRA): Behaviour is predicted by behavioural intentions, which are influenced by attitudes
towards the behaviour and subjective norms (perceived social pressure).
● Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB): Extends TRA by adding perceived behavioural
control (an individual's belief in their ability to perform the behaviour) as a predictor of
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intentions and behaviour.

● Behaviour Influencing Attitudes: The excerpt explores how our actions can shape our
attitudes through:
● Role Playing: Adopting a new role can lead to genuine attitude change.
● Cognitive Dissonance Theory: Inconsistencies between attitudes and behaviour create
discomfort (dissonance), which we are motivated to reduce by changing our attitudes to
align with our behaviour (e.g., insufficient justification, post-decision dissonance).
● Self-Perception Theory: We infer our attitudes by observing our own behaviour,
especially when our initial attitudes are weak or ambiguous. The "foot-in-the-door"
phenomenon illustrates this, where agreeing to a small request makes us more likely to
agree to a larger one later.
3. Persuasion and Attitude Change (LECTURE 6.pdf)
Main Theme: This lecture focuses on the factors that influence persuasion and lead to attitude
change.
Key Ideas and Facts:
● Elements of Persuasion: The effectiveness of persuasion depends on the communicator
(source), the message, how the message is communicated (channel), and the audience.
● Communicator Credibility: Believability is crucial and is influenced by perceived expertise
and trustworthiness.
● Communicator Attractiveness and Liking: Attractive communicators and those we like
are more persuasive, especially on matters of subjective preference. Similarity to the
audience can also enhance persuasiveness.
● The Message:Reason vs. Emotion: Logical messages are more effective for analytical
audiences, while emotional appeals are better for less analytical ones. The "need for
cognition" plays a role here.
● Fear Appeals: Can be effective if they evoke sufficient fear without being overwhelming
and if they offer a solution or way to avoid the feared outcome.
● Discrepancy: Messages moderately different from the audience's existing attitudes are
most persuasive. Highly discrepant messages may be rejected.
● One-sided vs. Two-sided Arguments: Two-sided arguments (presenting and refuting
opposing views) are generally more effective, especially with a knowledgeable or initially
opposed audience.
● Primacy vs. Recency Effect: The order of arguments can matter, with the first message
sometimes being more influential (primacy effect) and the most recent message
sometimes having a greater impact (recency effect).
● The Channel: The way the message is delivered (e.g., face-to-face, media) can affect its
impact. Personal contact is often more influential than media.
● The Audience:Age: Attitudes are often more malleable in younger years.
● Gender: Persuasibility differences between genders are complex and often depend on the
topic familiarity and delivery style. Methodological biases have historically influenced
findings.
● Individual Differences: Factors like "need for cognition," "need for closure," "need to
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evaluate," "preference for consistency," and "attitude importance" influence how
susceptible individuals are to persuasion.
● Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM): Proposes two routes to persuasion:
● Central Route: Occurs when people are motivated and able to think critically about the
message content. Leads to stronger and more enduring attitude change.
● Peripheral Route: Occurs when people do not carefully consider the message details but
are influenced by peripheral cues (e.g., communicator attractiveness, number of
arguments). Leads to weaker and less persistent attitude change.
● Compliance: Involves superficial, public, and temporary changes in behaviour in response
to requests or pressure. Techniques include ingratiation, reciprocity, foot-in-the-door, and
door-in-the-face.
● Dark Persuasion and Manipulation Tactics: The lecture briefly touches on manipulative
tactics like gaslighting, love bombing, and triangulation.
● Strategies to Withstand Manipulation: Enhancing self-awareness, developing critical
thinking, setting boundaries, and trusting instincts are mentioned as ways to resist
manipulation.
4. Conformity and Obedience (Ch7.pdf & LECTURE 7.pdf)
Main Theme: This section explores how social pressure can lead individuals to change their
behaviour and beliefs to align with those of a group or authority figure.
Key Ideas and Facts:
● Conformity: Changing one's behaviour or thinking to coincide with a group standard.
● Acceptance vs. Compliance: Acceptance involves both acting and believing in social
pressure, while compliance involves acting without internalizing the belief.
● The Chameleon Effect: Unconscious mimicry of others' behaviours.
