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Unit -2
Art and Architecture of
Tamil Nadu

Learning Objectives

™™To understand the evolution of temple architecture in South India

™™To gain knowledge about the cultural heritage of Tamils
™™To know the contribution of Pallavas, Cholas, Vijayanagara and Nayak
rulers to the development of temple art in Tamil Nadu

Introduction
Dravidian architecture is of indigenous origin.
It advanced over time by a process of evolution.
The earliest examples of the Tamil Dravidian
architectural tradition were the 7th century
rock-cut shrines at Mahabalipuram. The absence
of monuments in South India prior to the 7th
century is attributed by scholars to temples ought
to have been built in wood, which were eventually Rock-cut Cave Temple,
destroyed by forces of nature. In Tamil Nadu, the Mandagapattu
evolution of temple architecture took place in five
temples were initially built by carving a rock to the
stages: (1) The Pallava Epoch (A.D. 600 to 850); (2)
required design and then rocks were cut to build
Early Chola Epoch (A.D. 850 to 1100); (3) Later
temples. The Pallava king Mahendravarman was
Chola Epoch (A.D. 1100 to 1350); (4) Vijayanagara/
a pioneer in rock-cut architecture. Mandagapattu
Nayak Epoch (A.D. 1350 to 1600); and (5) Modern
temple was the first rock-cut temple built by him.
Epoch (After A.D. 1600).
The rock-cut cave structure has two pillars in
Pallava Epoch the front that hold it. All the cave temples have
The Pallava epoch witnessed a transition simple sanctum cut on the rear side of the wall
from rock-cut to free-standing temples. Rock-cut with a frontage-projecting mandapa (pavilion).

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Kanchi Kailasanatha Temple Kanchi Vaikuntha Perumal Temple

On either side are two dwarapalas (gatekeepers). especially of Arjuna, Bhima and Dharmaraja,
This cave architecture reached its decadent phase are decorated with niches and motifs. The
after A.D.700 and gave way to the large structural niches have the sculptures of gods, goddesses,
temples probably because the structural temples monarchs and scenes from mythology. The
provided a wider scope to the sculptor to use his Arjuna’s Penance, carved on the face of a granite
skill. boulder, is a magnificent relief, measuring
approximately 100 ft long by 45 ft high.
The Shore Temple at
Mahabalipuram, also called
the Seven Pagodas, was
built by the Pallava king
Narasimhavarman II. It is
the oldest structural temple
in South India. The structural temples were built
using blocks of rock instead of a whole block
as earlier. Narasimhavarman II, also known
as Rajasimha, built the Kanchi Kailasanatha
Arjuna’s Penance
temple. The Vaikuntha Perumal temple at
Kanchipuram was built by Nandivarman II.
Mahabalipuram (Mamallapuram) is built of cut The Mamallapuram monuments and
stones rather than carved out of caves. It has temples, including the Shore Temple
two shrines, one dedicated to Siva and the other complex, were notified as a UNESCO
to Vishnu. World Heritage Site in 1984.

The Tamil Dravida tradition is exemplified Pandya Temples in the Pallava Epoch
by rock-cut monuments such as Pancha Pandava Early Pandyas were the contemporaries
Rathas, namely Draupadi ratha, Dharmaraja of the Pallavas. Unlike the Pallavas, Pandyas
ratha, Bheema ratha, Arjuna ratha and Nagula- installed deities in the sanctums in their
Sahadeva ratha. The outer walls of the rathas, cave temples. More than fifty cave temples

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have been found in different parts of the

Pandyan Empire. The most important of them
are found in Malaiyadikurichi, Anaimalai,
Tiruparankundram and Trichirappali. These
caves were dedicated to Siva, Vishnu and
Brahma. In the Siva temple of Pandyas, the linga
is carved out of the mother rock. The figure of
Nandhi is also carved out of the rock. The Siva
lingam in the sanctum is installed in the centre Nellaiappar Temple Corridor, Tirunelveli
with enough space all around it. The sanctum
Sculptures
also has a drainage canal. The pillars are divided
The walls of the caves are decorated
into three parts and are of different sizes. The
with the bas relief of the gods and goddesses.
pillars have no uniform ornamentation. The
In the case of structural temples, the
back side walls are divided into four niches on
walls of the sanctums are free from image
which the bas- relief images of Siva, Vishnu,
decorations. Instead the superstructures and
Durga, Ganapathy, Subramanya, Surya, Brahma
the pillars have the sculptures. The sculptures
and Saraswathi are carved out. The dwarapalas
look majestic, having elaborate shoulders,
figure on either side of sanctum.
slim bodies, beautiful ornaments and
Rock-cut and structural temples are high crowns.
significant part of the Pandya architecture.
The illustrious example for rock-cut style is
unfinished Kazhugumalai Vettuvankoil temple.
The Vettuvankoil, a monolithic temple at
Kazhugumalai, is hewn out of a huge boulder on
four sides. At the top of the temple, sculptures
of Uma Maheswarar, Dakshinamoorthy, Vishnu
and Brahma are found. Meenakshi Amman
Temple in Madurai and Nellaiappar Temple Vettuvankoil Temple Sculptures
in Tirunelveli represent examples of Pandyas’
architectural style. Tiruparankundram, Anaimalai
and Kazhugumalai have the bas relief
of many deities: Siva, Vishnu, Brahma,
Parvathi, Subramanya, Ganapathi and
Dakshinamoorthy. These are some
remarkable images of the cave temples.
Many early Pandya images unearthed
from Madurai and its surrounding areas
are now in Tirumalai Nayakkar museum at
Monolithic Temple, Kazhugumalai Madurai.