● Social Norms: Explicit or implicit rules defining acceptable behaviour within a group or
culture.
● Classic Conformity Studies:Sherif's Autokinetic Study: Demonstrated the formation of
group norms in ambiguous situations through informational influence. Participants'
estimates of light movement converged over time, and this norm persisted even when
tested alone later. Jacobs & Campbell's (1961) study showed the transmission of false
beliefs across "generations."
● Asch's Line Judgement Study: Illustrated normative influence, where individuals conform
to clearly wrong majority opinions to avoid social rejection. Conformity was reduced when
participants could respond privately or when there was a dissenter (even an inaccurate
one).
● Factors Influencing Conformity:Group Size: Conformity increases with group size up to a
point (around 3-5 people).
● Unanimity: The presence of even one dissenter significantly reduces conformity.
● Cohesion: We are more likely to conform to groups we identify with.
● Public Response: Conformity is higher when responses are public rather than private.
● Prior Commitment: Making a public commitment reduces subsequent conformity.
● Normative vs. Informational Influence:Normative Influence: Conforming to be liked and
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accepted by others. Often leads to compliance. More prevalent in interdependent cultures.
● Informational Influence: Conforming because we believe others have accurate
information. Often leads to acceptance, especially in ambiguous situations.
● Factors Leading to Resistance to Conformity:Reactance: A motive to protect or restore
one's sense of freedom when threatened. More common in individualistic cultures.
● Asserting Uniqueness: The need to feel distinct from others.
● Obedience: Compliance with a direct command.
● Milgram's Obedience Studies: Classic experiments demonstrating alarmingly high levels
of obedience to an authority figure, even when instructed to deliver seemingly harmful
electric shocks. Proximity of the learner and experimenter, and the presence of dissenting
others, influenced obedience levels.
● Factors Predicting Obedience: Proximity to the authority figure, the perceived legitimacy
of the authority, the gradual escalation of demands (foot-in-the-door), and diffusion of
responsibility.
● Replications of Milgram's Studies: Consistent findings of significant obedience rates
across different populations and time periods.
● Explanations for Obedience: Fundamental attribution error (underestimating situational
forces), the power of the situation, the normative nature of obedience to authority, and the
"foot-in-the-door" phenomenon.
● Criticisms of Milgram's Studies: Ethical concerns and debates about the interpretation of
the findings, including the role of social identification with the experimenter and the goal
of science.
5. Aggression (Ch8.pdf & LECTURE 8.pdf)
Main Theme: This section examines the nature of aggression, its various forms, and the
biological, psychological, and environmental factors that contribute to it.
Key Ideas and Facts:
● Definition of Aggression: Behaviour intended to harm or injure another person. Can be
physical or indirect.
● Theories of Aggression:Biological Explanations: Include genetic predispositions (e.g.,
selective breeding studies with animals, potential role of the MAOA "warrior gene"),
biochemical influences (e.g., alcohol's link to violence), and hormonal influences (e.g.,
testosterone).
● Frustration-Aggression Theory: Frustration (the blocking of a goal) can lead to
aggression. However, frustration doesn't always lead to aggression, and aggression can
have other causes. The role of perceived legitimacy of frustration is important.
● Relative Deprivation: Frustration arising from the perception that others are better off can
also lead to aggression.
● Social Learning Theory (Bandura): Aggression is learned through observation and
imitation of aggressive models, as well as through reinforcement (rewards and
punishments). The Bobo doll experiments demonstrated observational learning of
aggression.
● Environmental Influences:Aggression Cues: The presence of weapons can act as cues
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that trigger aggressive thoughts and behaviours (Berkowitz). However, the interpretation
of these cues matters (e.g., hunters vs. non-hunters and guns).
● Media Violence: The impact of media violence on aggression is a subject of debate, but
evidence suggests that exposure can:
● Increase arousal and aggressive thoughts (priming).
● Disinhibit aggressive behaviour by weakening restraints.
● Imitate observed aggression.
● Desensitize individuals to violence, making them less sympathetic to victims.
● Exposure to violent pornography has been linked to increased punitive behaviour towards
women. Longitudinal studies suggest early exposure to media violence can predict later
aggression.
● Group Influence on Aggression: Being part of a group can increase aggression through
diffusion of responsibility and social contagion. Deindividuation can also play a role.