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Paintings The Sittanavasal paintings have

Caves at Sittanavasal, similarities with the Ajantha paintings.
15 kilometres away Tirumalaipuram, from where we get
from Pudukkottai, and early Pandya paintings, are in a damaged
at Tirumalapuram in condition.
Sankarankovil taluk, The Early Chola Epoch
Tirunelveli district,
The Cholas came to limelight in A.D.
have outstanding early Pandya paintings.
850 under Vijaylaya Chola and continued
Sittanavasal was a residential cave of the Jain
to govern the region for about four hundred
monks. They painted the walls with fresco
years. For the Early Chola epoch, the
painting. Unfortunately, we have lost many of
temple at Dadapuram, near Tindivanam in
those paintings. Among the surviving ones,
TamilNadu, is worth mentioning.
the lotus pond is notable for its excellent
execution of colours and exposition of the The early Chola architecture followed
scene. The image of lotus flowers, leaves the style of Sembian Mahadevi. Temples with
spread all over the pond, animals, elephants, the increased number of devakoshta (niche)
buffalos, swans and a man who plucks the figures can be classified as belonging to the
flowers look brilliant. Sembiyan style. Tiruppurambiyam is an
illustrious example of early temple that was
re-fashioned in the days of Sembiyan
Mahadevi.

Sittanavasal Paintings

Tirupurambiyam Temple

Later Chola Epoch

Thirumalaipuram Sculptures The maturity attained by Chola
architecture is reflected in the two magnificent
temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikonda
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Brihadeeshwara Temple, Thanjavur Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple

Cholapuram. The magnificent Thanjavur Big This temple complex has the shrines of
Temple dedicated to Siva, completed around Chandeeswarar, Ganesa and Mahishasura
A.D.1009, is a fitting memorial to the material Mardhini.
achievements of the time of Rajaraja.
Dharasuram
Thanjavur Big Temple Dharasuram, near Kumbakonam,
At the time the Big Temple of Thanjavur is a Later Chola period temple, rich in
was constructed, it was a huge temple complex. architectural splendour, dedicated to
The 216 feet vimana (structure over the Iravatheswara (Siva as god of lord Indira’s
garbhagriha) is notable as it is one among the elephant). Rajaraja II constructed this
tallest man-made shikaras of the world. Due temple. This temple is another landmark of
to its massive height, the shikara is called the the Chola architecture. The Mahamandapam
Dakshina Meru. The huge bull statue (Nandi) is an elaborate structure. The entire structure
measures about 16 feet long and 13 feet height looks like a ratha because it has four wheels
and is carved out of a single rock at the Mahamandapam. The sanctum and
Gangaikonda Cholapuram pillars have many sculptures, which are
Gangaikonda Cholapuram served as miniatures of various mythological figures.
the Chola capital for about 250 years, until A compound wall runs round the temple
the decline of the Cholas and the rise of with a gopuram.
the Pandyas. The Brihadeeshwara temple of
Gangaikonda Cholapuram, built by Rajendra
Chola, is undoubtedly as worthy a successor
to the Brihadeeshwara temple of Thanjavur.
The height of the temple is 55 metres.
The sanctum has two storeys as in the big
temple at Thanjavur. The outer wall has
many projections with niches and recesses
on three sides. In the niches there are the
Iravatheswara Temple
images of Siva, Vishnu and other gods.

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Later Pandyas
The contribution of Later Pandyas to South
Indian art was significant. A case in point is the
cave temple at Pillayarpatti (near Karaikudi,
TamilNadu) belonging to 13th century. This
temple is important both for its sculptures and
for an inscription. A beautiful Ganesha is carved
facing the entrance. The importance of the figure,
referred to Desivinayaga in the cave inscription,
is that there are two arms with the trunk turning Vellore Jalagandeshwar Temple
Kalyana Mandapam
to the right
The main features of the Vijayanagar and
Nayak architecture are decorated mandapas,
ornamental pillars, life-size images, gopuras,
prakaras, music pillars, floral works and stone
windows during the 15th to 17th centuries.
Tanks are attached to the temples. Gateways
to temple are constructed from four directions
with massive gopurams.

The practice of fitting the niches with

Pillayarpatti Temple and
Karpaka Vinayagar sculptures continued during the Nayak period.
There was an increased use of major sculpted figures
(relief sculpture) as found at the Alakiya Nambi
Vijayanagara Epoch
temple at Tirukkurungudi (Tirunelveli district)
During the Vijayanagara epoch, a new and the Gopalakrishna temple in the Ranganatha
form of construction emerged. It is the temple complex at Srirangam. The southern
mandapam (pavilion) to where the gods festival mandapam of Adinatha temple at Azhwar
are carried every year. Pillared outdoor Tirunagari and the porch of the Nellaiyappar
mandapams are meant for public rituals with temple at Tirunelveli are other notable examples.
the ones in the east serving as the waiting
room for devotees, which adorn the large
temples. These mandapams attract attention
for its monolithic pillars. On these pillars
are sculptured horses, lions and the gods.
The kalyana mandapam at Kanchipuram
(Varadaraja Perumal temple) and at Vellore
(Jalagandeshwar temple) are notable examples.
Mandapam of Adinatha Temple,
The most celebrated of these mandapams in
Azhwar Tirunagari
temple of Madurai is the Pudumandapam.

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In TamilNadu, the image of deities are seen at Varadharaja Perumal temple

attached to composite columns gradually at Kanchipuram, Kudalazhagar Temple at
freed themselves from the core column. The Madurai and the temples of Srivilliputhur,
1000-pillar mandapam of the Meenakshi- Tiruvellarai, Azhaharkoil, Tiruvannamalai
Sundareswarar temple, Pudumandapam and Srirangam. The paintings mostly have
at Madurai, Rathi Mandapam at the stories from Ramayana, palace scenes and
Tirukkurungudi and Vanamamalai Temple mythological stories.
at Nanguneri are illustrious examples
for the mandapam architecture of
this period.

Sculptures in Varatharaja Temple,

Kanchipuram

1000-Pillar Mandapam, Madurai Modern Period (After A.D. 1600)

Meenakshiamman Temple
The Sethupathis, as the feudatories of
Madurai Nayaks, ruled Ramanathapuram and
The pillars of this period are more contributed to the Ramanathaswamy temple
decorative than the previous period. architecture. In the temple of Rameswaram,
Monolithic gigantic yazhi pillars, horse the predominance of corridors is striking. It is
pillars with life-size portraits of mythological claimed that this temple has the longest set of
and royal family members, common folk, corridors in the world. The temple has three
animals and floral works were made. Musical sets of corridors. The outer set of the temple’s
pillars were the peculiar feature of this time. corridors has a height of almost 7 metres and
A sitting lion at the top of the pillars is a stretches for about 120 metres in both the eastern
common feature in the mandapams. The and western directions. The corridors to the
windows are carved out on the walls of the north and to the south, on the other hand, are
sanctum and mandapams. about 195 metres in length. The outer corridor
is also remarkable for the number of pillars
The Jalagandeshwara temple at Vellore,
that support it, which is over 1200 in number.
the temples at Thadikompu near Dindugal
Moreover, many of these pillars are decorated by
and Krishnapuram near Tirunelveli and
ornate carvings. The innermost set of corridors
the Subramanya shrine in the Big Temple
is the oldest of the three.
Thanjavur are most remarkable edifices of
this time. Vijayanagar and Nayak paintings
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References
1. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South
India: From Pre-Historic Times to the Fall
of Vijayanagar Empire (Oxford University
Press, 1997) - with an introduction by
R. Champakalakshmi.
2. Burton Stein, A History of India, Oxford
University Press, 2004.
Ramanathaswamy Temple Corridor, 3. Crispin Branfoot, “The Architectural Sculpture
Rameswaram of the South Indian Temples, 1500-1700,”
Artibus Asiae, vol. 62, No.2, 2002.
Summary Crispin Branfoot, “The Tamil Gopura:
4. 
In sum, the Pallava period featured From Temple Gateway to Global Icon,” ARS
Orientalis, vol. 45, 2015.
sculptural rocks. The early Chola period was
marked by grand vimanas. The Later Chola 5. https://www.britannica.com.
period was known for beautiful gopurams.
Vijayanagar period’s unique feature was the
mandapam and the modern period was when
corridors were given prominence.