● What can be done about aggression?: Although not detailed in these excerpts, the
discussion of the causes of aggression implies potential intervention strategies focusing
on reducing frustration, limiting exposure to aggressive models and cues, teaching non-
aggressive conflict resolution skills, and addressing social inequalities that contribute to
relative deprivation.
6. Attraction and Intimacy (Ch9.pdf, LECTURE 10.pdf & LECTURE 11.pdf)
Main Theme: This section explores the factors that lead to attraction, the development of close
relationships, and the dynamics of love and intimacy.
Key Ideas and Facts:
● What Leads to Friendship and Attraction?Proximity: Geographical nearness is a strong
predictor of initial attraction and relationship formation (mere exposure effect).
● Physical Attractiveness: Plays a significant role in initial attraction. Universal preferences
exist for symmetry, dimorphism, and youthfulness. The "babyface hypothesis" and
"attractiveness bias" are discussed. The "halo effect" leads us to attribute positive
qualities to attractive individuals. The "matching hypothesis" suggests we tend to pair with
those of similar attractiveness levels.
● Similarity vs. Complementarity: Similarity in attitudes, values, and demographics is
generally more important for long-term relationships than complementarity ("opposites
attract"), although complementarity can play a role in meeting specific needs.
● What Enables Close Relationships?Commitment: The intention to maintain a relationship.
● Self-Disclosure: Revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others. Social Penetration
Theory (SPT) describes the process of increasing depth and breadth of self-disclosure as
relationships develop. Self-disclosure fosters trust and strengthens bonds. Social
Comparison Theory (SCT) suggests self-disclosure facilitates social comparison.
● Equity: A condition in which the outcomes people receive from a relationship are roughly
equal to what they contribute. Inequity can lead to distress. Equity Theory extends Social
Exchange Theory by emphasizing fairness.
● How Do Relationships End?Duck's Phase Model of Relationship Breakdown: Describes
four progressive stages: intra-psychic (internal dissatisfaction), dyadic (confrontation and
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discussion), social (involving friends and family), and grave-dressing (post-breakup

narrative building).
● Theories of Relationship Maintenance and Breakdown:Social Exchange Theory:
Relationships are viewed in terms of costs and rewards. Satisfaction depends on the
perceived balance, as well as the comparison level (CL) and comparison level for
alternatives (CLalt). Operates on the minimax principle.
● Rusbult's Investment Model (RIM): Extends SET by including the role of investments
(resources committed to the relationship) in predicting relationship commitment and
stability, even when satisfaction is low or alternatives exist. Commitment is maintained
through sacrifice, positive illusions, accommodation, and forgiveness.
● Love and Intimacy: Different types of love (passionate vs. companionate) are mentioned
in Chapter 9. Romantic Love Myths (LECTURE 11.pdf) are discussed, highlighting
potentially unhealthy beliefs about love. Parasocial relationships and the "absorption-
addiction model" (LECTURE 11.pdf) are briefly introduced as forms of attraction to media
personalities.
● Why Do We Help? (LECTURE 10.pdf): Explores prosocial behaviours:
● Social Exchange Theory: Helping is motivated by maximizing rewards (external, like social
approval, and internal, like increased self-worth, guilt reduction, positive mood) and
minimizing costs.
● Social Norms:Reciprocity Norm: We help those who have helped us.
● Social Responsibility Norm: We should help those in need, regardless of future exchange,
although willingness to help is influenced by attributions of the cause of need (external vs.
internal).
● Evolutionary Explanations: Suggest genetic predispositions for helping kin to ensure
gene survival (kin protection) and in-group favouritism.
● Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis (Batson): Empathy can lead to truly altruistic helping,
without expectation of personal gain. Schaller & Cialdini's (1988) research questioned the
purely altruistic nature of some helping behaviour.
● The Bystander Effect (Latané & Darley): The presence of multiple bystanders reduces
the likelihood that any individual will help in an emergency due to diffusion of
responsibility, failure to notice the incident, and failure to interpret it as an emergency.
● Increasing Helping Behaviour: Factors like seeing someone else help, similarity to the
person in need, guilt, and using techniques like the "door-in-the-face" can increase
helping.