Glossary
1. indigenous native சுதேசம், உள் நாடு
2. epoch era, age சகாப்தம், வரலாற்றின் ஒரு
காலகட்டம்
3. sanctum a sacred place set apart in a temple கருவறை
4. decadent corrupt, a state of moral decline சீர்கேடான
5. exemplified illustrated, represented எடுத்துக்காட்டாய் திகழ்கிறது
6. niche a cavity, especially in a wall to display a statue சிலைவைக்கப்படும் இடம்
7. motif a decorative design forming a pattern in an கலைப்பண்புக் கூறு
artistic work
8. boulder a very large rock பெரிய கற்பாறை, பாறாங்கல்
9. contemporaries living or occurring at the same time சமகாலத்தைச் சேர்ந்தவர்கள்
10. hewn cut out and shaped செதுக்கப்பட்ட

11. bas-relief a sculpture carved into a wall சுவற்றில் செதுக்கப்படும் சிற்பம்

12. execution carrying out செயல் திறன், ஒன்றைச் செய்து
முடித்தல்
13. recesses hollow spaces inside the wall or a structure உட்பகுதிகள், இடைவெளிகள்

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4. Later Chola period was known for beautiful

Evaluation __________.
5. Vijayanagar period’s unique feature is the
I. Choose the correct answer: _________.
1. Which is the oldest structural temple in
III. Match the following:
south India?
1. Seven Pagodas – Madurai
a) Shore Temple
2. Rathi mandapam – Darasuram
b) Mandagapattu
3. Iravatheswara temple – Tirukkurungudi
c) Kailasanatha Temple
4. Adinatha Temple – Shore temple
d) Vaikuntha Perumal Temple
5. Pudumandapam – Azhwar Tirunagari
2. 
In which year were the Mamallapuram
monuments and temples notified as a IV. Find out the wrong pair/pairs:
UNESCO world Heritage site? 1. Krishnapuram Temple – Tirunelveli
a) 1964 b) 1994
2. Kudalazhagar Temple – Azhwar Tirunagari
c) 1974 d) 1984
3. Sethupathis – Feudatories of
3. 
What was the special feature of the Madurai Nayaks
architecture of early Chola period? 4. Jalagandeshwara temple – Vellore
a) bas-reliefs b) vimanas
2. Assertion (A): The predominance of
c) corridors d) gopurams
corridors of Rameswaram Temple is
4. 
Where is the Azhakiya Nambi Temple striking.
situated?  Reason (R): The Temple has the largest set
a) Tirukkurungudi b) Madurai of corridors in the world.
c) Tirunelveli d) Srivilliputhur a) R is not the correct explanation of A
5. Who built the Vaikuntha Perumal Temple? b) R is the correct explanation of A
a) Mahendravarman c) A is correct but R is wrong
b) Narasimhavarman d) Both A and R are wrong
c) Rajasimha
3. Find out the odd one out:
d) Rajaraja II

Srivilliputhur, Azhaharkoil, Srirangam,
II. Fill in the Blanks: Kanchipuram, Tiruvannamalai.
1. ___________ was the first rock-cut
4. Name the epoch of the following:
cave temple built by the Pallava king
a) A.D. 600 to 850 –
Mahendravarman.
b) A.D. 850 to 1100 –
2. The early Chola architecture followed the
c) A.D. 1100 to 1350 –
style of ___________.
d) A.D. 1350 to 1600 –
3. The most celebrated mandapam in
Madurai Meenakshiamman temple is
the____________.

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5. Find out the correct statement/s: 3. Point out the special features of Thanjavur
1) The Arjuna’s Penance is carved out of a Big temple.
granite boulder. 4. 
Highlight the striking features of
2) 
Meenakshi Amman temple in Madurai Rameswaram Temple.
represents Pallava’s architectural style.
VII. Answer the following in detail
3) 
The cave temple at Pillayarpatti is a
contribution of Later Pandyas. 1. The Pallava epoch witnessed a transition
4) 
The Sethupathis as feudatories of from rock-cut to free–standing temples –
Madurai Nayaks contributed to Madurai Explain.
Meenakshiamman Temple. 2. Discuss how the architecture of Vijayanagara
and Nayak period was different from the
V. State true or false: one of Pallavas and Later Cholas.
1. 
Rajasimha built the Kanchi Kailasanatha
VIII. HOTS:
temple.
2. Early Pandyas were the contemporaries of 1. 
Dravidian architecture is of indigenous
Later Cholas. origin - Explain.
3. Rock-cut and structural temples are 2. Temple art was at its best during the Nayak
significant parts of the Pandya architecture Period - Elucidate.
4. Brihadeeshwara temple was built by
IX. Activity:
Rajendra Chola.
5. Vijayanagar and Nayak paintings are seen at Visiting temples built during the times of
temple at Dadapuram. Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyas and Nayak rulers
and see the differences in the structural and
VI. Give short answers: sculptural designs of each epoch.
1. Write a note on Pancha Pandava Rathas.
2. Throw light on the paintings of Sittanavasal.

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